Reindeer husbandry/ in in the past, present and future

Leonid M. Baskin

The dynamic state of reindeer husbandry in northern Russia during the 20th century was studied as a basis for predicting the consequences of the current drastic changes taking place there. Similar forms and methods of reindeer husbandry were used with different frequencies and effectiveness throughout the century. In the future reindeer husbandry will conform to market requirements, landscape features and national traditions. In some areas, the more sophisticated methods of management developed in conjunction with large-scale, highly productive reindeer husbandry, could be lost and a subsistence economy, including hunting, could predominate.

L. M. Baskin, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, 33 Leninsky Prospect, 117071, Russia.

Since 1991, in the Russian North, social and population taken place in response to market economic reconstruction of the rural economy has requirements from the gas and oil industry had a strong impact upon reindeer husbandry. By development (Khmshchev & Klokov 1998). These the 1980s, in northern Russia, reindeer husbandry events are important for the human population of was highly productive (2.3 million domestic northern Russia (about 12 million) of which about reindeer produced for consumption; 4 1.9 thousand 130000 belong to minorities who are closely tonnes live weight). A steep decline occurred in connected with exploitation of reindeer as an the 1990s, and at present in Russia there are ca. 1.6 important food and fur resource. million domestic reindeer. In Chukotka (see This paper’s aim is to evaluate the ecological and Fig. I) their numbers declined from 500000 to social consequences of ongoing changes in reindeer 130OOG, and large declines were observed in husbandry. I take as a starting point for my Evenkiya, Yakutiya and Kamchatka. Only in predictions the study of reindeer husbandry devel- Yamal has significant growth of the reindeer opment during the last century. It is observed that

Khanty-Mansiiski! Okrug T&a ivenkiya Biryatiya Khabarovskii Kray

Fig. 1. Localities mentioned in the paper; settlements are marked 0

Baslun 2000: Polar Research 19(1), 23-29 23 the same principal features have occurred in State managers followed communist doctrine, different times and areas (Baskin 1991). The drastic which aspired to eliminate rich owners, to unite changes occumng in reindeer husbandry in recent small owners, and to arrange for maximum state years will probably lead to situations that have control. Large properties were expropriated occurred in the past. In addition, I point out that the (sometimes purchased) and incorporated into state reindeer is one of the few species whose domes- farms. Small-scale owners were united into tication could occur without taming and while the cooperative farms (kolkhoz), which were also species is also being hunted (Baskin 1974; Hudson under the supervision of state authorities. On 1989). All types of reindeer hunting and husbandry many occasions the same individuals, families or can be practised along a “procurement-production” groups of families became the staff of new state or gradient (Hudson 1989). Sophisticated methods of kolkhoz farms, and therefore managed the same hunting, when humans used knowledge of migra- animals which had been their property only a year tory routes as well as directing reindeer herds to before. Currently we observe the opposite process stone traps or to human settlements (Spiess 1979; in the privatization of herds. Herders deprived of Skogland 1989), were the first stages of husbandry. state control and subsidies use the animals for their Control of reindeer in husbandry is based on own needs. In Soviet times private persons also aboriginal peoples’ traditional knowledge of pas- owned reindeer, which comprised up to 10% of the tures, reinforcing herding behaviour and regulation total number of state and kolkhoz animals. D. of feeding. I suggest that any future changes in the Khorolia (pers. comm.) suggests that the modem human-reindeer relationship, even the replacement growth of Nentsi reindeer husbandry in the Yamal of husbandry by hunting, will remain on the same and Bo1:shezemel’skaya Tundra is an example of procurement-production gradient and will use the the rapid development of private properties. same methods of management. Throughout the 20th century, different systems The main advantage of reindeer husbandry, in of management were used. “Close” herding, comparison with hunting, is the possibility it defined as keeping reindeer in big herds, was the provides for harvest at any moment; to have a main technique in the