ICES Marine Science Symposia, 215: 39^4. 2002 Internationalist and Norwegian at the same time: Johan Hjort and ICES

Vera Schwach

Schwach, V 2002. Internationalist and Norwegian at the same time: Johan Hjort and ICES. - ICES Marine Science Symposia, 215: 39-44.

The marine biologist Johan Hjort (1869-1948) remained at the forefront of Norwegian marine research for more than half a century. He also belonged to a small group of Scandinavians who, around 1900, committed themselves to founding ICES. For a small nation, international collaboration was considered crucial for maintaining the quality of research. The marine sciences were also a source of national pride, an area in which Norway could and did shine internationally. For almost fifty years, Hjort was one of the Council’s leading characters both as a scientist and as an organizer. In the formative years of ICES, Hjort established a programme for fishery studies integrating national and international investigations. While the British and German scientists were preoccupied with the problem of overfishing, Hjort was the foremost spokesman for focusing on nat­ ural variations in the catches. In 1914, he and his colleagues at the Directorate of Fisheries concluded their research by publishing "Fluctuations in the great fisheries of northern Europe". This report laid out theoretical foundations of the emerging field and improved the Council’s scientific reputation. His experiences within the ICES communi­ ty also influenced Hjort's political ideas and work. Like his compatriot, the biologist and oceanographer Fridtjof Nansen, Hjort held that building scientific and cultural bonds and establishing agreements in these areas between nations were essential for avoiding the hubris amongst nations and lessening the chance of war in Europe. In the interwar peri­ od, Norway and Hjort indeed used the Council as a channel for bilateral negotiations with Great Britain, via Henry G. Maurice, the long-term President of ICES, that led to agree­ ments on the conditions for the Norwegian whaling industry in the Antarctic area and Norway’s offshore territorial limit.

Keywords: Committee A, fisheries biology, foreign policy, Institute of Marine Research (IMR), Johan Hjort, Norway, Scandinavia.

V. Schwach: Norwegian Institute for Studies in Research and Higher Education (NIFU), Hegdehaugsveien 31, N-0352 Oslo, Norway; tel: +47 22 59 51 56; fax: +47 22 59 51 01; e-mail: [email protected].

Introduction means contributing to the history of ICES and the emer­ gence of modern marine science in Europe and North America. The Norwegian marine biologist Johan Hjort This paper comprises first a short outline of Hjort’s (1869-1948) belonged to a small group of Scandina­ professional biography, then a brief summary of the vians who committed themselves to the founding of major results achieved in marine research in Bergen in ICES. At the turn of the 19th century, they took the step the interval between 1900 and the outbreak of World of moving from the informal Scandinavian Association War I. After this, the way in which Hjort and his col­ of Natural Researchers (De skandinaviske naturforsker- leagues integrated national and international research møtene) to a formally organized International Council for the benefit of themselves and the emerging field of for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) (Schwach, 1997). marine science within ICES is discussed. In the fourth The rest of Hjort’s professional life and career was and fifth sections, the focus is on the intersection be­ closely linked to the Council both in terms of establish­ tween science and politics and especially Hjort’s politi­ ing its scientific foundation as well as building and cal views and his internationalism. Finally, Hjort's role securing it as an institution. as a nationalist and patriot (Figure 1) is analysed, and In fact, for half a century, Hjort was one of ICES’ the role of marine research in the nation-building pro­ leading characters both scientifically and organization­ gramme is illustrated together with the role of ICES as ally. Therefore, tracing the footsteps of Johan Hjort a channel for Norwegian diplomacy. 40 Vera Schwach

NORSK FISKERINÆRING

Figure 1. A Norwegian stamp from 1969, commemorating Figure 2. Members of the "Bergen-group" 1903. Back row (1-r): Johan Hjort on the centennial of his birthday. Alf Wollebæk (biologist). Bjørn Heiland-Hansen (physical oceanographer), and Haaken Hasberg Gran (marine botanist/ biological oceanographer). Front row (1-r): Knut Dahl (biol­ ogist) and Johan Hjort (biologist). Photo: IMR. Bergen. Norway. A short biography

