1. Diverse Means of Mobility and the Supporting Transport System

Professor, Graduate School of� Quantitative and Qualitative Environment and Information Sciences,� Yokohama National University� 1-1 Changes in Mobility Fumihiko Nakamura

The trend in the flow of people remains almost unchanged. Increases in number of trips and travel distance and increasing trends in motor vehicle use by females and the aged was confirmed. Concerning the flow of goods, the number of tonnes decreased, and the number of motor vehicles is leveling off. Air transport, however, was up slightly.

Annual number of trips by air and motor vehicle is on an upward trend, while annual trips by rail and passenger ship has been on a slight downward trend for 10 years. Trends for annual kilometers traveled are similar. Increased number of trip of air travel and kilometers traveled by air leads to the conclusion that overseas travel has become easier. Fig.1 Annual number of trips (per person) Fig.2 Annual kilometers traveled (per person)

(FY) Motor vehicles Railways (FY) Motor vehicles Railways 0.1 Ships 46 Ships 1970 230 157 1970 2,716 2,750 0.7 Air 89 Air

0.3 48 1983 283 155 1983 3,883 2,689 1.3 256 49 0.6 1993 475 182 1993 7,123 3,223 1.3 457 32 0.7 2003 517 170 2003 7,477 3,016 0.8 653

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 （Trips/person/year) （km/person/year) Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport "Annual Land Transport Statistics 2004" Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport "Annual Land Transport Statistics 2004"

As for flow of goods, over the past 10 years, tonnes transported have decreased, but transport tonne-kilometers have increased slightly. Tonnes transported by motor vehicle were flat, while tones transported by rail and coastal shipping continued on a downward trend. The rate of decrease in coastal ship transport over the past 10 years has been remarkable. Air transport increased slightly. The same tendency is visible in transport tonne-kilometers, which are on an overall upward trend, with an upward trend for motor vehicles. As with the movement of people, air transport is probably becoming more convenient year by year. Fig.3 Annual freight transport tonnage (per person) Fig.4 Annual freight transport tonne-kilometers (per person)

(FY) Motor vehicles Railways Ships (FY) Motor vehicles Railways Ships Air

1970 44 2.4 3.6 1970 1,299 602 1,455 0.7 0.001 Air 1.0 229

1983 43 3.7 1983 1,619 1,679 3.3 0.004 0.6 204

1993 47 4.2 1993 2,208 1,869 6.5 0.007 0.4 179

2003 41 3.5 2003 2,522 1,710 8.0 0.008

0 102030405060 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5000 (Tonnes/person/year) (Tonne-kilometers/person/year) Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport "Annual Land Transport Statistics 2004" Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport "Annual Land Transport Statistics 2004"

16 TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

The motor vehicle usage rate in major regional cities is high for each age group, with higher usage among males than females. For females, the percentage over age 65 that walks was remarkable. Fig.5 Modal share by male age/district group Fig.6 Change in the share for different female age/district group Motor Two- Motor Two- Railways Bus vehicles wheelers On foot Railways Bus vehicles wheelers On foot 65 years old 65 years old (Nationwide) (Nationwide) 65 years old 65 years old (Major local cities total) (Major local cities total) 65 years old 65 years old (Three metropolitan areas total) (Three metropolitan areas total) 15-64 years old 15-64 years old (Nationwide) (Nationwide) 15-64 years old 15-64 years old (Major local cities total) (Major local cities total) 15-64 years old 15-64 years old (Three metropolitan areas total) (Three metropolitan areas total) 5-14 years old 5-14 years old (Nationwide) (Nationwide) 5-14 years old 5-14 years old (Major local cities total) (Major local cities total) 5-14 years old 5-14 years old (Three metropolitan areas total) (Three metropolitan areas total)

0 20406080100（%) 0 20406080100（%) Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport "Fiscal 1999 Survey of Personal Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport "Fiscal 1999 Survey of Personal Travel in Japanese Cities" Travel in Japanese Cities"

Trips per person per day showed a slight declining trend for those under 65, with a slight increasing trend for those 65 and older. By purpose, the rate of increase and number of trips was higher for commuter trips to Utsunomiya than for other major local cities. Fig.7 Change in trips/person/day for each age group Fig.8 Trip purpose in various cities Commuting Going to Going home Private Busines 3.5 school business 3.2 Tokyo 1988 15.4 9.6 41.9 22.4 10.7 3.0 2.9 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.6 Tokyo 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 1998 16.2 7.1 41.9 25.3 9.4 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.3 2.3 2.2 2.2 2.2 Sendai 2.0 1.9 1.9 15.2 9.3 39.9 21.6 14.0 1.6 1992 Sendai 1.5 1.4 1.5 15.8 7.5 41.3 25.6 9.8

1.3 2002

Trip/person/day 1.0 � 〜 Utsunomiya 12.8 9.4 39.6 22.0 16.5 1975

0.5

29 years old 49 years old 〜 64 years old 〜 〜 Utsunomiya 14 years old 〜 17.2 9.4 40.6 20.6 12.1 1992 5 30 49 65 years old 0.0 15 1988 1992 1999 1988 1992 1999 0 20406080100（%) Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport "Fiscal 1999 Survey of Personal Source: Prepared from Survey Reports on Person Trip in Each Urban Area Travel in Japanese Cities"

Looking at usage rates by city, the usage rate for motor vehicles increased for each city, most notably in the areas around local cities. Among the three metropolitan areas, the number of bus passengers in the Chukyo(Nagoya) and Keihanshin(Kyoto/Osaka/Kobe) areas decreased slightly from 2001 to 2002. In addition, the number of rail passengers in the Chukyo and Keihanshin areas was on a year-by-year declining trend. Fig.9 Modal share of various cities Fig.10 Changes in passenger-kilometers and number of three Bus/ Motor Bicycle/ metropolitan area passengers Railways Streetcar vehicles Motorcycle On foot Others 1,450 1988 25.0 2.8 27.7 17.6 26.8 0.1 Tokyo Tokyo 12,800 1998 25.5 2.4 33.1 16.7 22.3 railways 0.1 1,400 0.1 Keihanshin 1980 20.0 3.3 26.1 21.6 28.9 2000 16.2 2.8 32.9 21.9 24.0 0.1 1,350 Tokyo motor 10,800 vehicles 0.0 Chukyo 1981 10.3 2.0 49.9 16.8 21.0 1,300 2001 10.0 1.4 56.3 14.5 17.8 0.0 Annual 8,800 1,250 passenger- Sendai 1982 8.8 5.6 47.2 14.0 24.3 0.1 kilometers 2001 8.9 4.2 53.2 13.2 20.2 0.0 6,800 1,200 South 1982 3.0 4.1 39.4 30.4 23.1 0.0 Keihanshin Okayama motor vehicles Million persons Pref 1994 3.8 2.1 56.4 19.9 17.7 0.1 1,150 Keihanshin 4,800 1978 3.3 4.6 52.0 17.0 23.0 0.1 1 billion person-kilometers railways Niigata 1,100 2002 2.8 2.6 69.6 9.3 15.7 0.0 Chukyo motor vehicles 2,800 2.1 4.1 0.3 1,050 Tokushima 1983 40.1 32.0 21.4 0.0 Chukyo 2000 1.6 59.2 22.5 16.3 railways 1.3 1,000 800 0 20406080100（%) 1990 1995 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Source: Prepared from Survey Reports on Person Trip in Each Urban Area Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport "Annual Land Transport Statistics 2004"

