ICES Marine Science Symposia, 215: 73-86. 2002 Cooperation in marine research between Russia and at the dawn of the 20th century

Per Solemdal and Valeri Serebryakov

Solemdal, P., and Serebryakov, V 2002. Cooperation in marine research between Russia and Norway at the dawn of the 20th century. - ICES Marine Science Symposia, 215: 73-86.

Russia and Norway exploit, to a large extent, the same living marine resources in the Barents and Norwegian . At the end of the 19th century, Russian and Norwegian traditional were still confined to coastal areas and were subjected to natural disasters and fluctuations in abundance of fish stocks. It was realized in both coun­ tries that marine and fisheries-related research had to be extended seawards. A real breakthrough in marine research development was the construction of the first research vessels especially designed for marine and fisheries studies, the RV "Andrei Pervozwarmy" in Russia in 1899 and the RV "Michael Sars" in Norway in 1900. There were two great scientists who succeeded in building the research vessels for high-seas fisheries research - Nikolai Knipowitseh in Russia and Johan Hjort in Norway. They were good friends and had a common understanding of the necessity of cooperation between the two countries in marine and fisheries investigations in the Barents and Norwegian Seas. Coordination of efforts and standardization of methods and equip­ ment used on board the research vessels were achieved as a result of fruitful discus­ sions between the two leading scientists. The RV "Michael Sars" performed regular oceanographic and fisheries observations in the Norwegian , and the RV "Andrei Pervozwanny" did the same in the Barents Sea at the dawn of the 20th century. The surveys by these two vessels helped to reveal the basic structure of the circulation pat­ tern and migration of cod, herring, and other food fish in the Barents and Norwegian Seas, and demonstrated the great potential for fisheries in the open ocean. The coordinated studies also illustrated the necessity for conducting accurate scientific investigations before any practical recommendations for the industry could be produced.

Keywords: Barents Sea, cooperation, fisheries, Norway, , oceanogra­ phy, research vessel, Russia.

Per Solemdal: Institute of Marine Research, PO Box 1870 Nordnes, 5817 , Norway; tel: +47 55 23 85 00: fax: +47 55 23 85 84: e-mail: [email protected]. Valeri Serebryakov: formerly of Russian Institute of Fisheries and (VNIRO), Moscow, Russia: currently at 3/14 First Street, Black Rock, Victoria 3193, Australia: e-mail: [email protected].

Introduction standing of the annual variations in coastal waters should be acquired on the high seas. It was also appre­ As neighbouring coastal states in the North, Russia and ciated that the two traditionally coastal-fishing countries Norway have a long tradition of sharing a common fate, must develop their own high-seas fishing fleets and especially in fish harvesting. Periods of good harvests urgently seek new fishing grounds. Cooperative re­ are often followed by periods with negligible catches, search between Russia and Norway had been estab­ resulting in famine for the populations of both countries. lished before the ICES planning meetings took place in Modern marine research began simultaneously in the Stockholm and Kristiania () in 1899 and 1901, two countries at the end of the 19th century. Since other respectively. This cooperation was based on a personal countries with large trawl fleets in the overfished North friendship between Nikolai Knipowitseh and Johan Sea were looking northwards, it was natural that the two Hjort, both of whom succeeded in obtaining govern­ neighbours tried to get a lead in investigating "their" mental funds and approval for building modern, high- waters. It was realized in both countries that under­ seas research vessels. 74 P. Solemdal and V. Serebryakov

A brief historical account of marine problems with the main message from Darwin, but since he had worked all his life with the development of lower research in Russia and Norway prior to marine animals, and in many ways thus supported and at the beginning of the 20th century Darwin’s work, he soon accepted the new idea of "evo­ lution". His son Ossian "digested" Darwin’s ideas Marine and fisheries-related investigations were initiat­ immediately. During his university lectures on this ed in Russia during the reign of Peter the Great when the theme, Ossian Sars used stories from the Old Testament Russian Academy of Sciences was founded in 1725. to explain Darwin’s ideas. He became so enthusiastic That was the era of great geographical discoveries and that the leader of King Frederiks University in prominent explorations of natural resources in Russia, Kristiania stopped his lectures for a while. which encouraged a number of expeditions to different Michael Sars was the pioneer in a new field of marine parts of the country including , the Lower Volga biology - the development of lower invertebrates, and area, and the Caspian Sea. There were two expeditions he soon became internationally known. Georg Ossian to the northern parts of Russia, one of which started his career in Lofoten in 1864 studying the repro­ (1725-1730), organized by Peter the Great himself, took duction and first year of the "winter torsk" (i.e., in the Bering Sea, , and Chukotka and Northeast cod) and observed the pelagic eggs of Kamchatka Peninsulas. The second one was conducted cod for the first time (Sars, 1879). His led to in 1732-1742 and aimed at describing the entire north­ the practical idea of hatching cod eggs and releasing the ern coast of Russia from to the Pacific larvae to reduce the fluctuations in the fisheries, period­ Ocean. , a famous Danish explorer, led both ically a very heavy burden for the people in the north­ expeditions (Borisov, 1960). ernmost counties. This idea developed into a classical The exact onset of fisheries research dates back to example of the practical-scientific tradition, which was 1851 when the Russian Society of Geographers initia­ typical of Norway. Backed by G. O. Sars, Captain ted expeditions aimed at studying the resources Dannevig built the first functional cod hatchery in the of Russia under the leadership of Karl M. von Baer, a world in 1884 in Flødevigen, close to the city of prominent Russian biologist. Fish catches underwent a Arendal. Since that year, yolk-sac larvae have been dramatic decline in several large, northwestern lakes at released annually into small fjords in southern Norway that time, and the expedition worked in the Chuda and (Schwach, 1999). Pskov lakes and in the Baltic Sea. Later, similar investi­ To test the effect of releasing cod larvae on the cod gations were continued in the White and Caspian Seas population in these Ijords, juveniles were caught with a and off the (Suvorov, 1948). The results beach seine. No positive effect was found during the of the expeditions were summarized by von Baer (1860) short time-series 1903-1905. But the very important in the book entitled Studies o f the State of the Fisheries spin-off was that it showed large annual variations in the in Russia published in St. Petersburg in 1860. numbers of juveniles of cod, which were especially In Norway, clerics (priests and bishops) conducted the numerous in 1904 (Dannevig and Dahl, 1906; Dahl, first systematic studies in botany and zoology, including 1909). Similar trends were found in North Sea cod and the marine habitat. That group comprised the majority haddock (Helland-Hansen, 1909) and the early stages of of intellectuals at that time. A similar interest in the nat­ these species over a larger geographical area (Damas, ural sciences did not exist among Greek Orthodox cler­ 1909). The cooperative work during this golden age of ics in Russia. After the reformation in 1536, the clerical Norwegian marine science is dramatized by Solemdal class in Norway had a more outgoing, practical view of (1997). existence. Priests like Peder Claussøn Friis (1545-1614) Knowing the very intimate working style of this sci­ and bishops like J. E. Gunnerus (1718-1773) were espe­ entists’ group in Bergen, it is correct to conclude that the cially interested in the fluctuations in the fisheries. They mentioned results led into the large-scale age study of were convinced that the bad periods were a punishment the Norwegian spring-spawning herring, illustrating the from God for the sins of the people. Bishop Gunnerus dominating effect of the 1904 year class for many years. was also a taxonomist who described and named the The results were published in the famous "Fluctuations most numerous animal in our coastal waters, the red in the great fisheries of northern Europe viewed in the crustacean Calanus finmarchicus. light of biological research" (Hjort, 1914). This was the In Norway, there was an interesting transition period start of modern population dynamics. from the priest to the modem scientist, illustrated by An important factor in the internationalization of the Michael Sars who had been a priest for 24 years and Bergen group of scientists were the international cour­ then was appointed Professor of Zoology in Kristiania ses in marine research that started in 1903. The idea was (Oslo) in 1854, to be followed, in 1864, by his son collectively born during a supper in Kristiansund on the Georg Ossian, the first full-time marine zoologist. In return of the RV "Michael Sars" from a cruise in 1902. 1859, during this "transition" period, Darwin’s (1859) The main purpose was the teaching of a different type of work On the Origin of Species ... appeared. The former information than that usually given at other biological priest, now Professor of Zoology Michael Sars, had stations. In addition, Hjort used the opportunity to get Cooperation in marine research between Russia and Norway at the dawn o f the 20th centurv 75

