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ICES Marine Science Symposia, 215: 73-86. 2002 Cooperation in marine research between Russia and Norway at the dawn of the 20th century Per Solemdal and Valeri Serebryakov Solemdal, P., and Serebryakov, V 2002. Cooperation in marine research between Russia and Norway at the dawn of the 20th century. - ICES Marine Science Symposia, 215: 73-86. Russia and Norway exploit, to a large extent, the same living marine resources in the Barents and Norwegian Seas. At the end of the 19th century, Russian and Norwegian traditional fisheries were still confined to coastal areas and were subjected to natural disasters and fluctuations in abundance of fish stocks. It was realized in both coun­ tries that marine and fisheries-related research had to be extended seawards. A real breakthrough in marine research development was the construction of the first research vessels especially designed for marine and fisheries studies, the RV "Andrei Pervozwarmy" in Russia in 1899 and the RV "Michael Sars" in Norway in 1900. There were two great scientists who succeeded in building the research vessels for high-seas fisheries research - Nikolai Knipowitseh in Russia and Johan Hjort in Norway. They were good friends and had a common understanding of the necessity of cooperation between the two countries in marine and fisheries investigations in the Barents and Norwegian Seas. Coordination of efforts and standardization of methods and equip­ ment used on board the research vessels were achieved as a result of fruitful discus­ sions between the two leading scientists. The RV "Michael Sars" performed regular oceanographic and fisheries observations in the Norwegian Sea, and the RV "Andrei Pervozwanny" did the same in the Barents Sea at the dawn of the 20th century. The surveys by these two vessels helped to reveal the basic structure of the circulation pat­ tern and migration of cod, herring, and other food fish in the Barents and Norwegian Seas, and demonstrated the great potential for fisheries in the open ocean. The coordinated studies also illustrated the necessity for conducting accurate scientific investigations before any practical recommendations for the fishing industry could be produced. Keywords: Barents Sea, cooperation, fisheries, Norway, Norwegian Sea, oceanogra­ phy, research vessel, Russia. Per Solemdal: Institute of Marine Research, PO Box 1870 Nordnes, 5817 Bergen, Norway; tel: +47 55 23 85 00: fax: +47 55 23 85 84: e-mail: [email protected]. Valeri Serebryakov: formerly of Russian Institute of Fisheries and Oceanography (VNIRO), Moscow, Russia: currently at 3/14 First Street, Black Rock, Victoria 3193, Australia: e-mail: [email protected]. Introduction standing of the annual variations in coastal waters should be acquired on the high seas. It was also appre­ As neighbouring coastal states in the North, Russia and ciated that the two traditionally coastal-fishing countries Norway have a long tradition of sharing a common fate, must develop their own high-seas fishing fleets and especially in fish harvesting. Periods of good harvests urgently seek new fishing grounds. Cooperative re­ are often followed by periods with negligible catches, search between Russia and Norway had been estab­ resulting in famine for the populations of both countries. lished before the ICES planning meetings took place in Modern marine research began simultaneously in the Stockholm and Kristiania (Oslo) in 1899 and 1901, two countries at the end of the 19th century. Since other respectively. This cooperation was based on a personal countries with large trawl fleets in the overfished North friendship between Nikolai Knipowitseh and Johan Sea were looking northwards, it was natural that the two Hjort, both of whom succeeded in obtaining govern­ neighbours tried to get a lead in investigating "their" mental funds and approval for building modern, high- waters. It was realized in both countries that under­ seas research vessels. 74 P. Solemdal and V. Serebryakov A brief historical account of marine problems with the main message from Darwin, but since he had worked all his life with the development of lower research in Russia and Norway prior to marine animals, and in many ways thus supported and at the beginning of the 20th century Darwin’s work, he soon accepted the new idea of "evo­ lution". His son Ossian "digested" Darwin’s ideas Marine and fisheries-related investigations were initiat­ immediately. During his university lectures on this ed in Russia during the reign of Peter the Great when the theme, Ossian Sars used stories from the Old Testament Russian Academy of Sciences was founded in 1725. to explain Darwin’s ideas. He became so enthusiastic That was the era of great geographical discoveries and that the leader of King Frederiks University in prominent explorations of natural resources in Russia, Kristiania stopped his lectures for a while. which encouraged a number of expeditions to different Michael Sars was the pioneer in a new field of marine parts of the country including Siberia, the Lower Volga biology - the development of lower invertebrates, and area, and the Caspian Sea. There were two expeditions he soon became internationally known. Georg Ossian to the northern parts of Russia, one of which started his career in Lofoten in 1864 studying the repro­ (1725-1730), organized by Peter the Great himself, took duction and first year of the "winter torsk" (i.e., in the Bering Sea, Bering Strait, and Chukotka and Northeast Arctic cod) and observed the pelagic eggs of Kamchatka Peninsulas. The second one was conducted cod for the first time (Sars, 1879). His discovery led to in 1732-1742 and aimed at describing the entire north­ the practical idea of hatching cod eggs and releasing the ern coast of Russia from Arkhangelsk to the Pacific larvae to reduce the fluctuations in the fisheries, period­ Ocean. Vitus Bering, a famous Danish