17 1. Diverse Means of Mobility and the Supporting Transport System

Professor, Graduate School of� Environment and Information Sciences,� Transport Network Today Yokohama National University� 1-2 Fumihiko Nakamura

There is a continuing trend where the rate of road network extension is unable to keep up with the increased demand in road traffic. As a result, the average travel speed on roads has been leveling off. On the other hand, new initiatives such as the effective use of unused road capacity, resolving bottlenecks by partially increasing the number of lanes, or techniques for developing smooth traffic flows by centrally controlled management are gradually increasing.

For road traffic, there is a continuing trend in which the number of new roads being constructed is unable to keep up with the increase in demand. As a result, the average running speed on roads has been leveling off at a low figure. Fig.1 Changes in traffic volumes and extensions to the road network Fig.2 Average travel speed on national roads Road network extension and road traffic volume have been on an Although annual changes are not large, at 10-20 km/h, average travel increasing trend since 1990, although road traffic volume has been up speed in the Tokyo and Osaka areas is about half the national average and down subsequent to 1990. of 35-40 km/h.

1,000 150 45 Length of road network extension 138 133 136 900 129 140 125 134 137 39.4 Nationwide 121 131 125 40 117 127 37.3 37.3 800 123 36.4 36.9 36.7 37.1 119 151 156 165 36.0 107 149 145 128 129 132 35 700 96 124 112 115 118 100 106 640 634 600 101 610 615 614 626 631 629 576 596 30 551 566 569 500 528 75 Light motor vehicle volume traffic 25 400 428

389 50 Average travel speed 21.5 20.1 20.1 19.8 300 19.5 19.1 19.6 20 (Billions of vehicle-kilometers) 21.4 17.3 Osaka 19.3

Traffic volume, including light vehicles� 200 18.3 25 16.6 16.7 15 Length of road network extension(1000 kilometers) 15.8 100 14.8 Tokyo

Light motor vehicle traffic volume 0 11.6 0 10 1980 19951990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 1980 1983 1985 1988 1990 1994 1997 1999 (Fiscal year) (Fiscal year) Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport Annual Land Transport Statistics Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport 1999 Road Traffic Census 2004 , Annual Report on Road Statistics 2004

Fig.3 Changes in road length density for cities recognized by Fig.4 Improvements and new construction by road type government ordinance An upward trend since 1980 is apparent for national expressways, Yokohama, Nagoya, Osaka, and Kyoto were on a downward trend national roads, and principal local roads. Ordinary prefectural roads from 1980 to 2000. Yokohama rapidly increased in 2003. show no change since 1990. 25 50 48.0

41.0 41.5 20.3 20.1 20 19.5 40 38.4 38.5 18.7 18.1 18.619.1 19.1 17.6 17.8 17.6 17.1 17.3 17.4 16.5 16.7 33.9 33.3 32.8

15 30 )

2 26.4

11.0 11.1 11.4

(km/km 10.5

10.1 (1,000 km) 20 10 Road length� 9.3 9.0 9.5 8.5 2003 Road length density� 7.8 7.8 8.3 2000

1990 6.0 6.0

1980 5.9 5.8 5.0 5.2 5.3 2000 5 4.4 4.6 4.9 10 3.7 3.7 1990

1980 6.6 4.7 2.6

0 0 Sapporo Yokohama Kawasaki Nagoya Kyoto Osaka Kobe Hiroshima Kita- Fukuoka National expressways National roads Principal local roads Ordinary prefectural roads (Names of cities designated by government ordinance) Kyushu (Road classification) Source: Annual Report on Road Statistics (each year) Source: Annual Report on Road Statistics (each year)

18 TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Fig.5 Metropolitan Expressway night discount experiment (FY2004) New initiatives such as the effective use of unused road capacity, resolving bottlenecks by partially increasing the number of lanes, or techniques for developing smooth traffic flows by linear centralized Tokyo area (Standard-sized car)� management, have gradually started to increase. ¥700 ⇒ ¥630 (10% discount): 20:00-23:00, 5:00-6:00� Toll rate ¥560 (20% discount): 23:00-5:00 Regular toll charge (¥700) Regular toll charge

10% discount 10% discount Tokyo area ¥560 20% discount 20% discount Kanagawa area (Standard-sized car)� 10-20% discount� (Tokyo area) ¥600 ⇒ ¥540 (10% discount): 20:00-23:00, 5:00-6:00� ¥420 (30% discount): 23:00-5:00 12 19 2223 5 6 12 Time Toll rate Regular toll charge (¥600) Regular toll charge The Metropolitan Expressway night discount experiment provides a 10% discount 10% discount discount on the Metropolitan Expressway at night, when traffic is ¥420 relatively light. It is intended to shift traffic from ordinary roads to the Kanagawa area 30% discount 30% discount Expressway, improving roadside environmental conditions and easing 10-30% discount� (Kanagawa area) traffic for those roads. It was implemented from April 27, 2004, through March 31, 2005, and continues during FY 2005 with some changes. 12 19 2223 5 6 12 Time

Note:With the elimination of the FY 2003 ETC advance payment discount, the maximum discount in Tokyo declined from 34% to 20%, and that in Yokohama from 42% to 30%.� Source:Metropolitan Expressway Public Corporation

Fig.6 Redundancy of wide-area expressway networks Fig.7 Area traffic congestion mitigate project at Tomei Expressway The Niigata-Chuetsu Earthquake closed part of the Kanetsu Highway. (Up line) Ayase This led to traffic volume increases of 40 percent on the Banetsu On March 20, 2003 the Japan Highway Public Corporation (JH) Expressway and 60 percent on the Joshinetsu Expressway compared with completed an acceleration lane(about 3 km) merging into the main lane the average. Because a wide-area expressway network between the Tokyo from the Ebina Service Area (SA), to mitigate traffic congestion on the area and Niigata Prefecture was in place, the Banetsu and Joshinetsu Tomei Expressway between the Atsugi Interchange and the Yokohama Expressways could be utilized as alternative routes when part of the Machida Interchange (Up [toward Tokyo] line). network was closed by the earthquake. Average speed of the congested section Delay time Banetsu Expressway� (km/h) (Minute) (Nishiaizu Interchange - Tsugawa Interchange) Niigata 50 30 Banetsu� 26％� Expressway Approx. 60% increase (5,700 → 9,500) 40 44 27 Koriyama 33％� Joetsu 20 30 33 20 Kanetsu� earthquake occurrence Joshinetsu� Expressway Expressway 20