the latest news about what was happening in the labora­ tories around the world since he realized that Bergen was not the centre of the world! As a large scientific contractor, Hjort practised his skill of "head hunting" from early in his career, and many distinguished foreign scientists, and some Norwegians too, were invited to work in Bergen for varying periods of time. The courses in Bergen repre­ sented the foremost theoretical and practical education both for scientists and technicians. Well-established sci­ entists were the most frequent participants. Altogether, the courses were given for about 175 participants during the period 1903-1913. During the first course (1 January - 10 April 1903), the 27 participants included, among others, seven Norwegian, five Russian, five German, and four British scientists. At most, nine dif­ ferent nations were represented. Many who attended the courses developed the spirit necessary for joint scientific work. Some anecdotes from these courses were collected by Hjalmar Broch and Einar Koefod, both "head hunted" by Hjort. Some participants had strange opinions of life in Norway. An Austrian scientist, on arrival, jumped from the coastal steamer with a pistol looking for polar bears in the streets of Bergen (he was a botanist!). Then again on Saturday nights, teachers, students, and offi­ cials from the fishery administration and Bergen Museum gathered in the local café "Boulevard". On one such occasion, a famous Russian scientist and Cossack brigadier, A. Lebedinzev, said he was very surprised by the age of the teachers in Bergen. He thought they would be distinguished, white-bearded, gentlemen, but instead found them to be around 30 years old. Figure 1. Nikolai Knipowitseh on board the Russian research Lebedinzev was so happy in Bergen that his permission vessel "Andrei Pervozwanny", 1899. to stay was prolonged for a few weeks on Hjort’s rec­ ommendation. When Lebedinzev tried to prolong it even further, a telegram arrived from Russia to Hjort when the Norwegians colonized the Finnmark coast which said, "Send my beer barrel back (Grimm)." (Stepanjants et al., 1998). Knipowitseh became a uni­ (Broch and Koefod, 1962). versity student in the Department of Physics and Mathematics at St. Petersburg University in 1880. In 1886, the Czarist police arrested him for his open sup­ The first Russian fisheries and oceano­ port of the revolutionary ideas which were popular among the intelligentsia in Russia at that time. He was graphic research vessel and Nikolai M. put under police surveillance in 1889 and was finally Knipowitseh expelled from the University. While there, he became a friend of Vladimir . The history of the building and operation of this vessel Knipowitseh conducted hydrographic and marine bio­ is closely related to Nikolai M. Knipowitseh ( 1862— logical studies in the Barents Sea and off the Kola 1939), an outstanding Russian scientist who was born in Peninsula in 1893-1895. There was a savage storm in Finland in the family of a military medical doctor the Barents Sea in the autumn of 1894 which resulted in (Figure 1 ). Nikolai learned Scandinavian languages dur­ the wreck of 25 pomor vessels with no survivors. The ing his childhood, which helped him considerably when, catastrophe touched the whole country, and a special later in his life, he had to deal with literature on the biol­ "Pomor Aid Committee" was established to raise funds ogy and oceanography of northern seas. Studying old to help the victims’ families (Soldatov, 1927). By the Norwegian reports from the 16th and 17th centuries, end of 1895, a total of 50 000 rubles had been collected, Knipowitseh realized that a significant fishery in which was a huge sum of money for the time. Norwegian areas was in the hands of the pomors (local Knipowitseh was one of the most active members of the Russian population). It was stopped during the period Committee and developed a specific research pro­ 76 P. Solemdal and V. Serebryakov

Figure 2. The first Russian research vessel, "Andrei Pervozwanny". especially built and equipped for oceanographic and fish­ eries investigations. The vessel was built in Germany in 1899.

gramme and management patterns for fishing opera­ of Norwegians"). The Committee determined the aims tions off the Kola Peninsula and in the . The of the expedition to be as follows: 1) to study the phys­ programme he led addressed the following issues: 1 ) the ical and topographical conditions of the Barents Sea off possibility of developing offshore fishery operations in the coast where the people have been totally the Murman area rather than waiting for the fish to dependent on the annually varying fish harvest; and 2) come closer to the coast; and 2) the development of to assess the state of the rich fishery resources in the fisheries-relatcd investigations in the Barents Sea that Murmansk area and to outline ways for their further might lead to the establishment of a new fishery. development and rational utilization. Knipowitseh visited Norway, where he spent several The building of the research vessel started at the days visiting Johan Hjort, and Denmark, Sweden, Bremen Vulkan shipyard in Germany and was to be Scotland, and Germany in 1897 aiming to establish completed in 1898. However, a great fire delayed the business contacts and exchange views with colleagues launching of the vessel by one year. Knipowitseh did not (Alekseev, 1981). A year later, Hjort undertook a simi­ want to postpone the research and decided to purchase lar trip with the same intent, visiting Denmark, Sweden, the Norwegian fishing boat "Havblomsten" (Seaflower), Scotland, and Germany. which was later named "Pomor". The boat was 18 m The "Pomor Aid Committee", of which Knipowitseh long, 5 m wide, and had two masts. It was early in the was a key person, concluded that a research vessel was morning of 10 May 1898 when the "Pomor" left Kola needed to facilitate the development of fisheries in the Bay to start hydrographic, hydrobiological, and ichthy- Barents Sea. As the catastrophe-related donations were ological investigations in the Barents Sea. The data col­ continuing, the fund amounted to 150 000 rubles in lected by the "Pomor" in the winter of 1898-1899 were early 1898. In addition to this, the Committee received of exceptional importance and later formed the basis for significant governmental support. This money was used the programme of Russian fisheries research in the to build a research vessel and to finance the Murman Barents Sea. fishery research expedition ("Murmansk" is rendered In April 1899, the world’s first (oceanographic) re­ into Norwegian as n&rdmenns land, which means, "land search vessel, specially equipped for fishery investiga­ Cooperation in marine research between Russia and Norway at the dawn o f the 20th century 77