tundra and forest-tundra guarantee of labour and survival. History gives us zones of Bol’shezemel’skaya Tundra, Yamal, plenty of tragic examples of famine and extinction Taymyr, Yakutiya, Chukotka and Kamchatka. of hunting indigenous peoples, but prosperity of The “free-camp’’ system, in which reindeer are people who have husbanded reindeer (Vdovin kept in the vicinity of human settlements or camps, 1965; Gurvich 1982). For northern Eurasia, was used in Tofalariya, Tuva, Buryatiya and fluctuations of wild reindeer numbers have a Sakhalin. “Loose” herding, in which herders only periodicity of 115-130 years (Krupnik 1975). periodically gather scattered animals and move Now, when the possibility of a complete crash of them to fresh pastures, was practised on the Kola reindeer husbandry exists, we need to consider Peninsula and in Khanty-Mansiiskii Okrug, Yaku- whether is it theoretically possible to exchange tiya and Evenkiya. In some areas, two or more husbandry with hunting of wild or feral reindeer. methods were used. For example, on the Kola By the 1930-40s, political reforms were in- Peninsula there are two distinct indigenous tradi- stituted to establish large-scale, maximum produc- tions. Saami employ loose herding in winter, very tion husbandry under the management of state strictly control females during the calving season, bureaucrats. To attain high productivity, the and release reindeer during the summer period. experience of native herders, as well as scientific They gather reindeer in large herds again after the knowledge, were used. In this paper, I shall review rutting season. Komi people use close herding year the most important methods of reindeer husbandry round. Their technology provides better results intensification and consider their prospects. than the Saami method. However, attempts of Soviet authorities to force Saami to use Komi technology were not successful. In a few areas, Comparing features of reindeer reindeer are maintained in fenced enclosures (Kola husbandry in different areas and Peninsula, Yakutiya, Khabarovskii Kray) but the periods high costs of this method limit its feasibility. Keeping reindeer in large herds occurred in all The main social event in reindeer husbandry in the periods but with different frequency. Since the 1930-40s was the alteration of property rights. 1940s, each state or collective farm (kolkhoz)

24 Reindeer husbandryhunting in Russia in the past, present and future Table 1. Variations in the proportion of herds of different sizes under early development of reindeer husbandry in the , expressed as percent.

Total number of animals in a herd (%)

Years < 50 51-100 101-300 301-500 501-1000 < 1000

~~~ ~ Yamal 1929 64 15 17 4 0 0 Chukotka 1937-38 32 24 22 9 7 6 N. Kamchatka 1933 66 19 13 1.7 0.3 0

possessed about 7000-20 000 animals divided into the property of kolkhozes whose main activities herds of 1000-2500 animals. These herds were were fishing and sea mammal harvesting. managed by teams of 5-6 herders and 1-2 cooks Herd size, animal distribution within pastures, (usually wives of herders) which received a salary speed of pasture rotation and methods which from the farms. Herds were rotated along seasonal herders use to keep animals under control all routes which were determined by pasture utiliza- strongly depend on landscape features, e.g. tion plans developed for each farm. whether it is forest or tundra zone, narrow pasture Before the 193Os, in tundra areas there wefe a (along canyons) or broad pasture (in flat, mon- few large family-owned herds, with a maximum of otonous tundra) (Baskin 1970). up to 8000 animals (Table 1). Isaev (1935), Anonymous (1939), Shmit (1939) and Ustinov (1956) pointed out that small herds were not able to roam independently and thus their owners Growth of productivity united to have at least a hundred animals in each herd. Behavioural research (Baskin 1974) demon- Organizers of socialist reindeer husbandry aspired strated that the minimum herd size available for to develop highly productive husbandry. To my human management is 35. For herding, the optimal knowledge, there was a shortage of scientific size is 100-300 animals, whereas the maximum knowledge of reindeer husbandry at that time. herd size is 1500-3000 animals (excluding new- However, the organizers of the state and kolkhoz borns) because larger herds become fragmented. farms made extensive use of indigenous knowl- Prior to the socialist reconstruction, regular and edge. They made estimations of the carrying fairly remote routes of migration were typical only capacity of pastures and used these data to plan for the herds of rich owners (Isaev 1935; the growth of domestic