Traffic per day � (Number of vehicles) 10 Nagano Joshinetsu Expressway� 10 (Myoukoukougen Interchange- Shinanomachi Interchange) Takasaki 0 0 Before after Before after Tokyo Previous access lane 0.2km Additional section 3.0km Approx. 40% increase (9,000 → 12,800) Opened 2002.3.18 Opened 2003.3.20 earthquake occurrence ~1.0km ~2.0km Ebina SA Ayase BS Traffic per day� (Number of vehicles) Nagoya Tokyo

Source: Road Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport

Source: Japan Highway Public Corporation

Fig.8 "Smooth Tokyo 21" initiative Table.1 Area traffic congestion mitigate project

Establishment of bus bay The five-year "Smooth Tokyo Districts with busy streets� Major arterial roads Meiji-dori,� Changes in carriageway 21: Expanded Strategy" began Shinjuku, Shibuya, Ikebukuro Yasukuni-dori,� markings in 2003. It aims to smooth Kasuga-dori, Yamanote-dori traffic in Tokyo by redoing lane composition, adjusting signal *Open utilization of corporate *Red color pavement� lengths, establishing bus bays parking areas� *Improvement of stopping Signal and loading zones, providing *Taxi pools� sections� adjustment Parking control video system audio warnings via a parking *Off-road sites for freight *Changes in road signs and control video system to those handling� carriageway markings who park illegally, and guiding *Parking meters for freight handling� Establishment drivers to parking lots. of left-turn *Parking deterrent system� lane *Traffic guides, etc.

Source: Japan Highway Public Corporation Red color (glittery) pavement and guidance and education from crossing guards

Extension Establishment of of right-turn off-street loading lane zones Securing of loading space Source:Metropolitan Police Department Website

19 1. Diverse Means of Mobility and the Supporting Transport System

Professor, Graduate School of� Environment and Information Sciences,� Public Transport Today Yokohama National University� 1-3 Fumihiko Nakamura

Demand for the Shinkansen lines (new trunk railway lines) and for air travel, has been increasing, while the use of conventional railways and buses is leveling off. In light of the fact that bus network extension is not declining, halting the decrease in bus passengers is particularly difficult. In metropolitan areas, the easing of traffic congestion has progressed, and the number of cases of transport services such as through-operations of railway tracks owned by different companies has increased. While still few in number, new transport systems including systems have been increasing gradually. Development of debates regarding the renewal of existing lines and the beginning of work on planned lines can be expected.

Demand for the Shinkansen lines (new trunk railway lines) and for air travel, has been increasing, while the use of conventional railways and buses is leveling off. Fig.1 Operating kilometers and train-kilometers for conventional Fig. 2 Trends in passengers of railways and buses(nationwide) lines in three metropolitan areas 2,500 250 3,000 2,275.3 200.7 2,000 200 2,500 2,256 2,263 2,165 159.9 150 147.4 1,899 1,500 1,444.3 2,000 1,759 1,800 Number of railways passengers

1,000 909.2 100 1,500 Train kilometers 69.7 Subways

Operating kilometers (km) 912 1,000 810 500 50 45.6 700 31.3 650 576 Streetcars Urban railways 21.6 480 51.3 5.1 11.8

17.2 23.9 JR Private railways/streetcars 500 0 0 Tokyo Keihanshin Chukyo Tokyo Keihanshin Chukyo Number of buses passengers Note: Train-kilometers shown for the Tokyo Metropolitan area are for fiscal 2000, JR 0 train-kilometers shown for the Chukyo and Keihanshin areas are for fiscal 1985, 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 others are for fiscal 2000. Also, JR train-kilometers for the Chukyo area show (FY) numerical values for the Tokaido Line.� Source: Annual Urban Transportation Reports (each year)� Source: Annual Land Transport Statistics 2002

Fig.3 Transition in operating kilometers and number of passengers Fig. 4 Extensions to bus routes Shinkansen lines 3,000 300 160 350 275.9 208.6 260.1 300.4 304.9 140 nationwide 297.6 300 250 2,500 Number of passengers 2,387.1 258.5 118.5 2,152.9 120 112.2 250 2,011.8 2,032.9 2,036.5 107.8 2,000 200 102.3 102.9 96.7 100.9 100 93.2 157.3 179.9 177.0 86.1 200 1,500 150 80 69.4 73.1 150 1,176.5 61.4 57.6 60 53.6 53.4 1,000 100 Operating kilometers(km) 100 Operating kilometers Number of passengers (million) 40 552.6 Each metropolitan area (100 km) 10,000 persons 500 50 Tokyo Chukyo Keihanshin Three metropolitan areas

50 Three metropolitan areas /nationwide (1,000 km) 20 25.0 25.9 26.7 27.5 31.6 23.9

0 0 0 1965 1975 1985 1990 1995 2000 2004 0 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 (FY) (FY) Source: Statistical Railways (each year) Source: Annual Urban Transportation Report (each year)

Fig.5 Railway transport passenger-kilometers and passenger Fig.6 Domestic air transportation passenger-kilometers and train-kilometers domestic airline airport landing frequency 600 1,400 100 1,000 ) Passenger car train-kilometers Domestic airline airport landing frequency 881 893 1,203 1,197 1,227 1,213 862 861 871 874 1,168 1,184 1,159 1,128 1,200 -kilometers) 812 832 83.9 83.3 500 1,186 1,197 1,198 789 79.3 79.7 81.5 1,157 1,172 80 758 800 1,053 76.0 1,101 709 714 73.2 1,000 69.0 400 402 403 396 400 402 395 65.0 400 949 389 385 384 385 382 385 362 369 61.3 60 56.7 57.1 600 330 800 55.3 51.6 300

600 40 400 33.1 Domestic airline transport person-kilometers 200 400

20 200 100 200 Passenger car train-kilometers (Million kilometers) Domestic airline airport landing frequency (1,000 times) Railway transport person-kilometers Railway transport person-kilometers(1 billion person-kilometers Domestic airline transport person-kilometers (1 billion person 0 0 1985 19881989 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 19992000 2001 2002 2003 0 0 19851990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 19992000 2001 2002 2003 (FY) (FY) Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport Annual Land Transport Statistics Source: Annual Air Transport Statistics(each year)

