ICES Marine Science Symposia, 215: 39^4. 2002 Internationalist and Norwegian at the same time: Johan Hjort and ICES Vera Schwach Schwach, V 2002. Internationalist and Norwegian at the same time: Johan Hjort and ICES. - ICES Marine Science Symposia, 215: 39-44. The marine biologist Johan Hjort (1869-1948) remained at the forefront of Norwegian marine research for more than half a century. He also belonged to a small group of Scandinavians who, around 1900, committed themselves to founding ICES. For a small nation, international collaboration was considered crucial for maintaining the quality of research. The marine sciences were also a source of national pride, an area in which Norway could and did shine internationally. For almost fifty years, Hjort was one of the Council’s leading characters both as a scientist and as an organizer. In the formative years of ICES, Hjort established a programme for fishery studies integrating national and international investigations. While the British and German scientists were preoccupied with the problem of overfishing, Hjort was the foremost spokesman for focusing on nat­ ural variations in the catches. In 1914, he and his colleagues at the Directorate of Fisheries concluded their research by publishing "Fluctuations in the great fisheries of northern Europe". This report laid out theoretical foundations of the emerging field and improved the Council’s scientific reputation. His experiences within the ICES communi­ ty also influenced Hjort's political ideas and work. Like his compatriot, the biologist and oceanographer Fridtjof Nansen, Hjort held that building scientific and cultural bonds and establishing agreements in these areas between nations were essential for avoiding the hubris amongst nations and lessening the chance of war in Europe. In the interwar peri­ od, Norway and Hjort indeed used the Council as a channel for bilateral negotiations with Great Britain, via Henry G. Maurice, the long-term President of ICES, that led to agree­ ments on the conditions for the Norwegian whaling industry in the Antarctic area and Norway’s offshore territorial limit. Keywords: Committee A, fisheries biology, foreign policy, Institute of Marine Research (IMR), Johan Hjort, Norway, Scandinavia. V. Schwach: Norwegian Institute for Studies in Research and Higher Education (NIFU), Hegdehaugsveien 31, N-0352 Oslo, Norway; tel: +47 22 59 51 56; fax: +47 22 59 51 01; e-mail: [email protected]. Introduction means contributing to the history of ICES and the emer­ gence of modern marine science in Europe and North America. The Norwegian marine biologist Johan Hjort This paper comprises first a short outline of Hjort’s (1869-1948) belonged to a small group of Scandina­ professional biography, then a brief summary of the vians who committed themselves to the founding of major results achieved in marine research in Bergen in ICES. At the turn of the 19th century, they took the step the interval between 1900 and the outbreak of World of moving from the informal Scandinavian Association War I. After this, the way in which Hjort and his col­ of Natural Researchers (De skandinaviske naturforsker- leagues integrated national and international research møtene) to a formally organized International Council for the benefit of themselves and the emerging field of for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) (Schwach, 1997). marine science within ICES is discussed. In the fourth The rest of Hjort’s professional life and career was and fifth sections, the focus is on the intersection be­ closely linked to the Council both in terms of establish­ tween science and politics and especially Hjort’s politi­ ing its scientific foundation as well as building and cal views and his internationalism. Finally, Hjort's role securing it as an institution. as a nationalist and patriot (Figure 1) is analysed, and In fact, for half a century, Hjort was one of ICES’ the role of marine research in the nation-building pro­ leading characters both scientifically and organization­ gramme is illustrated together with the role of ICES as ally. Therefore, tracing the footsteps of Johan Hjort a channel for Norwegian diplomacy. 40 Vera Schwach NORSK FISKERINÆRING Figure 1. A Norwegian stamp from 1969, commemorating Figure 2. Members of the "Bergen-group" 1903. Back row (1-r): Johan Hjort on the centennial of his birthday. Alf Wollebæk (biologist). Bjørn Heiland-Hansen (physical oceanographer), and Haaken Hasberg Gran (marine botanist/ biological oceanographer). Front row (1-r): Knut Dahl (biol­ ogist) and Johan Hjort (biologist). Photo: IMR. Bergen. Norway. A short biography In the formative years of ICES, Hjort and his Hansen (1877-1957), broke with Hjort in 1910 and Scandinavian colleagues established a programme for established physical oceanography as a field of geo­ scientific studies of the fisheries that incorporated the physics. Fisheries hydrography remained at the traditional Scandinavian focus on the connection Directorate, although fisheries biology dominated