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The Getty Conservation Institute

Field Trip Report By F. LeBlanc, Head, Field Projects

CUSCO / – Organization of World Heritage Cities Symposium - Scientific Committee Meeting October 18-26, 2004

Flag of Organization of World Heritage Cities 8th Symposium, , Peru, Sept. 19-23, 2005 The Organization of World Heritage Cities represents more than 200 cities that have been nominated to UNESCO’s World Heritage List. It holds biennial symposiums. The next symposium will be in Cusco, Peru, 19-23, 2005. The theme of the symposium is: “Heritage of Humanity, Heritage with Humanity”.

Ing. Carlos Valencia Miranda, Mayor of Cusco The GCI has agreed to collaborate with the OWHC and the City of Cusco to organize the scientific track of the symposium and to develop the curriculum for a heritage preservation introductory course for newly elected mayors and newly appointed decision-makers of world heritage cities.

Understanding the place of human life in the city and how individuals and families, inhabitants and visitors, sense the physical space and value the place of Heritage Cities is key to understanding the dynamics that make each city unique.

Denis Ricard, Director General of OWHC

1 This debate is fundamental but ambitious. How can we talk of how others experience their cities? How can we explain the sense of values, the perception of space and atmosphere? How can we present, explain, and also preserve these values?

The approaches to the subject require the in-depth exchange of expertise and experience, but more than anything it is important to listen and speak out about values. This is why the Cusco 8th Symposium of the OWHC would like to take advantage of the unique Elizabeth Kuon Arce, opportunity offered by this meeting of Mayors, Decision Makers and Symposium Coordinator Professionals to guarantee a real platform for debate.

To do so, the GCI proposed to organize the meeting so that each participant as an individual, professional and representative of a group, institution or entity, will have the opportunity to share his/her experience at small table discussions.

One introductory presentation on each sub-theme, and short , Plaza presentations of case studies, will guide the debates, the key ideas of de Armas which would provide the lines of thought on which participants, according to their responsibilities, would rely on and use in their task of preserving heritage cities.

Meeting of the Scientific Committee in Lima and Cusco The Scientific track of the Symposium was developed around one Typical Cusco major theme and three sub-themes. It provides for one Keynote architecture, Speaker (major theme), three Guest Speakers (one per sub-theme), 9 Mayors and 9 Professional speakers (case studies in English, French and Spanish).

Typical Andean musicians in typical restaurant

Scientific Committee members at work in Lima Typical street in Cusco with colonial The Scientific Committee was created at the initiative of the GCI. Its architecture built on top purpose is to help the City of Cusco, the OWHC and the GCI to of Inca .

2 identify and select the speakers, rapporteurs and facilitators for the Symposium. The participants were selected to ensure a broad universal coverage of case studies that will be presented by mayors of World heritage cities and professionals in this field.

Dr. Dora Arizaga, an architect from , helped with the selection of case studies from .

Graham Brooks from Australia is the Chairman of the ICOMOS Dr. Dora Arizaga, helped International Committee on Cultural Tourism. He covered the with experts and cases selection of case studies and experts on this subject. from Latin America Jeffrey Cody, Sr. Project Specialist in the Education module of the GCI and former professor of architectural history at Hong Kong University brought his experience of Asia to the committee.

Werner Desimpelaere contributed his knowledge of experiences in . He is an architect and town planner who has worked extensively with the Council of Europe, ICOMOS, UNESCO and numerous international organizations.

Graham Brooks, Chair, Lee Minaidis is Deputy to the Mayor of Rhodes. She is also ICOMOS Tourism Comm. Coordinator for European Projects and Development of OWHC. Her experience with the organization of the previous OWHC symposium in Rhodes during 2003 and her knowledge of the mayors of World heritage cities contributed greatly to the success of our meeting.

Herman Van Hoof is an architect and a heritage specialist for Culture at the UNESCO regional office in Montevideo, Uruguay. His extensive knowledge of the World Heritage Convention issues in World heritage cities helped to select cases to highlight the Symposium themes.

Jeffrey Cody helped with Denis Ricard, Director General of the OWHC, Elizabeth Kuon Arce, experts and cases from Symposium Coordinator for the City of Cusco and Cusco’s Mayor, Asia Carlos Valencia Miranda also participated actively to the Scientific Committee meeting.