20 TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

As for major urban areas, the railway congestion rate is easing in each of the three major metropolitan areas. In the Tokyo area, the number of track sections with through-operation between multiple railway companies is increasing, as are through- operation services. In the Keihanshin and Chukyo areas, however, through operation has changed little since the late 1980s. Fig.7 Trends in railway congestion rate in three metropolitan areas Fig.8 Change in the number of track sections with through-operation 240 60

230 54 221 220 50 214 212 210 205 204 203 41 200 197 40 192 199 189 Tokyo area 190 186 33 183 183 188 187 180 180 30 174 175 175 173 171 170 24 24

Congestion rate (%) 171 164 22 162 Chukyo area (Nagoya) Number of track section 166 20 160 157 20 19 19 153 150 149 150 147 146 14 151 12 12 149 147 144 144 140 142 10 area Tokyo Keihanshin area Chukyo area Keihanshin area (Osaka) 138 137 6 5 130 3 3 2 2 00 0 120 0 19751980 1985 1990 1993 1996 1997 19981999 2000 2001 2002 2003 1965 1975 1985 1990 1995 2000 2003 Source: Statistical Railways (each year) Source: Statistical Railways (each year)

Fig.9 Examples of , new transport systems, and subways in Japan Many examples of new transport systems such as monorails can be found in the three metropolitan areas of Tokyo, Keihanshin, and Chukyo. In , a monorail has been adopted as a core transport system. New subway projects are being implemented in Yokohama and other cities, and the Nippori-Toneri Line, a new transport system, is under construction. Subways and new transport systems are expected to increase, especially in the three metropolitan areas.

Monorail� New Transportation System� Subway

Sapporo City Metropolitan Tokyo Okinawa Urban Monorail Maihama Resort Line

Saitama New Urban Transport Seibu Railway Tama Urban Monorail Yamaman (Yuukarigaoka line)

Yokohama New Urban Transport Yurikamome Tokyo Monorai Sendai City Nagoya Railway Toukadai New Transport

Kyoto City Sky Rail Service Kobe City Hiroshima Saitama Rapid Transit Kobe New Transport Tokyo-to・ Yokohama City

Osaka Rapid Transit Aichi Rapid Transit ( line) Osaka Port Transport System Nagoya Guideway Bus Osaka City Nagoya City・Nagoya Railway. Osaka City (Ajima ～ Kami-iida) Hiroshima Rapid Transit. (Hondori ～ Kencho-mae) Kita-kyushu Rapid Transit Fukuoka city

Note: The Aichi Rapid Transit Linimo line was completed for the Aichi World Expo 2005.� Source: Prepared from Annual Urban Transportation Reports� �

21 1. Diverse Means of Mobility and the Supporting Transport System

Professor, Graduate School of� Developments in New Environment and Information Sciences,� Yokohama National University� 1-4 Urban Transport Systems Fumihiko Nakamura

Various forms of transport systems that adopt new technologies have been designed and introduced into many cities as ways for coping with diversified travel needs. Various new developments can be seen in modes of transportation, not only including new technology such as mini-monorails for transport on slopes, but also new developments involving ingenious methods for using various modes of transportation, such as car-sharing systems, and contrivances for greater use of public transportation such as existing street cars and buses.

Table 1 New urban transport system trends Table 2 Innovative measures of public transport Proliferation of various new urban transport systems has started all Innovative measures are being used in cities to solve a variety of over Japan. public transport problems. Type of Demand Road-based System Improvement� Major recent� Rail-related System Related cases Category developments Support for short-� Utilization of bicycles� Slope elevator� distance trips� (see 2-7)� New capsule technology� Implementation of non-step� Hiroshima (street car), Kanazawa � City rent-a-cycle� Sky rail� Vehicles/� vehicles � (mini-bus) � � Park & Cycle� � equipment Station/stop facilities with� Hamamatsu (high grade bus stop)� � � � better information services� � Improving the� Joint use of cars� Improvement of existing � � � Common station platforms for�Hanover� overall convenience� Car sharing� system : LRT.� rail and bus transfer� � of travel in urban� Eco Park & Ride� Utilization of new technology:� Access, etc Improved connections with� Kokura (use of subsidy for grade areas (sharing electric vehicles)� Monorail,� monorail and existing rail� separated road construction)� Bus utilization � New transport system Rail and bus allowing the Mie Prefecture, etc.� Demand responsive bus� carriage of bicycles� � � � � Guideway bus (rail + road travel)� Providing real-time travel Yokohama, Okayama� information� � IMTS (un-manned rail + road travel) Demand responsive bus Kochi, Nakamura� Service system using ITS� � Route-type shared ride taxi Adachi, Quebec (taxi bus)� services� � Elastic travel fare system� Fukuoka (100 yen bus)� Travel system responsive to Hamamatsu (rainy bus)� rainy weather

Fig.1 Slope transportation system in Saruhashi Fig.2 Low-floor LRV in Okayama City Fig.3 Community bus in Yokohama City The slope transport support system "menu" is The spread of low-floor streetcars has been Many communities have started to introduce being diversified. outstanding, but mass introduction has not yet low-floor vehicles, and their introduction in taken place because the cars are expensive Japan is on the increase. and the subsidy system is restricted.

Saruhashi's BTM System: Connects JR Saruhashi Photographed by Tsutomu Yabe Source: Yokohama City website station with mountain top housing area with an altitude difference of 100m in 3 minutes. It is a magnetic belt monorail where a caterpillar type "magnetic belt" grasping the rail girder from both sides while the magnetic belt is mobilized to move the transport system.

Experimental urban transportation systems were adopted for the Aichi World Expo held in 2005. Fig.4 LINIMO Fig.5 IMTS Fig.6 Global Tram Fig.7 Velo Taxi

22 TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Fig.8 "Eco-Park-and-Ride" Factories and Research Institutes� Some joint utilization systems for remote from station motor vehicles have developed from the social experiment stage and are □company Reserved� now in practical use. Ways of putting parking suburban residential area type "Eco- ○bank park-and-ride" systems into practical use are now being sought through ○○Co., Ltd. long-term trials. Reserved parking "E" Station △ Trading Co., Ltd. "H" Station

Commuting Client "B" Working Client "A"

Going � home

Travel of shared small-size car� Travel of commuter� Travel of worker

Table 3 Summary of deregulation of buses Table 4 Expansion of ¥100 fares, and diversified fare systems In the two years since bus deregulation, the gradual entry of new bus Diversified fare system was introduced just before deregulation companies has been seen, although the relationships between the running of started. these new corporate buses and road administration and operations as well as the relationships between the running of the new buses and overall urban Method of setting 100 yen fares Cases transportation plans have become important problems to be resolved. Same rate applied to new routes� Musashino city, etc.� � Category Before deregulation After deregulation � Similar to above (100 yen/day)� Fukaya city� � � Related legislation� Road Transport Law� � Setting minimum fare for short distances and Gunma prefecture, etc.� � � � cutting rates� � Entry� License by route� Permission by operation� � � � � � Cutting fares for current minimum fare sections Takaoka city, etc.� � � Prior application only (6 months� on existing routes� � Withdrawal� Permission� before, if there are no adverse � � � � � effects, 30 days before)� Cutting neighboring section fares in addition to Hamamatsu city� the above� � � � � � � Fare/rate Permission Prior application under a permitted� Setting new districts within existing routes and Fukuoka city ceiling(change order possible) lowering fares