tions, "Andrei Pervozwanny", was launched in Bremen stay in Arkhangelsk for a month to get repaired, etc. (Figure 2). The event took place a year before the first Regretfully, there will be a significant gap between Norwegian research vessel "Michael Sars" began its the summer and autumn cruises. Sincerely yours. N. operations. Knipowitseh. The first Russian research vessel was named in hon­ Knipowitsch’s letter to Nansen of 1 July 1901 is of par­ our of St. Andrew who is known as a Scottish saint as ticular interest. First, it was written on a special form well as the patron of the . The ship dis­ which read "Murman Fisheries Research Expedition", placed 336 tonnes, the length was 52 m, and the speed showing that the expedition was an independent organi­ varied between 10 and 14 knots. She was equipped with zation at that time. Second, Knipowitseh gave Søren a powerful (for that time) 1000-m wire trawl winch and Meyer’s address in Vardø as "the sender" because the a 42-m long trawl with headrope and groundrope latter contributed considerably to provisions for the lengths of 26 and 42 m, respectively. There was another Russian ships and also assisted in the purchasing and winch to take water samples and to operate the dredge delivery of equipment for the RV "Andrei Pervozwan­ and the bottom sampler. The main deck had a well- ny". Besides, regular marine communication between equipped laboratory with quite modern hydrological Vardø and Murmansk was faster than via Moscow. and biological instrumentation. On her way to Ekaterina Cove, the ship called at "Andrei Pervozwanny" first visited Libau (Liepaja) in Bergen, Trondheim, Bodø, and on 4 May passed Cape Latvia where she was handed over to the Russian crew Nord and visited Vardø where Rasmus Holmby, the and some equipment was taken on board. She then con­ Russian Vice-Counsellor, assisted in the delivery of tinued her maiden cruise and visited Copenhagen, some provisions and equipment on board. Two days Kristiania (Oslo), Bergen, Trondheim, Hammerfest, and later, the ship left Vardø and reached her destination Vardø, and reached Ekaterina Cove in Kola Bay. While point in Kola Bay on 17 May. On 26 May 1899, after a in Kristiania, the ship was visited by Johan Hjort, who short stop in Ekaterina Cove, "Andrei Pervozwanny" had many questions to ask as "Michael Sars" was under started her first research cruise in the Barents Sea. construction in Fredrikstad at that time. was also among the visitors. Konstantin Yagodoski, who participated in the first voyage of the "Andrei The first Norwegian fisheries and Pervozwanny", described the visit of the two famous Norwegian scientists (Yagodovski, 1914): oceanographic research vessel and Nansen was a famous scientist by that time and, natu­ Johan Hjort rally, he was quite popular among the cruise members and everyone was eager to get his autograph or just In Norway, another type of catastrophe provided the exchange a couple of words with a distinguished polar background for building its first specially equipped explorer. Nansen and Hjort spent a lot of time aboard fishery research vessel, the "Michael Sars", launched in the ship discussing issues of mutual professional 1900. Very low catches of cod at the end of the 19th cen­ interest and Knipowitseh was invited by Hjort to visit tury had led to famine for people in the north who were the biological station in Drøbak near Oslo. On the completely dependent on the fisheries. The fishermen next morning the ship left for Drøbak where the sci­ were convinced that the industry along the entists of the two "fishing" countries continued their Finnmark coast, initiated by the pioneer Svend Føyn, discussions in a beautiful building on a picturesque disturbed the natural influence of whales "herding" the granite-locked shore where the biological station was cod (loddetorsk) towards the coast and generally built. reduced the whale population. This view had already Knipowitseh corresponded with many of his foreign been put forward in the 1870s, but G. O. Sars, in a colleagues including Nansen, Hjort , and the Swedish report, concluded that no such effect existed. Hjort oceanographer Otto Pettersson. His correspondence came to the same conclusion. However, the situation at with Hjort was devoted to pure scientific problems as the end of the century became very critical, and in 1903, well as to a variety of practical issues. It is of interest to an uproar resulted in the burning down of a whale fac­ note that the form of address as "Distinguished col­ tory in Mehamn in Finnmark, and military forces were league" (Sehr geerbter herr Collegue) in 1901 was used to stop the riot. Because these events were caused replaced by "Dear friend" (Lieber Freund) in 1903. A by the reduction in the whale population, the govern­ section of one of his letters to Hjort read: ment introduced a 10-year moratorium in 1903. Let me ask you about one thing which is of interest to In 1899, Hjort had submitted a comprehensive appli­ me. As far as I know, each Norwegian cation and description of a specially equipped vessel for has a special number while at sea. Since we are going high-seas investigations, specially suited for fishery to introduce similar numbers for the vessels operating work (Hjort, 1899). He chose an English trawler type, in off the Murman coast, it would be very interesting to contrast to the more luxurious yacht-like Russian get familiar with the rules and regulations currently in "Andrei Pervozwanny". "Michael Sars" was about 43 m force in Norway. Pitifully, our research vessel is to in length and had a 300-hp steam engine giving a speed 78 P. Solemdal and V. Serebryakov