reindeer numbers (Ivanov Razdelishin 1938, 1940). Those routes usually 1941; Razdelishin 1938, 1940). They observed remained unchanged and were later used by state that significant portions of small herds were sledge and kolkhoz farms. Small-scale owners occupied and riding reindeer and that even some females inland areas and moved more or less chaotically, were used for transport. Production derived from often staying more inside certain restricted areas small herds was either used by the owners or sold than following planned routes. Migratory routes in rural markets. Only the large herds of rich often depended on involvement of herders in other people provided significant commodity produc- activities (harvesting marine animals, fishing, tion. The policy of increasingly large herds was hunting, transporting loads). For example, all accepted by the organizers of reforms. Organizers inhabitants of the vast treeless areas of Taymyr also determined that productivity is dependent on (Nganasans, Dolgans, Nentsi) in the past, as well the proportion of females in a population. A high as nowadays, adjust their routes in late autumn to level of barrenness was found to be connected with the forest line in order to collect firewood for biased male/female ratios (Table 2). According to heating. Inhabitants of coastal areas moved from the state standard later accepted in the USSR, the the sea not further than 40-60km (in winter) in herd sex ratio must be one 3-year-old bull per 18 order to be back near the sea in early summer when females and one 24-year-old bull per 20 females the sea mammal hunting season begins (Kopylov (1 : 18 on average) (Borozdin et al. 1977). 1932; Anonymous 1945). These short “circles” of Dividing herds before calving season into migration were mostly conserved in Soviet times, female and male portions, which was in the past when reindeer herds inhabiting coastal zones were done only by rich owners, had also become a

Baskin 2000: Polar Research 19(1), 23-29 25 Table 2. Characteristics of reindeer husbandry in the Russian North in 1935

~~ % of % of bulls % of Native Total human Reindeer females used in castrated Area, locality groups population per holding 22-years breeding bulls

Taiga zone Evenkiya: Kety, Kureyka River Evenks, 140 13 30 2.8 23 Sel’kupy Magadan: Sea of Okhotsk Evens 2154 26-58 40 3.6 32 shore Tundra zone Taymyr: Nentsi, 2643 Mouth of Yuraki, 2627 19-124 3140 * Enisey River Dolgane, Evenki US’ Avam Nganasans 450 117 * * I Chukotka: Chukchi, * 117 4677 1.5-5.5 22 Markovo Evens

*No data. routine obligatory activity in all state and kolkhoz more optimistic one predicts preservation of the farms. In the reindeer husbandry of Chukotka and modern situation when a number of large farms Kamchatka, managing herds with the assistance of established under the former USSR were supple- dogs became a common practice. In the past, mented by a number of small farms. The total herders of these areas had not used reindeer dogs. number of reindeer, should this system prevail, Plenty of these useful helpers were transported will be stabilized at the level of local requirements from the Nentsi region to the eastern regions. for meat and skins, and ownership of animals will Among other innovations introduced in Soviet be partly changed because of the conversion of times were salt supplies for reindeer, permanent state farms into either cooperative farms or private and transportable corrals, radio communication, herds. 2) The more pessimistic scenario predicts provision of food and other necessities to the that productive reindeer husbandry will be pre- herders by airplanes, helicopters or tractors, and served only in areas with optimal conditions for field huts equipped with iron stoves and some- large herd husbandry and with more developed times synthztic covers. As a result, reindeer farms cultures of reindeer management (Nenetskii Okrug attained high productivity (Table 3). and Yamal, Yakutiya, Chukotka, Kamchatka). However, in the taiga zone and in areas with high numbers of wild reindeer, domestic reindeer herds The future will be preserved only in some localities where they will serve more as sources of transport I predict two possible future scenarios. 1) The reindeer than of meat and skins. Some families

Table 3. Maximum survival, calf production and meat production achieved at selected state reindeer farms of the Russian North. ~____ Animals survival Calves per 100 Meat production Area Year rate (76) females (I00 kg per 100 animals)

Nenetskii 1949 93 82 * Yamal 1962 92 67 5.4 Evenkiya 1944 84-90 67-68 14.3 Yakutiya 1975 91 69 22 Chukotka 1989 89 67 19.7 Kamchatka 1960 99 93 32.0

~~ *No data.