Practical application of BRT (a high-speed trunk bus system) has begun. Fig.9 A four-lane bus-only Fig.10 A rubber-tired tram Fig.11 A bus that follows a Fig.12 The number of Fig.13 An articulated bus line in road(Bogota, Colombia) that can operate white line(Las Vegas, articulated bus lines is Japan, where they are without a guide rail USA) increasing in Japan increasing(Fujisawa City) (Nancy, France) (Fujisawa City)

Fig.14 Model diagram of Transit Oriented Development in Curitiba City, Brazil Fig.15 Development axis in Curitiba City The concept of linking urban planning with urban public The Curitiba City development axis is reaching completion after 30 transportation planning is coming to fruition overseas. years.

Source: Curitiba City materials Photographed by Katsutoshi Ohta

23 1. Diverse Means of Mobility and the Supporting Transport System

Transportation Accesibility Hyogo Assistive Technology Research� and Design Institute Research Unit 1� 1-5 Improvement for People Hiroshi Kitagawa with Disabilities

Accessible environments on transportation facilities are progressing in various locations because of the aging society and to enable greater participation by the elderly and people with disabilities in Japan. Currently, pedestrian spaces are being made accessible environment mainly in accordance with Transportation Accessibility Improvement Law, which prioritizes improved access in train stations and surrounding areas. In addition, recent years have seen continuing enhancement of the "support by people" concept and other information-related initiatives, as well as welfare-related transportation services and other new initiatives to ensure mobility.

Fig.1 Basic concepts for Transportation Accessibility Improvement submitted Fig.4 Call for train station volunteers Setting forth of basic concepts for transportation accessibility environment Volunteers are sought at train stations as part of the "support by people" is progressing in various local government. initiative. 70� 250� Cumulative submissions 60� 200� 50�

150� 40�

30� 100� Cumulative submissions Number of submissions 20� Number of submissions 50� 10�

0 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 (FY) As of July 29, 2005� Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport materials�

Fig.2 Pedestrian environment considering a pedestrian network

Train station

City hall Commercial facility Shopping area Source: Materials from the Policy Bureau of the Ministry of Library Land, Infrastructure and Transport Park Community center

Post office Fig.5 Example of barrier-free route search on the Internet Hospital Enhancement of information is implemented for realization of barrier- Welfare center for the elderly free. (Easy Outing information service).

Barrier-free pedestrian space

Source: Website of the Road Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport

Fig.3 Number of non-step buses in use In 2003, 9.3 percent of all buses used are non-step. 12,000�

10,000�

8,000�

6,000� Number of buses 2,000� Buses with lifts Low-floor buses Low-floor buses that are no-step

0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Source: Materials from the Road Transport Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport Source: Transport Ecomo Foundation website

24 TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Table 1 Outline of universal design policy concepts Fig.8 Flow chart for councils on the operation of volunteer based transportation Building a participatory society Guideline for the creation of operation councils: Integration of barrier-free policies From determining a contact to establishment (model case) Public transportation that anyone may easily use Process for establishing Concrete action Town planning that enables anyone to live safely and at ease operation councils Response to diverse activities through technology and methods Advance preparation (about 3Ð4 months) Source: Website of the Policy Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport Determine contacts within local government 1) Determination of bodies.� group in change Consult among agencies involved with Fig.6 Dissemination of scooter-type power wheelchairs 1) the welfare of elderly and/or disabled (about 1 week) persons and with transportation.� The number of scooter-type power wheelchairs is rapidly increasing Jointly decide the supporting agency.� mainly among the elderly. Determine the status and needs of people 2) Ascertain need for paid 250,000� requiring care, people with disabilities, 30,000� welfare transportation and others with limited mobility.� Joystick type (standard/simplified) Contact groups that provide transport Three-wheeled scooter type Three-wheeled scooter type (about 1 month) 2) services. Ascertain which groups will apply 25,000� Four-wheeled scooter type (cumulative) for licenses. If necessary, conduct advance 200,000� hearings with probable applicants.� 3) Examination, adjustment, Ascertain current conditions of welfare and determination of and care related transportation by taxi 20,000� unit to be established and so on. (Effective use of existing 150,000� data and cooperation with transportation (about 1 week agencies are preferable.)� to 1 month) Examine whether the unit should be an 15,000� individual municipality or a group of 4) Selection and requesting 3) Joystick type (cumulative) them.� 100,000�

Four-wheeled scooter type (cumulative) of council members Consult with relevant municipalities and 10,000� Cumulative total prefectures.�

Number of wheelchairs (about 1Ð2 In deciding the membership composition, months) 4) cooperation is possible if transportation 50,000� agencies are consulted.� 5,000� 5) Notification and application Provide notification and application guidance to transportation 5) guidance through local government providers public relations media and so on.� 0 0 Hold explanatory meetings.� 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 (about 1 month) � (FY) � � Source: Association for the Promotion of Electric Vehicle Safety� � � � Operation of council � Fig.7 Increase in elderly persons certified as In Need of Assistance (1Ð2 months) � or In Need of Grade 1 Numbers of time held (one to several times; will vary by council)� The number of elderly persons requiring care is climbing, so improved 6) Meeting of operation 6) The presiding local government body transportation services and transportation for those needing care is necessary. council explains the need for paid welfare- related transportation.� 1,500,000 � After deliberations are held, municipalities 7) send requests for cooperation to volunteer 7) Holding of deliberations groups. (Letter of recommendation may also be used.)� 1,000,000 � � �

May 2005 8) License applications � to transport offices, etc. (Prompt approval after application. (from transportation providers) Generally about 2 weeks.)�

Persons 500,000 � April 2000

9) Approval 0 18. In Need In Need In Need In Need In Need In Need of Assistance of Care 1 of Care 2 of Care 3 of Care 4 of Care 5 Priority guidance period

Source: Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare "Report on Status of Long-term care Source: Website of the Road Transport Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure Insurance Businesses" and Transport

Fig.9 The "Noritaku" (shared ride taxi) system A new community bus transportation initiative is making progress.

Residential area Telephone reservation

Apartment complex A

Noritaku Ms. C is dropped off at the clinic.