large-scale, high-seas fisheries. This controversy still exists, but now the number of coastal fishermen is smaller and their political power diminished. It is inter­ esting to cite some of Hjort’s arguments in his applica­ tion for the new research vessel (Hjort, 1899): The old fishing grounds (the North Sea) start to be too small for this enormously increasing enterprise and several signals show up that the fleet is looking for new fishing banks. Along the Norwegian coast partly practical, partly scientific investigations were carried out in last year both by English, German and Russians. Concerning the Russians it must be mentioned that the leader of their investigations (Knipowitseh) stayed at my laboratory for 14 days in 1897. Soon this year they will set up a large investigation, including a biological station, sail­ ing vessel and a large scientific staff. Hjort also mentioned the launching of "Andrei Pervozwanny" a month later. In this way, Hjort applied some pressure on the Norwegian government to build a similar kind of research vessel. The last quotation from Hjort’s application confirmed the discussions from the Stockholm meeting in 1899 and also demonstrated his primary interest in the new research vessel: ...the investigations with modern equipment will solve the problems connected with the high-seas fish­ ery quite soon. An important reason for finishing our work soon will mean that it will be possible to take Figure 3. Johan Hjort (1869-1948), the leader of Norwegian part in the cooperative work with the other countries marine research at the dawn of the 20th century. from the start in an honourable way... In the north cooperation with the Russian investigations will take place in such a way that the Norwegian Sea is studied by us at the same period as the Russians investigate of 10 knots (Figure 4). The vessel was equipped with a the Murman coast and the White Sea (Hjort, 1899). variety of gear for both biological and oceanographic studies. "Michael Sars" could work nine horizontal nets and small trawls at the same time. with small trawls was possible down to 3000 m, which is far deeper The formal organization of the coopera­ than trawling from present research vessels. The larger tive work between Russia and Norway trawl with a headrope of about 40 m was used on special occasions. Smaller trawls with openings of 18-20 m The two research vessels "Andrei Pervozwanny" and were used routinely. "Michael Sars" initiated investigations in marine bio­ Johan Hjort (1869-1948) (Figure 3), who had logy and physical oceanography for the benefit of both obtained his doctoral degree from Munich studying the countries (Serebryakov and Solemdal, 1993; Solemdal larval development of Ascidians, was the leader of the and Serebryakov, 1993). Earlier expeditions had not fishery investigations beginning in 1893, when he suc­ been coordinated and were of a more restricted ceeded G. O. Sars. In 1900, his institution moved to and for practical applications in the fisheries. Some of Bergen and was renamed the Institute of Marine these expeditions were: the Norwegian "Nordhavsexpe- Research. In addition to the acute problems in the north­ dition" in 1876-1878 with S/S "Vøringen", the Dutch ern , the government also asked Hjort to expedition using the "Willhelm Barents" in 1878-1884, explain why the fisheries fluctuated. The answer to this the Russian expedition with the "Ermsk" in 1899, and question was given in the report of 1914 (Hjort, 1914) the Norwegian "" expedition in 1893-1896 that summarized the findings of what seems like the (Stepanjants et al., 1998). golden age of Norwegian marine research. However, the 1899 planning meeting for ICES in One of Hjort’s favourite ideas, the development of Stockholm managed to persuade the involved nations high-seas fisheries, was also included as an argument both to study areas and to adopt the principle of synop­ for building the new vessel. However, this argument was tic sampling (Anon., 1899). The frequency of sampling not politically expedient. The coastal fishermen were a was to be four times per year. Though Knipowitseh did strong group at that time and were not interested in not attend the meeting, Russia being represented by O. Cooperation in marine research between Russia and Norway at the dawn of the 20th century 79

Figure 4. The first Norwegian research vessel "Michael Sars" especially equipped for oceanographic and fisheries investigations. The vessel was built in Norway in 1900. von Grimm, an agreement was made to divide the areas First cruises of the to be surveyed between the two countries (Figure 5). The map in Figure 5 clearly shows the square to be cov­ RV "Andrei Pervozwanny" ered by Norway in the Norwegian Sea, which was The RV "Andrei Pervozwanny" carried out the first sur­ reflected in the first cruise of the RV "Michael Sars" in vey along the "triangle", the route and the area suggest­ 1900 (Figure 6). ed at the 1899 Stockholm Conference. Yagodovski It is interesting to note that the Russian triangle (1914) noted that Knipowitseh did not take part in the included the famous "Kola" section and that this was the Stockholm Conference, as he was completely absorbed start of a century-long time series used today not only in the preparation and conduct of the first cruises of by Russian and Norwegian scientists, but also by scien­ "Andrei Pervozwanny", and later wrote: tists from other countries. The lines drawn on the map Conversation 1. Prospects of International Coopera­ (Figure 5) are the directions of the oceanographic tion and Standard Sections. sections. In addition, the map shows the division of N. M. Knipowitseh, K. P. Yagodovski, and captain of investigations by the letters N (Norway) and R (Russia). Andrei Pervozwanny’ are discussing the pattern of Less closely defined areas for the two countries were the Kola Section. agreed at a meeting in Kristiania in 1901 (Anon., 1901). Captain: ‘Where are we going to make the first sta­ According to the decisions at that meeting, Russia and tion?’ Norway would together cover "Atlantischer Ocean Knipowitseh: As usual, in front of the entrance to nördlich 62° und Eismeer - Norwegen und Russland. " Motovsk Bay.’ What was the result of the different statements of the two meetings? From the map of the stations occupied by "Michael Sars" during the years 1900-1904 (Figure 7), it can easily be seen that the Norwegian area of investigations closely followed the agreement made at the Stockholm meeting and no stations were taken in the Barents Sea. The cooperative investigations continued more or less intensively until 1920, were discontinued for nearly 40 years, and then were resumed in 1958, during the Cold War between NATO countries and the Soviet Union, when the RV "Johan Hjort" visited Murmansk. Norway realized that the proper management of the rich Barents Sea fish populations was of greater importance than tak­ ing sides in the political struggle.

Figure 5. The map from the Stockholm meeting in 1899 show­ ing principal oceanographic sections and geographical areas designated for different countries. 80 P. Solemdal and V. Serebryakov

($(/tr/rMi/tuy fan/tmifnr O ijrfj/rr///i //SM/

— /iir h ü tl Sa rs * Houfc Station 8 — /emperatur/far-ver

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Figure 6. The route of the first voyage of the RV "Michael Sars" in 1900 and surface temperature and salinity distribution.