In the formative years of ICES, Hjort and his Hansen (1877-1957), broke with Hjort in 1910 and Scandinavian colleagues established a programme for established physical oceanography as a field of geo­ scientific studies of the fisheries that incorporated the physics. Fisheries hydrography remained at the traditional Scandinavian focus on the connection Directorate, although fisheries biology dominated between physical and biological marine research. While marine research. In 1914, "the Bergen-group" at the the British and German scientists were preoccupied Directorate concluded their research by publishing their with the problem of overfishing, Hjort was the foremost report on the "Fluctuations in the great fisheries of spokesman for focusing on natural variations in the northern Europe" (Hjort, 1914). This ICES report laid catches. The Norwegian model for the management of the theoretical foundations for the new discipline and fisheries was unique in Europe. Only in Norway were undoubtedly enhanced the Council’s position in the management and scientific investigations integrated in a management of fisheries and its scientific reputation in professional and centralized government agency. At that the Western Hemisphere. time, Hjort was a leading figure, being one of three After an argument with the Norwegian government members of the Board of Fisheries (Fiskeristyrelsen), concerning fishing trade and neutrality, Hjort resigned but after the reorganization in 1906, he became the sole from the position as Director of Fisheries and left Director (Fiskeridirektør) at the Directorate of Fisheries Bergen in 1917. Henry G. Maurice (1874-1950) fol­ (Fiskeridirektoratet) (Schwach, 2000). lowed the events in Norway from his position as head of Hjort was part of a political tradition that emphasized the Fishery Department in the English Ministry of using national assets wisely. Hjort’s forte was the Agriculture and Fisheries in London. Maurice knew exploitation of the resources of the sea, and he held Hjort well from their joint work in the Council. He gave strong political principles which he wanted to put into a characteristically diplomatic view of his Norwegian practice. Hjort argued that the State ought to be power­ colleague when commenting on Hjort’s resignation in ful and that the trained civil servant class should play a 1917. "He was as apt to walk off stage as a film star, and significant political role in the growth of the nation. The it came about that he handed in his resignation of the State ought to carry out modernizing reforms of the post of Director of the Fisheries in Norway once too economy. For Hjort, who was occupied with the fishing often. The time came when the authorities did not ask industry, this meant that scientists should both do him to reconsider, and accepted his resignation" research and be involved in promoting the moderniza­ (Maurice, 1948, p. 766). tion of the fisheries (Schwach, 2000, pp. 128-136). After a period of studies abroad. Hjort returned to At home. Hjort was an undisputed leader in marine Kristiania in 1921 where he was offered a personal pro­ science for fifty years beginning in the 1890s. All the fessorship in marine biology at the one and only univer­ other Norwegian marine biologists worked in his shad­ sity in Norway. The Biological Laboratory at His was ow (Schwach, 2000, pp. 89-109, 204-217). However, subsidized by means of a tax paid by the prosperous one of his assistants, the oceanographer Bjørn Helland- Norwegian whaling industry. Hjort now devoted himself Internationalist ant/ Norwegian at the same time: Johan Hjort and ICES 41 to studies of whale population dynamics and the impact founding an international council for marine research. of human exploitation on the stocks. He aimed to find Pettersson’s statement leaves us with the impression of a the law of "optimum catch" of whales of commercial talented researcher, but not an easy character. interest (Smith, 1994, pp. 214-229). Pettersson (1900) stated: "The person who may make In the interwar years (1918-1939), Hjort’s interest in these difficulties [refusing to cooperate] is our friend ICES gradually changed to become more focused on Hjort. Well, remember now that I speak privately and institutional matters. As Vice-President from 1920, absolutely frankly! These difficulties will arise, if I Hjort, together with President Maurice, acted in a diffi­ know the mentality of our good friend Hjort. He is the cult international atmosphere. Jointly, they worked greatest power of our whole cooperation, but also its steadily to secure the financial basis of ICES and to greatest risk as he is indifferent about collaboration. He make the Council a permanent institution for marine wants to have the investigations carried out but thinks science as well as for the management of fisheries. They that he can do it all by himself and that it is completely had a mutual interest in the commercial and scientific unnecessary to have, e.g., the Germans join. Further­ aspects of whaling and introduced this topic to the more he is easily irritated, and if he gets the idea that Council by setting up a Whaling Committee (Roz- Norway fares better by herself, then he goes his own way." wadowski, 2002; Holt, 2002). In late December 1900, Johan Hjort travelled to In 1938, a depressed Hjort and Maurice saw the spec­ Germany to celebrate Christmas at his parents-in-law’s tre of a new war in Europe. ICES prepared for the worst home in Brandenburg. On the way, he stopped to see by electing the nearly 70-year-old Johan Hjort as its colleagues in Denmark and Germany. Hjort first paid a President. By then, it was thought that all the visit to his "teacher" in fisheries biology, C. G. J. Scandinavian countries would remain neutral as they Petersen at the Danish Biological Station, then talked to had been during World War I. It became Hjort’s last duty Martin Knudsen in Copenhagen and Victor Hensen in to steer ICES through World War II (1939-1945) so that Kiel. Finally, he met Walther Herwig, probably in it could resume its work immediately afterwards as a Berlin. All of them played intellectually and/or institu­ widely recognized international organization. tionally key roles in the early history of ICES. During this trip. Hjort discovered that combining national with international investigations would be most fruitful, and Integrating national and international he did it with a vengeance (Hjort, 1901; Wille, 1901). Hjort was ultimately elected Convener of ICES research Committee A, the "Migration Committee". In fact, in 1908 and 1909, the German Delegate Friedrich Heincke Norway is a relative large but sparsely populated coun­ expressed his disapproval of the work of Committee A try. In 1900, the population was about two million; now because he felt that Hjort was running it as a branch of it is about 4.5 million. Knowing that collaboration was the national Norwegian marine investigations (Schwach, most important for maintaining the quality of research 2000, pp. 165-167). The German objections partly in such a small nation, its natural scientists have always explain why the Council, in 1909, decided to discontin­ been eager to participate first in work on a Scandinavian ue the work of Committee A, whereas Committee B scale and secondarily in the international arena. Indeed, continued as the "Plaice Committee". Hjort was offered these links in marine science strengthened the small a small amount of money to continue the investigations "Bergen-group" (Figure 2). Membership in ICES also on herring scales, and Committee A’s work was brought protected the national scientific investigations against to an end with the report "Fluctuations in the great fish­ attempts from members of the Parliament (Storting) to eries of northern Europe", which nearly ended up as a interfere in Hjort’s programme by cutting down the national project (Schwach, 2000, pp.164-170). funds supporting the maintenance of a well-equipped ICES had a central function, though, as a meeting and eminent, but very expensive research vessel, place for scientific discussion, the exchange of data, and "Michael Sars". The contribution to joint ICES investi­ the presentation and diffusion of results. The existence gations was considered to be a national obligation that of ICES also made it possible for the Norwegian marine had to be fulfilled, and this argument also protected the scientists to rapidly spread their methods, their instru­ domestic marine investigations. ments, and the results from their ongoing research. One As a matter of fact, Hjort, for a short period in 1900, way in which they accomplished this particularly well was reluctant to get involved in cooperative research was to organize courses in Bergen each year from 1903 because, via the newly established government agency until 1913 (Figure 3). Each course lasted two months for fisheries, he presumably hoped that the Norwegians and approximately 175 persons participated, most of could manage all the investigations by themselves. In them being students from German-speaking universities December 1900, the ICES entrepreneur Otto Pettersson (Schwach, 2000, pp.l 16-121). Johan Hjort and his col­ (1848-1941) was worried, and he wrote a letter to leagues in Bergen also learned a lot about ongoing Fridtjof Nansen (1861-1930) about Hjort. Together, research in other countries from the courses. As Eric they had already been eagerly engaged for four years in Mills pointed out, these international courses were also Vera Schwach