Ms. A is going shopping in Tama Center Apartment complex B Department store Tama Center

Supermarket

Mr. B is going to take Train station a train to the heart of Tokyo Apartment complex C Note:This is a test of a DRT (demand responsive transport) system operating shared taxis based on a registration/reservation *Reservations can also be made for the system. It is for the return trip from Tama Center. elderly and others in Ms. C is going to a clinic urban areas who have Source: Tama Center information site difficulty using routed buses.

25 1. Diverse Means of Mobility and the Supporting Transport System Associate Professor, Graduate School of� Engineering, Yokohama National University� Future Transport Toshiyuki Okamura � Research Associate, Yokohama� 1-6 Infrastructure Development National University GraduateSchool of� Environment and Information Sciences� Tsutomu Yabe

The government released a new Comprehensive National Development Plan which envisages the Grand Design for the 21st- Century. (Approved by the Cabinet in March 1998) Future transport infrastructure improvement plans are expected to call for investment in the urban sector and investments to construct trunk transport networks that offer high cost-effectiveness. The plans are also expected to put an emphasis on investments that promote effective use of existing networks including the Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) for transmitting information from the road to vehicles using information and telecommunications technologies. The Cabinet also approved the Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan to unify nine sectorical infrastructure improvement plans which the government formulates every five years. Under the new social infrastructure plan, the government will evaluate policy measures and their implementation, using selected outcome indexes.

Table 1 Outlines of the Comprehensive National Development plans Under Comprehensive National Development Plans, Japan's transportation infrastructure was improved to form the backbone of national land development. Development plans Outline and goals Main projects Comprehensive The plan was designed to prevent the widening of gaps in development Start of Tokaido Shinkansen bullet train service National� between regions and to achieve balanced national land development by (1964).� Development Plan� distributing capital, labor, and technology appropriately among all regions. 7,600 km expressway scheme (1966).� (1962-)� The plan focused on development of selected areas by designating 15 Completion of Tomei and Meishin Expressways � cities as "new industrial cities" subject to such development.� (1969)� � � � New Comprehensive The plan was designed to promote preservation of nature, balanced regional Establishment of Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority National Development�development on a nationwide scale, revised use of national land, and (1970).� Plan (1969-)� improvement of surrounding conditions for safe, comfortable, and culture- Start of Sanyo Shinkansen bullet train service � rich livelihood. The plan centered on upgrading transportation and (1972).� � telecommunications networks.� Scheme to reform the Japanese Archipelago(1973-)� � � � Third Comprehensive� The plan was designed to promote balanced use of all national land and Opening of New Tokyo International Airport (1978)� National Development�improve living conditions in a comprehensive manner. The plan proposed Start of Tohoku and Joetsu Shinkansen bullet train� Plan (1977-)� making the natural environment, people's livelihoods, and manufacturing services (1982)� � conditions harmonious while seeking to shorten the distance between � � workplaces and residences.� � � � � Fourth Comprehensive�The plan was designed to create a multi-polar, dispersed land structure so Scheme to extend expressway and regional National Development�as to achieve balanced development of national land. The plan promoted expressway networks for 14,000 km (1987)� Plan (1987-)� expanding networks for regional interaction in order to achieve these goals.� Opening of the Seto-Ohashi Bridges linking Honshu � � and Shikoku and the Seikan Tunnel linking Honshu � � and Hokkaido (1988)� � � Opening of Kansai International Airport (1994)� � � Opening of Trans-Tokyo Bay Aqualine (1997)� � � � Grand Design for the The plan was designed to pave the way for creation of a multi-axial land Opening of the Akashi Kaikyo Great Bridge (1998)� 21st-century (1998-)�structure while promoting participation by a variety of parties and regional Start of Kyushu Shinkansen bullet train services � coordination. The plan did not specify aggregate investment sums but (2004)� � showed priority areas for investment and policy direction for efficient land Opening of Central Japan International Airport � development. (2005)

Source: Compiled based on data provided by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport

Fig.1 Outline of previous and future infrastructure improvement plans Under infrastructure improvement plans, improvements have been implemented by taking into account not only quantitative aspects of the plans but the qualitative aspects. How to secure financial sources should be considered when formulating these plans.

Roads New five-year road improvement plan (fiscal 1998-2002)� Airports Seventh five-year airport improvement plan (fiscal 1996-2002)� Goals (1) Supporting creation of new economic structure� Goals (1) Improvement of hub airports in major metropolitan areas� (2) Helping revitalize regions and urban areas� (2) Improvement of regional hub airports and local airports� (3) Helping create better living conditions� (3) Promotion of anti-earthquake policies and introduction of� (4) Realizing safer national land� new technologies� Specific steps: Improvement of expressway and regional Specific steps: Second phase project for Kansai International Airport� expressway networks� Opening of Central Japan International Airport� Research and development of ITS Prioritizing improvement of airports located in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area�

Increasing efficiency of road improvement projects, Future� Future� Lowering airport landing fees issues prioritizing improvement projects, and addressing issues environmental concerns

Railways Deliberation No.20 by Transport Policy Council (2000)� Ports Ninth seven-year port improvement plan (fiscal 1998-2002) � Basic direction of Japan's comprehensive transport policy Goals (1) Establishing internationally-competitive physical � in the early 21st century� distribution networks� Basic Goals: Addressing economic and social changes, (2) Creating reliable port space� and promoting the "mobility" revolution� (3) Revitalizing regional areas� Specific steps: Improved transfer convenience and higher- Specific steps: Improvement of container terminals.� speeds on trunk railway networks Making quays quake-resistant� Setting up disaster prevention centers in coastal areas

Future� Railway improvements and modal shift of flow of goods Future� Adding functions to ports to make them internationally- issues through collaboration among businesses and national/local issues competitive hub. Establishing internationally competitive port governments operation methods

Source: Compiled based on data provided by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport

26 TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Fig.2 Outline of Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan The government reviewed the five-year Comprehensive National Development Plans that started in 1962, and the Cabinet approved the new Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan (implementation period runs from 2003 through 2007) based on the Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Law. As a result, improvement programs in 13 areas, including long-term plans in nine sectors such as roads, ports, and airports undertaken under the previous Comprehensive National Development Plans, were placed under the Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan.

Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan� Prioritized, effective, and efficient implementation of� Goals of prioritized and concentrated social infrastructure improvements social infrastructure improvement projects Living - Improving quality of life� 1 Strict assessment of projects� *Creating a barrier-free society in response to society's aging and 2 Cost reduction and speedy implementation of projects through technological the decreasing childbirth rates� development� *Creating beautiful and nature-rich urban communities� 3 Winning understanding and cooperation from local people� � Safety - Ensuring safe and fear-free living� 4 Promoting cooperation and linkage between different projects� *Making the national land more resistant to flooding and other 5 Effective use of existing social infrastructure and support by policy disasters.� measures� *Making the national land more resistant to large-scale earthquakes 6 Fair bidding and contracts for public works projects� and fires.� 7 Use of private sector funds and private sector human resources� *Formulating comprehensive traffic safety measures and 8 Establishing new relations between central government and local strengthening crisis management systems� governments in social infrastructure improvements � The environment - Promoting environmental conservation and 【Previous five-year plans (nine sectors)】� creating a beautiful landscape � *Prevention of global warming� Flood control� *Improvement of living environment related to urban air pollution and � noise� Steep surface land� *Creation of a recycling-based society� � *Conservation, regeneration, and creation of a good natural Seashore� environment� � *Improving water-related environments� Sewerage� These plans are now covered under a single plan � � Vitality - Recovery of economic vitality through regional cooperation Urban parks� and urban renaissance� � Road improvements� *Ensuring world-class transport services and enhancing international � competitiveness and attractiveness.� Traffic safety measures� *Improving mobility of domestic trunk-line transport networks� � *Making urban transport services more comfortable and more Ports� convenient� � *Revitalizing regions and their economies through mutual regional Airports exchanges and tourism interchanges Source: Compiled based on data provided by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport

Table 2 Priority items for road improvement under the Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan and examples of Assessment indexes Road improvement projects focuses on the efficient construction of roads and their effective use based on a set of policy themes. As a result, high-quality, reasonably-priced road services are provided while the participation of citizens in road planning and management is made possible. Numerical targets for assessment indexes Policy� Assessment indexes themes Priority items 2002 2007 *Creating high-quality living environments by giving pedestrians and cyclists special priority areas� *Making walking space for pedestrians barrier-free at major Ratio of roads that are free� 7％ → 15％� Living railway stations and their surrounding areas� of electric poles *Removing electric poles along non-trunk roads in residential areas and historical areas known for their landscape beauty in addition to trunk roads� � *Concentrated implementation of traffic safety measures and� Percentage of traffic accidents 118 cases per 100 million vehicle km� comprehensive safety measures for pedestrians in dangerous� resulting in death or injury About a 10% reduction in these rates� areas along trunk roads� (108 cases per 100 million vehicle km) � *Minimizing areas being isolated in the event of heavy rain and snow, road improvements to ensure traffic access to medical Maintenance rates for road Safety institutions in emergencies, and implementation of road- structures (paved roads) 91％ →�Current levels � related measures against disasters, earthquakes, and heavy maintained snow to support rescue operations during disasters� � *Efficient and meticulously-planned maintenance and management of road structures, including the introduction of Maintenance rates for road comprehensive asset management systems� structures (bridges) 86％ → 93％� � � *Improvement of surrounding road environments, conservation of the global environment, and the creation of beautiful road landscapes through the expansion of trunk-road networks, Percentage of targets Environment achieved on night-time noise 61％ → 72％� and implementation of TDM measures, reduction of car- levels derived air pollution, and roadside tree planting� � � An average 38.1 hours were lost per *Reducing traffic congestion through road improvement Loss of time due to traffic year for 100 million people Reduction of congestion� Vitality projects, thorough streamlining of street construction work, about 10% and promotion of ETC systems � ETC diffusion rates 5％ → 70％�

Source: Compiled based on data provided by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport

27 1. Diverse Means of Mobility and the Supporting Transport System

Professor, Graduate School of� Revenue Sources and the Environment and Information Sciences,� Yokohama National University� 1-7 Use for Road Facilities Fumihiko Nakamura

There are three main revenue sources for road construction: (1) tax revenues collected from vehicle users at each stage of vehicle purchase, ownership, and use, and earmarked for road construction, (2) general revenues paid to the central government and local governments, and (3) borrowings under the government's fiscal investment and loan program. Tax revenues allotted for road construction account for the largest portion of the total sum. With increased investment in road projects, the government's collection of tax revenues designated for such projects has increased through the application of provisional tax rates. The first two categories of revenues are used to finance expenditures by the central government and local governments, with almost all of these funds allocated for general road construction projects or projects undertaken independently by local governments. Borrowings under the fiscal investment and loan program are used mainly to finance projects by the Japan Highway Public Corp. and other government-sponsored corporations to build toll roads.

Table 1 Vehicle taxes and revenues earmarked for road construction Tax National tax/local tax System Use Tax rate/tax amount Basic tax rate Consumption tax National tax/local tax Levied on vehicle price General revenues � 25%(Note 2) (national and local) Levied on acquisition price at the� Earmarked for road� Private use 5%.� stage Vehicle acquisition� Prefectural tax time of purchase� construction� Business use/light vehicles 3%.� 3%

Acquisition� tax (¥500,000 or less is tax exempted) (local) (Provisionally levied until March 2003) Earmarked for road� Private-use car example:� Vehicle tonnage tax National tax Levied on vehicle weight at every� construction� ¥6,300 per year for every 0.5 ton of weight� ¥2,500 vehicle inspection (national) Note 1 (Provisionally levied until April 2003) Fixed amount levied on each� Private passenger car example:� Vehicle tax Prefectural tax owner as of April 1 every year General revenues (local) 1,001-1,500 cc ¥34,500 per year Fixed amount levied on each� Light-vehicle tax Municipal tax General revenues (local) Private light-vehicle (four-wheel) example:� Ownership stage owner as of April 1 every year ¥7,200 per year Earmarked for road� ¥48.6 per liter.� Gasoline tax ¥24.3 Levied on gasoline.� construction(national) (provisionally levied until March 2003) National tax Levied on diesel fuel ¥5.2 per liter.� Local road tax Earmarked for road� construction(local) (provisionally levied until March 2003) ¥4.4 Levied on liquefied� ¥32.1 per liter.� Diesel fuel� Prefectural tax General revenues� transaction tax petroleum gas (local) (provisionally levied until March 2003) ¥15.0

Use stage Liquefied petroleum� National tax Levied on fuel prices Earmarked for road construction� ¥17.5 per kg gas tax (national 50%; local 50%) ¥17.5 General revenues� Consumption tax National tax/local tax (national and local) 25%(Note 2)

Revenues earmarked for road construction Note 1: Three-quarters of vehicle tonnage tax revenues are earmarked for road construction by the national government and one-quarter is earmarked for road construction by local governments.� Note 2: The 1% portion of the 5% tax rate is local consumption tax (local tax).� Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association�

Table 2 Revenue sources for road construction in major countries Fig. 1 Investment amounts under 5-year Road Improvement Plans and changes in provisional tax rates concerning revenues earmarked for road construction U.K. France Germany U.S.A. Japan ¥5,000 ¥6.300 Automobile-related� To 2) and 4) To 1) and 2)�To 1) and 4) To 1) and 3) To 1) and 3) ¥2,500 taxes and 4) Vehicle tonnage tax(passenger car: per year, every 0.5 ton of weight) ¥45.6 ¥48.6 ¥24.3 ¥29.2 ¥36.5 To 1) and 2)� ¥13.0 ¥14.8 ¥19.2 ¥22.1 Other taxes To 2) and 4) To 2) and 4) To 2) and 4) To 2) and 4) Gasoline tax� and 4) ¥8.2 (¥/Liter) ¥11.0 ¥6.6 sources Revenue� To b) via fiscal .� ¥4.0 ¥4.4 ¥5.3 ¥5.2 Private-sector funds,�To c) and d) To c) and d) To a) and d) To b) and d) investment .� ¥3.5 tolls Local road tax (¥/Liter) ¥24.3 ¥32.1 and loan program ¥2.0 ¥15.0 ¥19.5 ¥10.4 ¥12.5 1) Revenues earmarked� ¥8.0 To a) and b) To a) and b)� Diesel fuel transaction� ¥17.5 by central (federal) gover� None To a) and d) To a) and b) tax (¥/Liter) ¥6.0 ¥10.0 nments for specific purposes To c) and d) and d) LPG tax (¥/kg) ¥5.0 5% 2) General-purpose revenues� To a) and b) To a) and b)� 800,000� Vehicle acquisition tax.(passenger cars) 780,000 by central (federal)� To a) and d) To a) and d) To a) and b) 3% 760,000 governments To c) and d) and d) 700,000� 3) Revenues earmarked by� To a) and b)�

revenues municipal(state)governments� None None To a) and b) and d) 600,000� for specific purposes 530,000 Use of collected� 4) General-purpose revenues� To a) and b) 500,000� by municipal (state)� To a) and d) To a) and d) To a) and b)�To a) and b) To c) and d) and d) governments (¥100 mil.) 400,000� 382,000 Road and .public� a) governments Roads Roads Roads Roads transportation� systems 300,000� 285,000 195,000 b) government-� None None None Expressways Expressways� 200,000� sponsored corporations and others 103,500 c) private businesses Toll roads Toll roadsNone Toll roads None 100,000� 66,000 41,000 2,600 10,000 21,000 d) public transport � Public� Public� Public� Public� Public� 0 road construction 1st� 2nd� 3id� 4th� 5th� 6th� 7th� 8th� 9th� 10th� 11th� 12th�

Parties in charge of� operators transport� transport� transport� transport� transport� � � � � � ('54-'58) ('58-'62) ('61-'65) ('64-'88) ('67-'71) ('70-'74) ('73-'77) ('78-'82) ('83-'87) ('88-'92) ('93-'97) ('98-'02) Source: Based on International Comparison of Data 2000, supervised by the Ministry of Notes: 1) □:basic tax rate� Land, Infrastructure and Transport 2) The 2nd Plan through the 7th Plan were revised midway, resulting in some years � overlapping

28 TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE 2005

Table 3 Revenue sources for road investment (FY 2006 initial budget) Fiscal investment� State budget Local budget and loan program Breakdown Amount(¥100mil.)Ratios Breakdown Amount(¥100mil.) Ratios

Gasoline tax� 29,629.06� 80.6%� Local road transfer tax� 3,072.00� 6.3%� 3% Revenue� LPG tax� 152.72� 0.4%� LPG transfer tax � 147.00� 0.3%� categories Vehicle tonnage tax� 5,851.00� 15.9%� Vehicle tonnage transfer tax� 3,767.00� 7.7%� Loan redemption☆� 601.57� 1.6%� Diesel fuel transaction tax� 10,556.00� 21.6%� ¥2,500 General revenues☆� 534.32� 1.5%� Vehicle acquisition tax� 4,655.00� 9.5%� � � General revenues☆� 26,744.26� 54.6%� � � � � Total 36,768.67� 100.0%� � � Total � � Total 48,941.26 100.0% 13,500.15 Users' burden(other than ☆) 30,996.72 84.3% ¥24.3 Ratios 37.1% 49.3% 13.6%

Source: Compiled based on data provided by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport Total 13,500.15

Table 4 Road-related budget (Unit: ￥100 mil.)

Breakdown : Category� 2005 initial 2004 initial Growth rate � Temporary subsidies for local road improvements� 7,408� 7,072� 1.05� Road improvements, etc.� 23,589� 24,990� 0.94� � � � � Total for special accounts for road improvements� 30,997� 32,062� 0.97� � � � � Subsidies for town planning� 550� 300� 1.83� Subsidies for road improvements� 100� -� -� Funds to promote the Hokkaido model project for the regional system� 27� 27� 1.00� Promotion of the spread of ETC� 56� -� -� Support for independent movement� 4� -� -� Smoothing traffic through use of information systems� 70� -� -� Technical development to promote the removal of electric poles� 17� 17� 0.98� Measures concerning the setting of diverse and flexible rates for toll roads� 89� 115� 0.77� Land register surveys for the smooth promotion of urban renewal� 29� 30� 0.98� Support for the introduction of DPF/oxidation catalysts� -� 40� -� Honshu-Shikoku debt alleviation� 4,829� 3,049� 1.58� � � � � Total for general accounts� 5,772� 3,578� 1.61� � � � � Total 36,769 35,640 1.03

Source: Compiled based on data provided by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport

Table 5 Composition of road investment by implementing body (Unit: ￥100 mil.)

2005 initial 2004 initial Growth rate

Total expenditures for general road projects� 46,720.78� 48,615.10� 0.96� � � � � Total expenditures for toll road projects� 16,217.35� 18,850.35� 0.86� Total expenditures for projects undertaken independently by prefectural and � � � � municipal governments� 30,500.00� 37,100.00� 0.82� � � � � Total 93,438.13 104,565.45 0.89

Source: Compiled based on data provided by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport

Table 6 Breakdown of general road project funds (Unit: ￥100 mil.) Category� 2005 initial 2004 initial Growth rate � National expressways� 2,000.00� 1,720.52� 1.16� General national roads� 20,797.50� 21,737.38� 0.96� Municipal roads� 6,885.03� 7,463.53� 0.92� Streets� 9,132.41� 9,774.32� 0.93� Cold weather� 992.16� 1,083.89� 0.92� Machines� 176.08� 190.81� 0.92� Research expenditures� 301.36� 279.78� 1.08� Traffic safety� 4,693.39� 4,458.42� 1.05� Roadside improvements� 104.30� 109.78� 0.95� Grants to independently-operated public corporations� 14.65� 14.71� 1.00� Road related social infrastructure� 1,623.90� 1,781.96� 0.91� � � � � Total expenditures for general road projects� 46,720.78 48,615.10 0.96 � Source: Compiled based on data provided by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport

29