Captain: ‘Shall we then go straight to the north mak­ approved by the Conference our expedition is sup­ ing stops every 30 miles?’ posed to make several cruises per year similar to the Knipowitseh: ‘Yes, weather permitting, we’ll follow one we have started today. Imagine how well we could the triangle outlined at the Stockholm Conference. know the life of our northern seas, after years of hard We’ll go along the Kola Bay meridian up to 75°N, work, of course, if we are able to compare our results turn to the southeast to and then back with those obtained in all those countries!’ to the harbor. It’s difficult to precisely define the sta­ The signal coming to the engine compartment accom­ tions at the moment since the results of our work will panied by the slowing down of the speed indicated our possibly dictate more stops in certain areas.’ arrival at the designated point. Yagodovski: ‘Which conference are you actually talk­ Me (Yagodovski): ‘What kind of observations are we ing about?’ going to perform at this station?’ Knipowitseh: ‘Well, the point is that at present all the Knipowitseh: ‘We’ll take a series of temperature meas­ countries are interested in fisheries research and the urements, otter-trawl hauls and plankton samples.’ results of these studies will acquire far greater value if As usual, first of all, the depth and the type of the they could be compared with those obtained in adja­ ground were determined. The trawling took half an cent waters. Let’s take cod for example, which make hour only. The catch was composed by cod, haddock, migrations from the neighbouring seas and, undoubt­ halibut, redfish and wolffish. edly, reach our coasts. We can trace these movements The night came though the daylight was still there. We only if we compare results of our studies with obser­ have been working in the lab for 40 hours already vations made off the coasts of Norway, Denmark and with no sleep at all. Britain where they also fish for cod. The International ‘That won’t do’, said Knipowitseh at last while we Conference of scientists from Russia, Finland, were identifying the material at one of the distant sta­ England, Germany, Sweden, Norway and Belgium tions. ‘We all need some sleep. Let’s work in two was held in Stockholm in 1899. According to the plan shifts...’ Cooperation in marine research between Russia and Norway at the dawn of the 20th century 81

An hour of triumph in the life of "Andrei Pervozwanny" and the fate of the ship

During the period 1899-1902, Knipowitseh and his col­ leagues conducted complex hydrographic and oceano­ graphic studies along the sections which crossed all the branches of the North Atlantic Current in the Barents Sea. The first preliminary chart of the currents, plotted by Knipowitseh, showed the four branches of the warm Atlantic Current entering the Barents Sea from the west and penetrating far to the east and northeast following the bottom depressions. In 1906, a more advanced cir­ culation map appeared, signed by Dr L. Breitfuss, showing these branches of the Atlantic Current entering the Barents Sea (Figure 8). The results of the Murmansk expedition showed that warm-water fauna were brought eastwards and north­ wards with warm currents, and food fishes, such as cod, haddock, and redfish, stayed in the warmer water during their migrations. It was revealed that in winter, the fish could be found at greater depths in the offshore areas in the proximity of warm-water currents and that they Figure 7. Stations occupied by the RV "Michael Sars" in could be caught by trawls long before their shoreward 1900-1904. migration began. As a consequence, the areas of the prospective trawl fishery were distinctly indicated. The results of these studies formed the basis of the book by During the first cruise of "Andrei Pervozwanny", the Knipowitseh (1906), Principles of Hydrology of the crew was deeply impressed with the size of the ring European Part o f the . trawls constructed by Hjort which were intended for young fish sampling. The largest was 6.4 m in diameter and another was about 4.5 m in diameter. Other fishing gear included Pettersson and Sigsby trawls as well as dredges. The catches often consisted of Limacina ptero- pods. Once, a big catch of prawns was taken on board with the Petterson trawl, and Knipowitseh surprised the team by suggesting that the prawns be cooked for din­ ner. Most of the crew had never heard that they were edible. Knipowitseh then explained that prawns, a luxu­ ry dish, were being brought to St. Petersburg from France, and if a railway were built between Murmansk and St. Petersburg, the prawn fishery in the Barents Sea would hold great potential. Knipowitseh represented Russia at the next confer­ ence of marine and fisheries scientists which took place in Kristiania in 1901 and at which Hjort represented Norway. At this conference, Knipowitseh underlined the importance of combined fisheries and oceanographic research along the standard sections. He concluded that the investigations in the Barents Sea were of paramount Hydrologische Karte des Barents-Meeros practical importance as he had demonstrated the feasi­ bility of trawl fishing over the entire sea. In the areas north of the Murmansk coast, scientific data had already been obtained which provided the basis for the develop­ ment of a high-seas trawl fishery. He was very farsight­ Figure 8. The Breitfuss map of surface currents in the Barents ed in realizing the gigantic scale that this development Sea based on the data obtained in 1902 and on the earlier could reach. cruises of the RV "Andrei Pervozwanny". 82 P. Solemdal and V. Serebryakov