Figure 3. The first international course for marine research took place in Bergen from January to March 1903. Back row (1-r): Alf Wollebæk, Board of Fisheries. Bergen, Norway; Hans Kiær, Tromsø, Norway; A. Pira, Stockholm, Sweden; Paul Bjerkan, Kristiania, Norway; Adolf Reichard, Frankfurt, Germany; unknown; A. J. Robertson, University College, Dundee, Scotland. Middle row (1-r): Anton Schweigaard, clerk at the Board of Fisheries, Bergen, Norway; Constance Gran, secretary at the Board of Fisheries, Bergen, Norway: Leo Berg, inspector of fisheries, Kasalinsk, Russia; R. M. Clark, assistant at the Department of Botany, University of Aberdeen and the Scottish international investigations; presumably Dr. Boris Heynemann, assistant at the laboratory of the Russian Ministry for Agriculture Fishery Investigations, St. Petersburg; Laura Gullaksen, secretary at the Board of Fisheries, Bergen, Norway. Front row (1-r) the teachers: H. H. Gran, Adolf Appelløf, and Bjørn Helland-Hansen, all from Bergen. Johan Hjort was absent. The following participants have not been identified: L. Cough. Plymouth, England; Prof. Dr G. Gilson, Belgium; and Aage Heyerdahl, Kristiania. Norway (Information from names listed on the original photo). Photo: IMR. Bergen, Norway.