This meeting was to be held in Cusco, but because of flight cancellations by the national airline company Lan Peru, we had to change our plans at the last minute and organize the meeting in Lima. Because of this change of plans, the mayor of Cusco was to come and spend only a very short amount of time with us to welcome the participants and wish them a good meeting. But he decided to stay for our first session and seemed to be very intrigued by our “democratic” Werner Desimpelaere approach to the identification and selection of speakers and helped with experts and rapporteurs. So much so, that he not only spent that entire day with us cases from Europe but also came back for the second day. His point of view helped us tremendously to focus on the issues that were of interest to politicians.

On behalf of the GCI, I welcomed the participants, explained the goal and objectives of the meeting and described the approach that is

3 based on the active participation of everyone who will come to the Symposium. Françoise Descamps very efficiently and professionally chaired the meeting, keeping us on track and on schedule. Claudia Cancino helped with logistics, her personal knowledge of Lima, a city where she lived and worked for many years and with the professional content of the meeting. Virginia Horton had to cancel and re-book almost every travel arrangement in the midst of this last minute cancellation of all national flights by Lan Peru and finally, David Myers, Elizabeth Jackson and Nick Swarts helped with the Lee Minaidis helped with preparation of documents. selection of mayors The Symposium theme and sub-themes were reviewed and defined as follows:

The Main theme Heritage of Humanity, Heritage with Humanity. It is hoped that the world renowned Peruvian Xavier Pérez de Cuellar will accept the invitation to be the Keynote Speaker for this theme.

The sub-themes Herman Van Hoof helped I – Citizen participation in the revitalization of world heritage cities: with his experience of successes and failures. UNESCO and of the II – Intangible heritage in world heritage cities: identifying and World Heritage supporting it. Convention III – Hosting tourists in world heritage cities: how to reconcile the needs of residents

Potential Guest Speakers were identified for each sub-theme and a one-page description of the objective of each theme was prepared in the three working languages of the OWHC. These still need to be refined, but the essential is there.

The participants also identified mayors and professionals who could present case studies on each sub-theme, in English, French and Françoise Descamps Spanish, while ensuring that the cases cover as many cultural regions chaired the meeting and of the world as possible. helped with her experience of town planning Finally, we reviewed the Symposium program, budget, and proposed facilities. These were three solid days of discussions and hard work but in the end, every participant agreed that we had achieved a great deal and that the Symposium looked like it will be an exciting and productive event.

In Cusco, I visited the facilities where the Symposium is to be held and discussed with local architects Mario Castillo Centano, Oscar Contreras Florez and Grethel Cervantes Ordońez the plans for preparing the site and facilities. I also visited the various hotels where the participants are to be accommodated and the locations for special Claudia Cancino helped with logistics, her events. knowledge of Lima and Peru and her professional experience

4 Cusco Architect Mario Castillo Centano Symposium site located a few walking blocks from the main plaza and hotels Cusco is a relatively small city with a total population of approximately 300,000 inhabitants. It does not have a convention center like larger cities have. What it offers for the Symposium is a vast site that is used for festivals and concerts. Part of the site is covered by tent-like structures that will be fitted to accommodate up to 1,000 participants.

This large space will also be fitted with movable partitions that will sub-divide the space into three sections for the discussions that will take place in French, English and Spanish. Acoustic tiles will be Cusco Architect Oscar Contreras Florez suspended to help with sound attenuation; each space will have its own projection screen and independent sound system. Large signs will invite participants to sit in the designated languages areas in order to minimize crowd movement. Participants will be seated at round tables with 10 chairs.

Cusco Architect Grethel Cervantes Ordońez Symposium site close up view The open area of the site will be fitted with tents and other temporary structures to accommodate eating facilities, offices and services.

This is a great space for this event. All activities will happen on site and no one will have to move to another location for breakaway sessions, to eat or to have access to services. The site is secure and has controlled accesses.