The practical results of the investigations were used fleet. In 1954, the ship was converted into a device to by only a limited number of Russian businessmen produce hot water for houses and was finally scrapped engaged in the trawl fishery in the Barents Sea, while in 1959. the British , in contrast, made good use Soon after the Russian October Revolution, the of the findings. At that time, about 1000 steam trawlers fisheries studies were continued under the leader­ were operating in the North Sea, and there had already ship of Professor S. V Averintsev, and the "Dolphin" been some evidence of on those traditional trawler was used as a research vessel. On 10 March fishing grounds. British and German fishermen were in 1921, Vladimir Lenin signed a decree establishing need of new fishing areas and, in 1904, they initiated "PlavMorNin" (Floating Marine Research Institute), trawl fishery operations in the Barents Sea. The total which later developed into the Polar Research Institute catch of the British trawlers amounted to 2248 t in 1906 for Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO) and reached 18 528 t in 1911. The bulk of the catch in Murmansk. comprised plaice. Based on the results of the Murmansk expedition, several attempts were made to organize a Russian trawl The first cruise of RV "Michael Sars fishery in the Barents Sea. The first one by Captain Kopytov fished for cod from the Norwegian vessel The RV "Michael Sars" left Ålesund on 22 July 1900 "Erling" in the southeast part of the Barents Sea in 1906. bound for Langanes, . The cruise plan shown in Kopytov was highly enthusiastic about the development Figure 6 demonstrates the area of interest for Norwegian of the trawl fishery and, thanks to his effort, the first fisheries in that period, which coincides with the agree­ Russian trawl manufacturing workshop was established ment between Russia and Norway, shown in Figure 5. in 1910. Kopytov Bank (known in Norway as Tromsø- The cruise ended in Lofoten on 9 September of the same flakef) was named in his honour. K. L. Spade, a Russian year. A large amount of oceanographic and biological sailor and businessman, purchased two British steam material was collected. The scientific staff included trawlers, ST "North" and ST "East", in 1910, and that Hjort (cruise leader and head of the fishery investiga­ same year, each one brought in a catch of 5001. In 1911, tions), Helland-Hansen and Nansen (physical oceanog­ only the ST "East" was in operation and caught 515 t. raphy), Gran (phytoplankton), and Wollebæk (fishery Some time later, Spade purchased two more STs, the investigations). A German newspaper suggested that "South" and the "West" which also operated in the Nansen was the cruise leader. This was probably the Barents Sea. The fish were transported to Arkhangelsk, start of a somewhat complicated relationship between and in winter the vessels were brought to Riga for main­ the two famous Norwegian marine scientists. tenance. All four trawlers continued fishing in the Hjort wrote the 30-page cruise report in Norwegian in Barents Sea until World War I broke out and stopped a form easily understood by laymen (Hjort, 1901). In the development of the trawl fishery. The Norwegian addition, the simplified, coloured figures are good trawl fishery in the Barents Sea in this early period was examples of popular science writing. By using this very limited. approach, Hjort was able to demonstrate the importance Unfortunately, the Russian Department for Agricul­ of high-seas studies to the coastal fishermen who had ture demanded immediate benefits for the fishermen quite critical opinions of scientists. The common point from the Murmansk expedition. The resulting tension of view was that the research vessel was always out of led to the removal of Knipowitseh after five years of sight, was doing nothing, but having a good time. successful work. A strange situation emerged, as the Hjort’s approach, also suggested earlier by G. O. Sars, well-equipped, expensive expedition began building emphasized the necessity of studying the situation in the bath houses and schools for fishermen. During the first high seas to understand the dynamics near the coast. Russian Revolution (1905-1906), the philanthropic However, he wrote little about his idea of developing a committee (Pomor Aid Committee) lost its governmen­ high-seas fishery and the prospect of finding new fish­ tal support and was soon closed (Lajus, 1999). ing grounds in this first cruise report. The RV "Andrei Pervozwanny" served as a research The cooperation between Nansen and Helland- vessel for the Murmansk expedition for 10 years. In Hansen during the first cruise of "Michael Sars" devel­ 1909, when the financing of the expedition ceased, the oped further. In 1909, The Norwegian Sea appeared ship was purchased by the Russian Navy to perform with Helland-Hansen as the first author. The former hydrological investigations under the new name of biologist Nansen had changed to become a physical "Murman" from 1910. During World War I, the ship was oceanographer. Thanks to Hjort and Nansen, the name armed and used as an auxiliary vessel of the Arctic of the sea being investigated had been changed by Hjort Ocean fleet. After the end of the Russian Civil War, it from the "Nordic Sea" to the "Norwegian North Sea" was used as a hydrographic vessel for a number of expe­ and by Nansen to the final name "Norwegian Sea" in ditions conducted in the north and was given yet anoth­ moves related to the drive for independence from Sweden. er name "Mgla" (Haze) in 1932. During World War II, Oceanographic investigations were one of the main the ship was armed and became part of the northern elements of the research on board the ship. Water Cooperation in marine research between Russia and Norway at the dawn o f the 20th century 83 bottles constructed by Nansen and the Swedish Some results from Russian and oceanographer Otto Pettersson were used on the cruise. The oceanographic map (Figure 6) shows that distances Norwegian investigations and a joint between stations were large. Helland-Hansen empha­ publication of Hjort and Knipowitseh sized: "Those areas on the map between the sections of course are drawn more or less free and probably must be Physical oceanography provides, perhaps, the best changed after a thorough analysis.” example of cooperative investigations between Norway In spite of the few measurements, the map shows and Russia. In Figures 6 and 8, surface temperature and many of the characteristic oceanographic features of the currents are shown from the Norwegian and Barents Norwegian Sea: Seas. There is an interesting difference in the way the 1) By section II, the salt Atlantic water turns west­ Atlantic Current enters the Barents Sea. The Russians ward. assume three branches of the Current, the Norwegians 2) Following the most saline part of the Atlantic only two. The results of the Norwegian-Russian inve­ Current northwards, it thereafter turns eastwards. stigations demonstrated the necessity of complex 3) At 71°-72°N, the Current divides into two branch­ physical-biological studies and revealed a number of es. interrelated phenomena in the Barents and Norwegian 4) The most saline water flows west of Bear Island. Seas. For example, the Gulf Stream passes through the 5) The less saline part of the Current turns eastward Norwegian Sea to enter the Barents Sea, and the result­ between Bear Island and Norway. Here, the surface ing annual temperature variations were best monitored water meets the Arctic water and the salinity is along the Russian Kola section. Cod migrate from the reduced to less than 35. Barents Sea to the Norwegian Sea following the migra­ Fishing experiments were very important since one of tion of herring, their major food source. Since that time, the goals of the first cruise of "Michael Sars" was the Russian-Norwegian studies have been recording both search for oceanic gadoid juveniles in the Norwegian upward and downward trends in the abundance of these Sea. There were strong indications that the juveniles species. drifted northwards from the spawning areas off northern Another achievement of the international studies was Norway into the Barents Sea. Hjort had the idea that the detection of the herring migration routes outside the some of the juveniles were drifting into unfavourable spawning grounds, which led to the development of a areas, and he wanted to investigate this problem. He herring fishery in the open sea areas. Knipowitseh and used a vertical net with a 7-m diameter and managed to Hjort shared the opinion that offshore fishing would collect large samples of gadoid juveniles. Nansen, in his significantly diminish the negative effect of catch fluc­ book Outdoor Life (1916), described this moment in the tuations on the population of the Norwegian and Barents following way: Sea coasts. In the minds of the two distinguished fishery What catch will the large vertical net bring? Tense biologists, overfishing in the area would hardly be pos­ expectation. When the net comes up full of jellyfish sible. With this in view, the authorities and individual and a multitude of Gadoid juveniles in between, the businessmen of both countries should have employed joy on-board got wild. Gran went singing and dancing the research results in the active development of fish­ around. The Captain came out from his cabin in his ery-related enterprises before the initiative would be shirt only and did not believe it before a plate full of taken by other countries. The research conducted by the lively juveniles was presented to him... The delight two men was very comprehensive and the methods was contagious to all the men on board... A new step applied were sufficiently modem to make it possible to forward to the understanding of the animal life of the use the results today. Sea. Knipowitseh and Hjort were great friends until their Hjort asked himself some questions about the fate of last days, and one would expect them to have had many these juveniles: 1) Will they grow to adults in the open joint publications, especially concerning cod. However, sea? 2) Is there a migration to the coast? 3) Will the there exists only one joint article under the title "The pelagic juveniles perish? description of life cycle of and fishery for northern Later, Hjort (1914) expressed his belief in the seals" (Hjort and Knipowitseh, 1907) which was an possibility of an oceanic herring fishery in the Nor­ attempt to assess the effect of seals on fisheries. This wegian Sea which was not yet developed at that time. report appeared in 1907 and described heavy invasions Experimental fishing during the cruise demonstrated of seals on the Murmansk and Finmarken coasts during concentrations of herring, and Hjort also obtained infor­ 1901-1903. The ICES resolution of 25 February 1903 mation from Ålesund about the herring fishery in the stimulated the realization of a joint Russian-Norwegian Norwegian Sea. In the cruise report, he concluded that, analysis of the event. The report was written in German, in July-August 1900, herring were distributed from the with an extensive summary in English. Observations Norwegian coast to Iceland. from both Russian and Norwegian sealers, official sta­ tistics, and studies done by scientists in both countries were the basic data used in the report. The biology of all 84 P. Solemdal and V. Serebryakov