26 Reindeer husbandryhunting in Russia in the past, present and future will preserve domestic reindeer in localities where stimulated the development of reindeer husbandry the successful hunting of wild reindeer is not as a more reliable mode of production. Before the guaranteed. 1930s, in Taymyr, Nganasans used domestic The experience of the drastic growth of the reindeer more for transport than as productive reindeer population of Yamal provides evidence of animals. They were compelled by Soviet autho- the significant influence of gas and oil develop- rities to become more dependent on reindeer ment. There, the strong market for meat coupled husbandry. However, in the 1970s, when the with significant financial assistance resulted in harvest of wild reindeer became the most im- peak productivity prior to the collapse of subsidies. portant activity, Nganasans willingly returned to Unfortunately, overgrazing of the pastures of their traditional way of life. The same was true of Yamal occurs now as a result of chaotic reindeer the Evenks in Evenkiya (Anonymous 1945; husbandry development (M. Okotetto, pers. Savel'ev 197 1). In future subsistence economies comm.). wild reindeer will occupy a much more important Even highly productive farms need subsidies position than in previous times. from the state. In Soviet times the state deliber- A decline in the number of domestic reindeer ately paid significant additional sums for the may stimulate the growth of wild reindeer produced meat so that income was sufficient to populations on recently freed pastures. The cover the expenses of salary, transport, commu- Taymyr population of 600 000 wild reindeer and nication, field tents and cloth. The same situation the population of 3000 feral exists today in some regions. For example, in his reindeer have been harvested since 1993 only on 1996 decree the Chukotka governor, A. Nazarov, a small scale. However, observations from these presented significant subsidies for all meat pro- areas during 1993-98 have not provided evidence duced by reindeer farms (Nazarov 1996). Accord- of significant growth of these populations. In ing to the calculations of Khokhlenkov (1998), in northern Eurasia we know of only two examples of Chukotka the cost of 1 kg of produced meat is 8 reindeer declining as a result of population USD but the market cost is only 2.5 dollars. crashes. This occurred twice with Bering Island's Expenses for venison production include 12% for population of feral reindeer (Abolits 1987). salary, 6% for transport and fuel, and 21% for Another example, more disputable, was given by corrals and field huts. The cost of dead and lost Semenov-Tien-Shanskiy (1989) for the Lapland- animals is 61% of total expenses. The latter skii Nature Reserve. Thus, we have few observa- expense was, in Soviet times, three times less. tions upon which to predict a catastrophic growth Maintenance of more complicated, highly of wild reindeer populations. productive methods of herding and hunting Unique features of particular indigenous herd- requires increased investments and labour, more ing traditions as well as local ecological conditions sophisticated management and highly qualified must be considered to provide a sound prognosis. herders, and better personal discipline among For some natives (Komi, Nentsi, Yakuts, Chukchi, herders. As an example, a delay of only one week Koryaks), commodity reindeer husbandry is tradi- in the departure of a reindeer herd from winter tional. For others, such as Nganasans, Evens and grounds towards calving grounds will be followed Evenks, who are more deeply involved in hunting by a chain of unfortunate events: the herd will not and fishing, reindeer husbandry is only a sub- be able to cross large rivers on ice; it will amve in sidiary activity. Yet in Soviet times these peoples summer pastures too late, when fresh vegetation were compelled to develop commodity reindeer will become scarce; the animals will suffer from husbandry. In areas inhabited by these natives insect harassment; the development of calves will which experienced a decline in reindeer husband- be delayed, as well as the fattening of adult ry, the return of the people to hunting and fishing animals; the chances of hoof disease will