From the site, there are panoramic views of the City of Cusco that extends into the adjoining hills. The site is only a few blocks away Existing site plan from the historic city center and transportation to and from the main showing layout and hotels will not be an issue because everyone can walk to this location. accesses

5 Symposium site open area where tents will be installed for the eating areas

One of the Symposium site controlled access Tent-like structures where the main events, ceremonies and discussions will take place; movable partitions will be built to subdivide the space

Cuzco typical street in the San Blas quarter

Preliminary architectural plan for the facilities at the Symposium site

Pontifica Universidad Catolica del Peru Within the framework of its Terra Initiative, the GCI signed an agreement with the Engineering Department of the Pontifica Universidad Catolica del Peru to conduct tests on adobe structures.

F. LeBlanc at The Department’s engineering lab has the largest shaking table in Sacsayhuaman site Latin America and has conducted tests on adobe wall structures to evaluate their resistance to earthquakes. Julio Vargas and Daniel Torrealva, two structural engineers who have worked on GCI projects in the past, had shared with us their plans to reinforce adobe-brick walls using polymer mesh to see if this would improve their resistance to earthquakes. We thought that this approach looked very promising

Pontifica Universidad 6 Catolica campus in Lima and we took the opportunity of their testing program to ask them to also test adobe-brick walls reinforced with natural fiber mesh to see how this would compare with the polymer mesh reinforcement.

If this turns out to be an effective way to increase the resistance to earthquake of adobe-brick walls, then we will see if we can develop restoration techniques that would take advantage of this type of reinforcement while respecting applicable heritage conservation principles.

Prof. Krzysztof Jeff Cody and I visited the Catolica labs on October 19. We first met Makowski, Head of the with Dr. Krzysztof Makowski, Head of the Archaeological Department Department to discuss what happened to a famous archaeological site called Huaca Garagai that had beautiful polychrome bas-relief. The site was from the Neolithic period, going back to 200 BC, just before the Chavin period in Peru. Giacomo Chiari had worked on the conservation of these bas-reliefs more than twenty years ago.

Dr. Makowski explained to us that the site had literally disappeared due to invasion by squatters during the 1980s. During that period, the government’s social democracy policies encouraged or at least facilitated this type of “invasion”. The only things left of the bas-relief Juan Antonio are the images and archaeological records taken during the late Montalbetti, Head of the 1970s and early 1980s. Again, this shows the importance of preparing Engineering Department complete and accurate documentation records of heritage sites, because, in many instances, the record will be the only thing left of the original site or artifacts.

Then, we met with Juan Antonio Montalbetti, the Head of the Engineering Department and with Dr. Marcial Blondet, responsible for the testing lab to discuss various aspects of our project. Dr. Blondet’s assistants Gladis Villa Garcia and Julia Mendoza showed us the shaking table and explained how this all works. The table can accommodate a 3.3 meter x 3.3 meter one-story adobe structure Dr. Marcial Blondet, complete with its roof. The maximum capacity is 16 tons; the Civil engineer maximum horizontal displacement is 150 cm; the maximum responsible for the acceleration is 2 G and the maximum frequency is 12 Hz. Jeff and I testing lab actually stood on the table while Eng. Guillermo Pachas selected the wave profile of several typical earthquakes and shook us for a few seconds. Looking at a video of the actual “shaking” of scale model adobe buildings, we were able to see what devastating effect this has on a building built with earth bricks. Our legs continued to feel the “shaking” for several minutes after the test had stopped.

Eng. Daniel Torrealva then showed us the bricks that had been Daniel Torrealva at the prepared to build the models that will be used in our joint project and main entrance to the civil engineering school we looked at various types of polymer mesh that were studied for the reinforcement project. The polymer selected is a reinforced mesh that is used to consolidate the earth in paved roads construction.

7 We had lunch with our engineer colleagues and discussed various interesting issues. One in particular concerns the difficulty to convince the local population to use earth as a building material. Locals seem to feel that earth as a building material is for poor people. As soon as their social status improves, they want to build with concrete and brick, because this reflects their new social status. The Engineering Lab shaking table can simulate earthquakes of various magnitudes and test models of up to 3.3 meters square and 16 tons in weight

The group standing on Guillermo Pachas Daniel Torrealva the shaking platform smiling at the idea of showing the mesh shaking all these selected for reinforcing important people the earth walls

Under the shaking table: steel supports that carry the weight of the models

Curing of earth bricks Mechanical mixer for the Earth being prepared for that will be used in the earth, water and straw making the mud bricks Catolica/Getty project mix for the test

Under the shaking table: oil pressure control system Eng. Marcial Blondet Daniel Torrealva Eng. Gladis Villa Garcia standing besides a showing typical earth standing next to scale typical model to be brick and wooden mold model prepared by tested on the shaking engineering students table studying earthquake resistance of earthen structures

Under the shaking table: oil bursts control system

8 Peru: Brief History

Flag of Peru

Traditional dress

Lama & typical villager Many descendants of the Incas still live in the Peru highlands.