Eisverhältnisse und Fangplätze ln Barentsmeer und Grönlandsee, 1002

NB. Vtrjl»leh Jo

KOLGUEV

Figure 9. lee conditions and hunting areas in the Barents and Greenland Seas in 1902.

seal species in the Arctic region was described with a that good fishing conditions accompanied by a heavy special emphasis on their migratory patterns. seal invasion were observed during the Murmansk expe­ The Greenland seal migrates annually from the White dition in 1899; he did not rely only on the fishermen’s Sea to the Finmarken coast, feeding on the spawning opinion. It would appear there was some disagreement schools of capelin. The invasion usually turns northward between Hjort and Knipowitseh on how to handle the in East Finmarken. Seals from the western area and the seal problem, based on the different interests in the two White Sea components of the stock were involved in the countries. The Norwegians put forward the idea of invasions in 1901-1903 (Figure 9). The authors men­ exterminating the seals, while the Russians stressed the tioned that this phenomenon took place frequently in the fact that is of no less importance to the pop­ past, e.g., 1763-1765. In late May 1901, seals from the ulation of northern Russia than fishing. Knipowitseh White Sea invaded the Finmarken coast, and the cod proposed increasing seal hunting instead of putting fishery was immediately terminated. In December efforts into exterminating the seals. 1902, the seals appeared again, and the fishery was Both Hjort and Knipowitseh were criticized by fish­ strongly reduced as far south as the Lofoten Islands. At ing industry authorities in both countries for putting too the end of February 1903, the number of seals dimin­ much effort into scientific rather than practical matters. ished and the fishery revived. Knipowitseh discovered that weather conditions, bait problems, and difficulties in recruiting staff for this Epilogue tough job were among the causes for the reduction in the fishery along the Murmansk coast. He considered the Complex oceanographic and fisheries investigations problem to be more complicated than just the mere were begun on board both the pioneer research vessels effect of seal invasions. at almost the same time. Long before the two ships were "But it is unjust to say that the seals alone are the built and began their operations, the whole complex of causes of this decline and it is also quite absurd to main­ oceanographic and fisheries investigations had been tain that the seals have caused the cod to approach the carefully planned, brilliantly organized, and successful­ coast later now than it did before and to have disap­ ly managed. Many of the objectives formulated by the peared from certain parts of the coast" (Hjort and scientists who conducted the investigations onboard Knipowitseh, 1907). Knipowitseh clearly remembered these vessels as well as the discoveries they made dur- Cooperation in marine research between Russia and Norway at the dawn of the 20th century 85

ing the first expeditions have formed the basis for sub­ Hjort was given the task by the government of revealing sequent fisheries oceanography and fundamental bio­ the mechanism behind the fluctuations in the fisheries. logical studies in the Barents and Norwegian Seas. As a tool in his investigations, he obtained the RV Along with bilateral studies, a programme of extensive "Michael Sars". The development of a high-seas fishery fisheries investigations in the North Atlantic was sug­ was a hidden argument. It has become a catch phrase gested at the international conference preceding the among Norwegian fishery scientists in recent years that establishment of ICES. "it is good to be a fishery researcher when catches are The names of two pioneers of marine fisheries low." (Solemdal, 1997, p. 558). research, N. Knipowitseh and J. Hjort, are intimately connected to the history of the two research vessels "Andrei Pervozwanny" and "Michael Sars". It was the Acknowledgements firm conviction of these outstanding scientists that international cooperation was a vital prerequisite for The authors wish to extend their deep gratitude to the beginning to understand the multiple and often compli­ historian Vera Schwach from the Norwegian Institute cated issues involved in the exploration of the Barents for Studies in Research and Higher Education (NIFU) and Norwegian Seas. They both strongly believed that for her tremendous help with the archives, which investigations in the northern seas would lead to the dis­ enabled us to gain access to unique files, and also for covery of new and abundant fishery resources. The her invaluable advice concerning the contents of this Norwegian and Russian marine fisheries research paper. Thanks also go to Tanya Smolyanova for her programmes were well coordinated both from the geo­ highly valuable linguistic assistance to the authors. graphical and methodological points of view and re­ sulted in the development of a trawl fishery for cod in the Barents Sea. In both Norway and Russia, it was the practice to References combine theoretical research with fishing investiga­ tions. Knipowitseh constantly advocated the necessity Alekseev, A. P. 1981. Nauchno-promyslovye issledovania na Murmane do 1917 (Fisheries studies in the Murman area and importance of regular surveys along standard prior to 1917). In Pod semizvezdnym sinim flagom (Under sections, which was never an easy task since he was crit­ the Seven Star Blue Flag), pp. 6-13. Ed. by V P. Ponama- icized for placing too much emphasis on purely renko. Murmanskoe Knizhnoe Izdatelstvo (Murmansk Pub­ scientific rather than practical fisheries investigations lishing Flouse), Murmansk. 136 pp. (In Russian). during the cruises of the RV "Andrei Pervozwanny". Anonymous. 1899. Conférence Internationale pour l’Explo­ Hjort, too, was criticized for his tendency to conduct ration de la Mer Réunie à Stockholm, 1899. Stockholm. 28 pp. Anonymous. 1901. Conférence Internationale pour l’Explo­ fisheries studies in the offshore areas rather than in ration de la Mer Réunie à Kristiania. Kristiania, pp. 229- coastal regions. It is very easy to imagine the volume of 268. criticism in Norway, considering the length of the coast­ Baer, K. M. von. 1860. Issledovaniya o sostoyanii rybolovstva line and the role of the coastal population in the eco­ v Rossii (Studies of the State of the Fisheries in Russia). nomic and social life of the country. It is perhaps in CPb, St. Petersburg. Volume 1. 96 pp. Volume 2. 213 pp. (In response to that criticism that Hjort and Knipowitseh Russian). Borisov, P. G. 1960. lz istorii nauchno-promyslovykh ikhtio- (1907) wrote in the introduction to their article: logicheskikh issledovanij na morskikh i presnovodnykh We would like to emphasize that the present report vodoemakh SSSR (From the History of Fisheries-Related does not contain practical recommendations since it is Ichthyological Studies in the Marine and Freshwater Bodies our opinion that before making any recommendations of the USSR). Vysshaya Shkola Publishers, Moscow. 198 an objective account of actual data should be presented. pp. (In Russian). The "Pomor Aid Committee" was founded after the Broch, H., and Koefod E. 1962. Mennene i den gamle garde (The men in the old guard). In Havet og våre fisker, bind 2 catastrophe in 1894, when 25 pomor fishing vessels (The ocean and the fishes, Volume 2), pp. 21-29. Ed. by were wrecked, to help the pomors in northern Russia. A Gunnar Rollefsen. J. W. Eides Forlag, Bergen. 429 pp. (In large sum was collected, and the Russian government Norwegian). also contributed to the building of "Andrei Pervo­ Dahl, K. 1909. The problem of sea hatching. Rapports et zwanny". The question arises: Did the widows and the Procès-Verbaux des Réunions du Conseil International pour l’Exploration de la Mer, 10(3): 1-39. orphans get the proposed aid? The Murmansk expedi­ Dannevig, G. M.. and Dahl, K. 1906. Undersøgelser over nyt­ tions established their headquarters in Ekaterina Cove. ten af torskeudklækning i østlandske fjorde (Studies of the A lodge for orphans was built there, and the children effects of releasing cod larvae in the East-Norwegian were educated by the members of the expedition fjords). Aarsberetning vedkommende Norges Fiskerier, 1: (Stepanjants et al., 1998). The full extent of that help 1-115. (In Norwegian). remains unknown. Damas, D. 1909. Contribution à la biologie des Gadidae. Rap­ ports et Procès-Verbaux des Réunions du Conseil Inter­ In Norway, the catastrophe was famine in the coastal national pour l'Exploration de la Mer, 10(3): 1-277. population due to very low catches, especially of cod. Darwin, C. R. 1859. On the Origin of Species by Means of Instead of subsidizing the people in this acute situation, Natural Selection. John Murray. London. 502 pp. 86 P. Solemdal and V. Serebryakov