increase; occurred quickly. lean reindeer will suffer during the following Among Chukchi and Koryaks the division winter; and calving in the next spring will suffer between coastal and inland populations is well because of lean females will give birth to weak known. Coastal inhabitants showed more inclina- calves. tion to harvest sea mammals and fish than to breed Hunting wild reindeer was always an important reindeer. The same situation existed in Soviet part of the subsistence economy. The low numbers times; reindeer husbandry in coastal areas primar- of wild reindeer in the first part of the 20th century ily served the local market for meat and skins. At

Baskin 2000: Polar Research 19(1), 23-29 27 present, coastal reindeer husbandry in Chukotka troystva Avamskogo rayona Taymyrskogo okrugu Kras- has almost completely declined, but inland noyurskogo kruya za 1934-1935 gody. (Data on husbandry has survived. Sooner or later the preliminury lund use organization in Avum Rayon, Taymyr Okrug, Krasnoyarsk Kruy, 1934-1 935.) Central State situation of the 1930s may again be repeated: Archive, fond A-310, opis’ 18, delo 67. inland husbandry will produce meat and skins for Baskin, L. M. 1970: Severnyi olen’. Ekologiya i povedenie. consumption in coastal settlements, receiving in (Reindeer. Ecology und behaviour.) Moscow: Nauka Publ. exchange necessary goods. Baskin, L. M. 1974: Management of ungulate herds in relation to domestication. In V. Geist and F. Walther (eds.): The hehaviour of ungulates and its relation to managemenr. Vol. 2. fUCN Publ., New Ser. 24, 530-541. Morges, Switzerland. Int. Union for the Conservation of Nature. Conclusion Baskin, L. 199 I : Reindeer husbandry in the Soviet Union. In L. Renecker & J. Hudson (eds): Wi/dl$e production; conservu- Reindeer is the most important biological resource tion and sustainable development. Pp. 21 8-26. Fairbanks: of the North and the different ways it is exploited University of . Borozdin, E. K., Voqtryakov, P. N. & D’yachenko, N. 0. 1977: will not be abandoned but will undergo major Razvedenie olene). (Reindeer breeding.) Krasnoyarsk changes. However, dependence on state subsidies Krasnoyarsk Publ. can lead to the degradation of traditional indigen- Gurvich, I. S. 1982: Yukagiry. (Yukagirs.) In A. P. Okladnikov ous economies. Among the various forms of (ed.): Etnicheskaya isroriya narcidov Severu. (Ethnic hisforj reindeer exploitation, hunting wild or feral rein- of northern peoples). Pp. 168-179. Moscow: Nauka Publ. Hudson, R. J. 1989: History and technology. In R. J. Hudson et deer will remain important for subsistence econo- al. (eds.): Wildlife production systems. Economic utilization mies and the rural market. In some areas (Taymyr, qf wild ungulates. Pp. 11-27. Cambridge: Cambridge Yakutiya) hunting may provide meat and skins for University Press. a market provided by fishermen, miners, and Isaev, V. Y. 1935. Otchet po ohsledovuniyu olenevodstvu i military settlements. In the areas where there are sobukovodstvu nu polyarnoy stantsii mysa Shmidta. (A study of reindeer husbandry and dog breeding in the ureu around few wild reindeer, the existence of such markets the station Mys Shmidta.) Central State Archive, fond A-310, will stimulate the conservation of large-scale opis’ 18, delo 88. reindeer husbandry. Cultural traditions of the Ivanov, P. 1941: Zemleustroistuo rayonov Severnogo pober- native peoples of northern Russia will also ezh’ya Okhotskogo morya za 1935-1940 gody. (Land use contribute to the conservation of reindeer husban- organization of the northern shores of the Sea of Okhotsk, 1935-1940.) Central State Archive, fond A-310, opis’ 18, dry. The drastic decline of husbandry in some delo 488. areas may lead to the loss of technology necessary Khokhlenkov, V. 1998: Okhota na severnogo olenya. (Hunting for highly productive husbandry. Scientific de- of wild reindeer.) Krasnyi Sever 4, 4. scription of the indigenous practices and beliefs Khrushchev, S. A. & Klokov, K. B. 1998: Nenetskoe olenevodstvo: podkhody k razrabotke kontseptsii ustoychi- associated with reindeer herding, combined with vogo razvitiya (Nenetski reindeer huabandry: approaches to its publication in both technical and general books, developing a concept of sustainable use.) Etnogeogruphi- will