responsible for the origin of another new profession in eign policy and international affairs. While Nansen the ICES Countries: that of the technicians who did gradually turned into a politician. Hjort concentrated on much of the routine work at sea and in the laboratories scientific organizations. (Mills, 1989, p. 86). The experiences of World War I confirmed and strengthened Hjort’s conviction. In the interwar years, he emphasized that broad international cooperation in A convinced internationalist science and politics was at least a step against national hubris (fascism) and might lessen the drift towards a Norway was a small country without any large standing new war in Europe. "Internationalism" became a tradi­ army and, perhaps in consequence, its leading figures, tion among Norwegian marine researchers. In the gen­ among them Johan Hjort, were convinced international­ eration after Hjort, there were scientists like the oceano­ ists. Like his famous compatriot Fridtjof Nansen, they grapher Harald Ulrik Sverdrup (1888-1957) and after both sought peaceful, international agreements and the him Gunnar Sætersdal (1922-1997), Director of the building of adequate international institutions via for­ Institute of Marine Research (IMR) in Bergen, both of Internationalist and Norwegian at the same time: Johan Hjort and ICES 43 whom held several formal positions in ICES. Sverdrup al activities (Friedman, 2000, p. 2). The Swedish Arctic and Sætersdal were all convinced internationalists and, researcher Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld and Fridtjof in fact, extended the approach to include countries out­ Nansen, through their adventurous skiing tours and side the Western Hemisphere. They did this by turning expeditions to uninhabitable Polar regions, were the their conviction into scientific programmes that helped inspirations for generations of Norwegian natural to develop the fishing industries and marine research in researchers (Schwach, 1999, pp. 34-35). The historian the Third World (Schwach, 2000, pp. 341-347). of science Robert M. Friedman stated that: "By the 1920s Norway was perhaps alone in being a nation in which professors were more at home in the field than in A convinced patriot and nationalist the laboratory" (Friedman, 2000, p. 2).