between physical and biological marine research. While marine research. In 1914, "the Bergen-group" at the the British and German scientists were preoccupied Directorate concluded their research by publishing their with the problem of overfishing, Hjort was the foremost report on the "Fluctuations in the great fisheries of spokesman for focusing on natural variations in the northern Europe" (Hjort, 1914). This ICES report laid catches. The Norwegian model for the management of the theoretical foundations for the new discipline and fisheries was unique in Europe. Only in Norway were undoubtedly enhanced the Council’s position in the management and scientific investigations integrated in a management of fisheries and its scientific reputation in professional and centralized government agency. At that the Western Hemisphere. time, Hjort was a leading figure, being one of three After an argument with the Norwegian government members of the Board of Fisheries (Fiskeristyrelsen), concerning fishing trade and neutrality, Hjort resigned but after the reorganization in 1906, he became the sole from the position as Director of Fisheries and left Director (Fiskeridirektør) at the Directorate of Fisheries Bergen in 1917. Henry G. Maurice (1874-1950) fol­ (Fiskeridirektoratet) (Schwach, 2000). lowed the events in Norway from his position as head of Hjort was part of a political tradition that emphasized the Fishery Department in the English Ministry of using national assets wisely. Hjort’s forte was the Agriculture and Fisheries in London. Maurice knew exploitation of the resources of the sea, and he held Hjort well from their joint work in the Council. He gave strong political principles which he wanted to put into a characteristically diplomatic view of his Norwegian practice. Hjort argued that the State ought to be power­ colleague when commenting on Hjort’s resignation in ful and that the trained civil servant class should play a 1917. "He was as apt to walk off stage as a film star, and significant political role in the growth of the nation. The it came about that he handed in his resignation of the State ought to carry out modernizing reforms of the post of Director of the Fisheries in Norway once too economy. For Hjort, who was occupied with the fishing often. The time came when the authorities did not ask industry, this meant that scientists should both do him to reconsider, and accepted his resignation" research and be involved in promoting the moderniza­ (Maurice, 1948, p. 766). tion of the fisheries (Schwach, 2000, pp. 128-136). After a period of studies abroad. Hjort returned to At home. Hjort was an undisputed leader in marine Kristiania in 1921 where he was offered a personal pro­ science for fifty years beginning in the 1890s. All the fessorship in marine biology at the one and only univer­ other Norwegian marine biologists worked in his shad­ sity in Norway. The Biological Laboratory at His was ow (Schwach, 2000, pp. 89-109, 204-217). However, subsidized by means of a tax paid by the prosperous one of his assistants, the oceanographer Bjørn Helland- Norwegian whaling industry. Hjort now devoted himself Internationalist ant/ Norwegian at the same time: Johan Hjort and ICES 41 to studies of whale population dynamics and the impact founding an international council for marine research. of human exploitation on the stocks. He aimed to find Pettersson’s statement leaves us with the impression of a the law of "optimum catch" of whales of commercial talented researcher, but not an easy character. interest (Smith, 1994, pp. 214-229). Pettersson (1900) stated: "The person who may make In the interwar years (1918-1939), Hjort’s interest in these difficulties [refusing to cooperate] is our friend ICES gradually changed to become more focused on Hjort. Well, remember now that I speak privately and institutional matters. As Vice-President from 1920, absolutely frankly! These difficulties will arise, if I Hjort, together with President Maurice, acted in a diffi­ know the mentality of our good friend Hjort. He is the cult international atmosphere. Jointly, they worked greatest power of our whole cooperation, but also its steadily to secure the financial basis of ICES and to greatest risk as he is indifferent about collaboration. He make the Council a permanent institution for marine wants to have the investigations carried out but thinks science as well as for the management of fisheries. They that he can do it all by himself and that it is completely had a mutual interest in the commercial and scientific unnecessary to have, e.g., the Germans join. Further­ aspects of whaling and introduced this topic to the more he is easily irritated, and if he gets the idea that Council by setting up a Whaling Committee (Roz- Norway fares better by herself, then he goes his own way." wadowski, 2002; Holt, 2002). In late December 1900, Johan Hjort travelled to In 1938, a depressed Hjort and Maurice saw the spec­ Germany to celebrate Christmas at his parents-in-law’s tre of a new war in Europe.