Helland-Hansen, B. 1909, Statistical research into the biology sion of Fisheries, 1877, 4: 565-705. (Translated from Nor­ of the haddock and cod in the North Sea. Rapports et wegian to English by H. Jacobsen). Procès-Verbaux des Réunions du Conseil International pour Schwach, V 1999. The impact of artificial hatching of cod l’Exploration de la Mer, 10: 3-62. on marine research. Historisch-Meereskundliches Jahr­ Hjort, J. 1899. Forslag til byggning av damper for norske buch (Yearbook of the history of marine knowledge). fiskeriundersøkelser (Proposal to build a steamer for National German Marine Museum, Stralsund Germany, 5: Norwegian fishery investigations). A. W. Brøggers bog­ 21-41. trykkeri, Kristiania. Manuscript. 18 pp. (In Norwegian). Serebryakov, V, and Solemdal, P. 1993. Russland og i Hjort, J. 1901. "Michael Sars" første togt i Nordhavet aar 1900 samarbeid om utforskningen av nordområdene. Del 1: (The first cruise of "Michael Sars" in the Northern Sea in Katastrofer, pionérer og pionérskip (The cooperation the year 1900). Aarsberetning vedkommende Norges Fis­ between Russia and Norway concerning the exploration of kerier, 4: 231-238. (In Norwegian). the Arctic regions. Part 1 : Catastrophes, pioneers, and pio­ Hjort, J. 1914. Fluctuations in the great fisheries of northern neer vessels). Fiskets Gang, 7/8: 39—44. (In Norwegian). Europe viewed in the light of biological research. Rapports Soldatov, V K. 1927. Nikolai Mikhajlovich Knipowitseh in et Procès-Verbaux des Réunions du Conseil International 1885-1925. In A Collection of Papers Dedicated to pour l’Exploration de la Mer, 20: 1-228. Professor N. M. Knipowitseh, pp. 1-13. Ed. by V. K. Hjort, J., and Knipowitseh, N. M. 1907. Bericht über die Soldatov. NARKOMZEM Publishers, Moscow. 191 pp. (In Lebensverhaltnisse und den Fang der Nordischen Seehunde Russian). (The description of life cycle of and fishery for northern Solemdal, P. 1997. Epilogue. The three cavaliers: a discussion seals). Rapports et Procès-Verbaux des Réunions du Conseil from the golden age of Norwegian marine research. In Early International pour l’Exploration de la Mer, 8: 1-125. (In German). Life History and Recruitment in Fish Populations, pp. Knipowitseh, N. M. 1906. Osnovy gidrologii Evropeyskogo 551-565. Ed. by R. Christopher Chambers and Edward A. Ledovitogo okeana (Principles of hydrology of the European Trippel. Chapman & Hall, London. 596 pp. part of the Arctic Ocean). Zapiski Russkogo Geografis- Solemdal, P., and Serebryakov, V 1993. Russland og Norge i cheskogo Obshchestva (Proceedings of the Russian Society samarbeid om utforskningen av nordområdene. Del II: Til of Geographers), 42. 183 pp. (In Russian). havs med internasjonale ambisjoner og feiles interesser (The Lajus, J. A. 1999. Science, politics and practice in the fishery: cooperation between Russia and Norway concerning the scientists, industrialists and fishermen in the , exploration of the Arctic region. Part II: To the sea with 1898-1940. In Technological Change in the North Atlantic international ambitions and common interests). Fiskets Fisheries. Ed. by P. Holm and D. J. Starkey. Fiskeri- og Sø­ Gang. 9: 27-33. (In Norwegian). fartmuseets Studieserie, Esbjerg. Denmark, 13: Studia Stepanjants. S. D., Bjørklund, K. R., Chernova, N. V, Smirnov, Atlantica, 3: 49-59. I. S., and Lajus, J. A. 1998. Damperen "Andrei Pervo- Nansen, F. 1916. Friluftsliv. Blade av dagboken (Outdoor life. swanny", et 100 års jubileum (The steamship "Andrei Pages from the diary). Kristiania, Kjøbenhavn. 231 pp. (In Pervozwanny", a 100-year memory). Årbok for Bergens Norwegian). Museum 1998: 69-75. (In Norwegian). Sars, G. O. 1879. Indberetninger til Departementet for det Suvorov, E. K. 1948. Osnovy ikhtiologii (Principles of Ichthy­ Indre om de af ham i aarene 1864-1869 anstillede praktisk­ ology). Sovetskay Nauka Publishers, Moscow. 580 pp. (In videnskabelige undersøgelser angaande torskefiskeriet i Russian). Lofoten (Report of practical and scientific investigations of Yagodovski, K. P. 1914. V strane polunochnogo solntsa (In the the cod fisheries near Lofoten Islands, made during the Country of the Midnight Sun). SPb Prosveschchenie Pub­ years 1864-1869). In Report of the United States Commis­ lishers, St. Petersburg. 317 pp. (In Russian).