In 1900, Johan Hjort was well aware of the political implications of his research. Generally, the Norwegian scientists had a strong desire to show the civilized world Making political statements through that Norway was a cultivated nation and had a place on ICES the international scientific map. Fridtjof Nansen, in a personal letter to Hjort, reminded him of the necessity ICES had a secondary function as a channel for Norwe­ of keeping at the forefront of marine investigations, not gian diplomacy in Hjort’s time. In 1905, Norway unilat­ only for the sake of science, but also for Norway as a erally left the union with Sweden to which it had been state ["nationalforfængelighed"]. To Nansen, it was joined since the end of the Napoleonic Wars ( 1793— essential that a small nation like Norway should do well 1814). Since 1814, in fact, Norway had had its own po­ in as many cultural fields as possible to secure the litical institutions except for a monarch and a Ministry nation against being treated by the powerful states [stor- of Foreign Affairs. Consequently, it took Norway a gen­ maktene] as a "quantité négligeable" (Nansen, 1908). eration to build up a professional administration in this The domestic cultural and political situation, there­ field including a diplomatic corps. Before 1935, scien­ fore, favoured scientists like Johan Hjort who offered tists like Fridtjof Nansen and Johan Hjort acted as diplo­ both a patriotic and practical mode of pursuing science mats, and on some occasions, they seized upon ICES as based on research in the field. Since Norway has thou­ a channel for diplomatic manoeuvres. sands of miles of coastline and gained substantial In 1905, Nansen used the ICES Annual Meeting in income from shipping, extensive maritime trade, and its Copenhagen as a cover for a secret diplomatic mission. great fisheries for markets abroad, the marine investiga­ The Norwegian Parliament had instructed him to find tions also represented the tradition and culture of its sea­ out whether the Danish Prince Carl would be willing to going people. become the new monarch (Nansen, 1905a; Nansen, Hjort was a practical man and actively engaged in 1905b). Prince Carl accepted and arrived in Kristiania in expanding the fishing industry. Hjort wanted to intro­ November 1905 as King Haakon VII. duce motorized boats and develop ocean fishing, and he Great Britain played a significant role in Norwegian was also involved in establishing new processes such as foreign policy and military strategy in the period canning, freezing, and transporting fresh fish in ice. between 1905 and 1940 (Berg, 1995; Fure, 1996). The Moreover, he recommended exploiting more varied powerful British navy was considered the cornerstone of species of fish such as eel, halibut, and plaice, as well as the defence of the North Sea and the Norwegian coast. shellfish like shrimp which, at that time, were hardly The leading Norwegian politicians thought it vital to be caught in Norway. Actually, Hjort learned many of his on good terms with Britain. Hjort was well known for practical recommendations for improving the fishing his admiration of British culture and his pro-British atti­ industry from "father" C. G. J. Petersen at the Danish tude in political matters. On behalf of the government Biological Station (Petersen, 1895-1921). and his brother-in-law Prime Minister Ludvig J. Disciplinary cultures founded upon fieldwork came Mowinckel, Johan Hjort, in the 1920s, discussed with to dominate the natural sciences in Norway. The reasons the British ICES representatives terms for the continu­ for this are, first, that the country was impoverished and ance of the Norwegian whaling industry in the funds for laboratories were scarce. Secondly, there is the Antarctic. One of the leaders in the British delegation cultural aspect. In the second half of the 19th century, was Henry G. Maurice, the ICES President (Utenriks- the association between sport and science was strong departementet, 1934-1935). In an early period, the among naturalists all over Europe. This link took a spe­ Norwegians were in need of land-based stations for the cial form in Scandinavia, and especially in Norway, flensing of whales. As whaling with floating factory where the middle classes developed a strong interest in ships developed in the 1930s, there was no longer any outdoor life to a degree quite different from elsewhere. need for the whalers to go ashore and the issue of access Cross-country skiing (where Fridtjof Nansen and his to land-based stations in the Antarctic vanished. wife Eva Nansen née Sars were pioneers) and hiking in Hjort and Maurice also participated in the long-last­ mountains emerged as nationalist bourgeois recreation­ ing, bilateral Norwegian-British negotiations about the 44 Vera Schwach limits of the Norwegian Sea and jurisdiction over fish­ Holt, S. J. 2002. ICES involvement in whaling and whale con­ eries resources (Utenriksdepartementet, 1912). These servation, and implications of IWC actions. ICES Marine negotiations started in 1912, but only came to a final Science Symposia, 215: 464-473. (This volume). Maurice, H. 1948. Obituaries, Prof. Johan Hjort, For.- solution with the verdict at the International Court in Mem.R.S. Nature, 162: 764-766. The Hague in 1951. Hjort participated only until 1935 Mills. E. L. 1989. Biological Oceanography: An Early History, because the Parliament election that year brought the 1870-1960. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. 378 Labour Party (Det Norske Arbeiderpartiet) to power. pp. Under the leadership of the new Minister for Foreign Nansen, F. 1905a. Kjærheim, S. (Ed.). Fridtjof Nansen. Brev Affairs, the politician and professor of history Halvdan (Fridtjof Nansen. Letters), Vol. 2, Oslo (Universitetsfor­ laget) 1961:153, 154-156. Fridtjof Nansen to Chr. Michel- Koht, the government no longer used Johan Hjort as a sen 17.07.1905, 21.07.1905 (Norwegian Prime Minister), diplomat (Fure, 1996; Utenriksdepartementet, 1912). published letter. (In Norwegian). Being a member of the Liberal Party (Frisinnede Nansen, F. 1905b. Kjærheim, S. (Ed.). Fridtjof Nansen. Brev Venstre), Hjort belonged to the old regime and the old (Fridtjof Nansen. Letters), Vol. 2. Oslo (Universitetsfor­ expertise. The Ministry now used its own administra­ laget) 1961:153-154, 156-157. Fridtjof Nansen to Eva tion, and Koht replaced Hjort’s pro-British attitude with Nansen 18.07.1905, 23.07.1905, published letter. (In Norwegian). a policy that was more directed towards protecting the Nansen, F. 1908. Kjærheim, S. (Ed.). Fridtjof Nansen. Brev fisheries resources exclusively for Norwegian use. (Fridtjof Nansen. Letters), Vol. 3, Oslo (Universitetsfor­ laget) 1963:112-113. Fridtjof Nansen to Johan Hjort 09.08.1908, published letter. (In Norwegian). Conclusion Petersen, C. G. J. 1895-1921. Nasjonalbiblioteket. Johan Hjorts etterlatte papirer 2911, 4, XIXA (The National The professional career of Johan Hjort, the history of Library of Norway. Johan Hjort’s collection of manuscripts, Norwegian marine research, and the growth of ICES are file number 2911,4, XIXA). C. G. J. Petersen to Johan Hjort closely connected. For almost 50 years, Hjort was one of 1895-1921, 91 private letters. (In Danish). Pettersson, O. 1900. Nasjonalbiblioteket. Brevsamling nr. 48 the Council’s leading characters both scientifically and (The National Library of Norway. Collection of letters num­ organizationally. Hjort placed Norway on the interna­ ber 48). Otto Pettersson to Fridtjof Nansen, December tional scientific map and prompted major changes in the (undated) 1900, private letter. (In Swedish). map of marine science. While promoting national Rozwadowski. H. M. 2002. The Sea Knows No Boundaries: A scientific and political interests, Johan Hjort and his Century of Marine Science under ICES. University of contemporaries and their successors became engaged in Washington Press, Seattle. 456 pp. Schwach, V. 1997. Skandinaviske naturforskere i seiskap (The developing a strong international community. Society of Scandinavian Natural Researchers). Forsknings- politikk (Research policy), 2: 8-9. (In Norwegian). Schwach, V 1999. The impact of artificial hatching of cod on References marine research. Historisch-Meereskundliches Jahrbuch (Yearbook of the history of marine knowledge), National Berg, R. 1995. Norge på egen hånd 1905-1920 (Norway on its German Marine Museum, Stralsund, Germany, 5: 27-47. own 1905-1920). In Norsk utenrikspolitikks historie (The Schwach, V. 2000. Havet, fisken og vitenskapen. Fra fiskeri- history of the Norwegian foreign policy). Oslo (Universi­ undersøkelser til et havforskningsinstitutt (The sea, the fish tetsforlaget), 2: 71-98, 307-324. (In Norwegian). and the science. From fishery investigations to an institute Friedman. R. 2000. University history in Norway. Uppsala for marine research). Bergen, (Havforskningsinstituttet/ Newsletter, 28: 1-2. Grieg grafisk produksjon). 410 pp. (In Norwegian). Fure, O. 1996. Mellomkrigstid 1920-1940 (The interwar years Smith. T. D. 1994. Scaling Fisheries: The Science of Mea­ 1920-1940). In Norsk utenrikspolitikks historie (The histo­ suring the Effects of Fishing, 1855-1955. Cambridge Uni­ ry of the Norwegian foreign policy). Oslo (Universitetsfor­ versity Press, Cambridge. 392 pp. laget), 3: 239-253. (In Norwegian). Utenriksdepartementet. 1912. Utenriksdepartementet, Depo- Hjort, J. 1901. Göteborgs universitetsbibliotek, AccH 1985:25 nert arkiv etter fiskeridirektør Johan Hjort, boks "Norges (The University Library of Gothenburg. Sweden. AccH sjøgrense" (The Royal Norwegian Ministry of Foreign 1985:25). Johan Hjort to Otto Pettersson 07.01.1901, private Affairs, files from Johan Hjort, box: "The Norwegian Sea letter. (In Norwegian). Territory"). (In Norwegian and English). Hjort, J. 1914. Fluctuations in the great fisheries of northern Utenriksdepartementet. 1934-1935. Utenriksdepartementet, Europe viewed in the light of biological research. Rapports Deponert arkiv etter fiskeridirektør Johan Hjort, boks H. G. et Procès-Verbaux des Réunions du Conseil International Maurice 1934-35 (The Royal Norwegian Ministry of pour l'Exploration de la Mer, 20: 228 pp. Foreign Affairs, files from Johan Hjort, box: H. G. Maurice Hjort, J. 1919-1939. Nasjonalbiblioteket. Johan Hjorts etter- 1934-35). (In Norwegian and English). latte papirer 2911, 4, XIXA (The National Library of Nor­ Wille.N. 1901. Göteborgs universitetsbibliotek, AccH 1985:25 way. Johan Hjort’s collection of manuscripts, file number (The University Library of Gothenburg, Sweden. AccH 2911, 4, XIXA). H. G. Maurice to Johan Hjort 1919-1939, 1985:25). Nordal Wille to Otto Pettersson 09.01.1901, pri­ 49 private letters. vate letter. (In Norwegian).