explorer, led both ically a very heavy burden for the people in the north­ expeditions (Borisov, 1960). ernmost counties. This idea developed into a classical The exact onset of fisheries research dates back to example of the practical-scientific tradition, which was 1851 when the Russian Society of Geographers initia­ typical of Norway. Backed by G. O. Sars, Captain ted expeditions aimed at studying the fishery resources Dannevig built the first functional cod hatchery in the of Russia under the leadership of Karl M. von Baer, a world in 1884 in Flødevigen, close to the city of prominent Russian biologist. Fish catches underwent a Arendal. Since that year, yolk-sac larvae have been dramatic decline in several large, northwestern lakes at released annually into small fjords in southern Norway that time, and the expedition worked in the Chuda and (Schwach, 1999). Pskov lakes and in the Baltic Sea. Later, similar investi­ To test the effect of releasing cod larvae on the cod gations were continued in the White and Caspian Seas population in these Ijords, juveniles were caught with a and off the Kola Peninsula (Suvorov, 1948). The results beach seine. No positive effect was found during the of the expeditions were summarized by von Baer (1860) short time-series 1903-1905. But the very important in the book entitled Studies o f the State of the Fisheries spin-off was that it showed large annual variations in the in Russia published in St. Petersburg in 1860. numbers of juveniles of cod, which were especially In Norway, clerics (priests and bishops) conducted the numerous in 1904 (Dannevig and Dahl, 1906; Dahl, first systematic studies in botany and zoology, including 1909). Similar trends were found in North Sea cod and the marine habitat. That group comprised the majority haddock (Helland-Hansen, 1909) and the early stages of of intellectuals at that time. A similar interest in the nat­ these species over a larger geographical area (Damas, ural sciences did not exist among Greek Orthodox cler­ 1909). The cooperative work during this golden age of ics in Russia. After the reformation in 1536, the clerical Norwegian marine science is dramatized by Solemdal class in Norway had a more outgoing, practical view of (1997). existence. Priests like Peder Claussøn Friis (1545-1614) Knowing the very intimate working style of this sci­ and bishops like J. E. Gunnerus (1718-1773) were espe­ entists’ group in Bergen, it is correct to conclude that the cially interested in the fluctuations in the fisheries. They mentioned results led into the large-scale age study of were convinced that the bad periods were a punishment the Norwegian spring-spawning herring, illustrating the from God for the sins of the people. Bishop Gunnerus dominating effect of the 1904 year class for many years. was also a taxonomist who described and named the The results were published in the famous "Fluctuations most numerous animal in our coastal waters, the red in the great fisheries of northern Europe viewed in the crustacean Calanus finmarchicus. light of biological research" (Hjort, 1914). This was the In Norway, there was an interesting transition period start of modern population dynamics. from the priest to the modem scientist, illustrated by An important factor in the internationalization of the Michael Sars who had been a priest for 24 years and Bergen group of scientists were the international cour­ then was appointed Professor of Zoology in Kristiania ses in marine research that started in 1903. The idea was (Oslo) in 1854, to be followed, in 1864, by his son collectively born during a supper in Kristiansund on the Georg Ossian, the first full-time marine zoologist. In return of the RV "Michael Sars" from a cruise in 1902. 1859, during this "transition" period, Darwin’s (1859) The main purpose was the teaching of a different type of work On the Origin of Species ... appeared. The former information than that usually given at other biological priest, now Professor of Zoology Michael Sars, had stations.
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  • Fisheries' Collapse and the Making of a Global Event, 1950S–1970S

    Fisheries' Collapse and the Making of a Global Event, 1950S–1970S

    Journal of Global History (2018), 13, pp. 399–424 © Cambridge University Press 2018 doi:10.1017/S1740022818000219 Fisheries’ collapse and the making of a global event, 1950s–1970s Gregory Ferguson-Cradler Max Planck Institute for the Study of Societies, Paulstr. 3, 50676 Cologne, Germany E-mail: [email protected] Abstract This article analyses three fisheries crises in the post-war world – the Far East Asian Kamchatka sal- mon in the late 1950s, the north Atlantic Atlanto-Scandian herring of the late 1960s, and the Per- uvian anchoveta of the early 1970s – to understand how each instance came to be understood as a ‘collapse’ in widely differing contexts and institutional settings, and how these crises led to changes in practices of natural resource administration and in politico-economic structures of the fishing industry. Fishery collapses were broadly understood as state failures and, in response, indivi- dual states increasingly claimed sovereignty over fish stocks and the responsibility to administer their exploitation. Collapses thus became events critical in the remaking of management regimes. Furthermore, the concept of a fisheries collapse was reconfigured in the 1970s into a global issue, representing the possible future threat of depletion of the oceans on a planetary scale. Keywords crisis, environment, natural resources, ocean, political economy The history of commercial fishing in the twentieth century is not generally taken to be a happy one. Narratives inevitably centre around general decline punctuated with severe and sudden collapse. Scarcity of resources have also brought about social and economic hardship familiar to many coastal communities reliant to any extent on fishing.