be necessary to preserve indigenous culture cheskie i Etnoekologicheskie lssledovaniya 7, 1-47, for future generations. Kopylov, I. P. 1932: Ocherk khozyaistvennoy deyatel’nosri tuzemnogo naseleniya Dudinskogo rayona. (Outline of the economic activiry of the native population of Dudinka Rayon.) Central State Archive, fond A-310, opis’ 18, delo 21. Krupnik, I. I. 1975: Prirodnaya sreda i evolutsiya tundrovogo References severnogo olenevodstva. (Natural environment and evolution of tundra reindeer husbandry.) In S. A. Arutyunov et al. Abolits, A. S. 1987: Istoriya vozniknoveniya i perspectivy (eds.): Karta, .skhema i chislo v etnicheskoy geografii. (Map, eksploatatsii populyatsii severnykh oleney na ostrove Bare- diagram, and figure in ethnic geography.) Pp. 26-43. ntsa. (History of the establishment and perspectives on the Moscow: Moskovskii filial Geograficheskogo obshchestva exploitation of the reindeer population on Barents Island.) In SSSR (Moscow Dept., USSR Geographical Soc.). V. E. Sokolov (ed.): Ratsional’noe prirodopol’zovanie nu Nazarov, A. 1996: Mery po stabilizatsii ael’skogo khozyaistva Komandorskikh ‘ostrovakh. (Efficient utilization of natural Chukotskogo autonomnogo okruga v 1966. (Steps to stabilize resources in Komandorskie islands.) Pp. 144-146. Moscow: agricultural husbandry in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug Moscow University Publ. in 1996.) Kraynii Sever 119, 5. Anonymous 1939: Ekonomicheskiy ocherk basseyna reki Razdelishin, L. 1938: Plan 3 pyatiletki po Vostochno-Tundro- ’ Chukotskogo natsional’nogo okruga. (Economic vomu rayonu nu periods 1938 goda po 1942 god. (Plan of the overview of the Anadyr’ River Basin in Chukotka National thirdfive-year period for Eastern Tundra Rayon from I938 to Okrug.) Central State Archive, fond A-310, opis’ 18, delo 1942.) Central State Archive, fond A-310, opis’ 18, delo 137, 332. pp. 103-153. Anonymous 1945: Materialy pervonachal’nogo zemleus- Razdelishin, L. 1940: Kratkiy ocherk olenevodstva Vostochno-

28 Reindeer husbandrykunting in Russia in the past, present and future tundrovogo rayona Chukotskogo okruga Dal ’nevostochnogo Chaunskogo rayona. (Short outline of reindeer husbandy kraiya. (Overview of reindeer husband? of Eastern Tundra and dog breeding in Chuunskiy Rayon.) Central State Rayon Dul’nevosfochnyi Krav.) Central State Archive, fond Archive, fond A-3 LO, opis’ 18, delo 33 I. A-310, opis’ 18, delo 419. Skogland, T. 1989: Comparative social organization of wild Savel’ev, D. V. (ed.) 1971: Sevemoe olenevodstvo Evenkii. reindeer in relation to food, mares and predutor avoidance. (Reindeer husbandry of Evenkiya.) Krasnoyarsk: Nauchno- Berlin: Paul Parey Scientific Publ. Issladovatel’skii Institut Krainego Severa (Scientific Inst. of Spies, A. E. 1919: Reindeer and caribou hunters. An the Extreme North Publ.). archaeological study. New York: Academic Press. Semenov-Tien-Shanskiy0. I. 1989: Istoriya severnogo olenya Ustinov, V. 1956: Olenevodstvo nu Chukotke. (Reindeer na Kol’skom Poluostrove (History of wild reindeer on the husbundry ai Cliukotku.) Magadan: Magadan’ Publ. ). In P. 1. Danilov (ed.) tesnoy severnii oh’ Vdovin, 1. S. 1965: Ocherki isrorii i etnografii chukclzei. (Wild reindeer). Pp. 15-8. Petrozavodsk: Institut biologii. (Historical and ethnographic overview of Chukchi.) Moscow: Shmit, E. V.1939: Kratkiy ocherk olenevodstva i sobakovodsrva Nduka Publ.

Baskin 2000: Polar Research 19(1), 23-29 29 Small airplanes are a rare link with the outside world, village of Sosnovka, Kola Peninsula, July 1996. Photo: Y. Konstantinov.

Herders operate on a bruised neck, Tichka Corral Bate, Kola Peninsula, May 1998. Reindeer herding cooperative “Olene- vod”, village of Kraanoshchelye. Kola Peninsula. Photo: Y. Konstantinov.

Aligning struts during sled construction, Kola Peninsula. Photo: Y. Konstantinov.

Aunt Zina, village of Kmsnoshchelye, Kola Peninsula, June 1998. Photo: Y. Konstantinov.

Many new-born calves are trampled in the spring inarking corrals. The pelts are used’ for parka hoods. Tundra camp of Brigade No. 3, “Tundra” Cooperative, Kola Peninsula. Photo: Sled-building by the river Yokanga, Kola Peninsula. Photo: Y. Y. Konstantinov. Konstantinov.

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