We do not know for sure how far back we can trace the history of mankind in Peru as new findings are pushing back in the very far past the start of human inhabitation in these lands. Up until recently, we only thought that human civil life had started around 7000 years ago..... Chilca was inhabited about 4000 BC and the other two sites about 2000 BC. The inhabitants fished with nets or with bone hooks and collected seafood such as crabs and sea urchins. Various crops were cultivated, including which appeared early (about 3000 BC) as well as chilli peppers, beans' squashes and, about 1400 BC, corn. The cotton was used to make clothing, mainly with the simple techniques of twining and later by weaving. Peruvian Roughly contemporary with these coastal settlements was the enigmatic site of near Huanuco - one of the earliest ruins in highland Peru. Little is known about the people who lived here, but their buildings were the most developed for that period, and pottery fragments found here predate by several hundred years those found in other parts of Peru.

From around 1250 BC to 850 BC there are remains in the Viru Valley and Guanape area, about 50 km south of Trujillo on the north coast which show that, during this time, ceramics developed from rude undecorated pots to sculpted, incised and simply colored pots of high quality. Weaving, fishing and horticulture also unproved and simple funerary offerings have been found. After these early time we start having a better knowledge of the early inhabitants of Peru. La Campania Cathedral in Cusco’s Main Square

9

The coastal strip around 4000 BC was wetter than today's desert and a number of small settlements were established, thus changing the status of the people from nomadic hunters and gatherers to settled agriculturalists and fishermen. Several of these settlements have been excavated, with the garbage mounds yielding the best information about life at that time. Some of the best known sites are in the Chicama Valley near Trujillo, Chilca and Asia, south of Lima. The people lived in primitive one-room dwellings, lined with stone in Huaca Prieta, or they had branch or reed huts as in Asia. Ceramics and metalwork were still unknown although jewelry made of bone and shell was used.

History: The

The Inca Empire, for all its greatness, existed for barely a century. The Incas had no written language and their history was entirely oral, passed down through the generations. Manco Capac was the first of the Inca rulers. The reigns of the seven Incas who succeeded Manco Capac spanned a period from around the 12th century to the early 15th century. The small tribe they governed was one of several groups living in the Andean highlands during the 13th and 14th centuries. These Incas left few signs of their existence, though the remains of some of their palaces can still be seen in Cuzco.

The 9th Inca, Pachacutec, began the empire's great expansion. Until his time, the Incas had dominated only a small area close to Cuzco, frequently skirmishing with, but not conquering, various other highland tribes. One such tribe, the expansionist Chancas. occupied a region about lS0 hen east of Cuzco and, by 1438 was on the verge of conquering Cuzco. Viracocha Inca and his eldest son, Urcon, believed that their small empire was lost but Viracocha Inca's third son refused

10 to give up the fight. With the help of some of the older generals he rallied the and, in a desperate final battle, managed to rout the Chancas.

The Incas were master stonemasons whose achievements still confound archaeologists. Although built without mortar, their walls were virtually earthquake-proof. According to legend, the unexpected victory was won because the boulders on the battlefield fumed into warriors and fought on the side of the Inca. The victorious younger son changed his name to Pachacutec and proclaimed himself the new Inca over his father and elder brother. Buoyed by his victory over the Chancas he began the first wave of the expansion which was to eventually create the Inca Empire. During the next 25 years, he conquered most of the central between the two great lakes of Titicaca and Junin. , the 11th Inca was the last to rule over a unified empire. By this time, Europeans had discovered the new world and various epidemics started sweeping down on the Empire. A civil war also erupted.

In 1532, after several years of warfare, 's battle-hardened troops won the major battle of the civil war and captured Huascar outside Cuzco. Atahualpa, the new Inca, retired to to rest. Meanwhile, landed in northern Ecuador and marched south in the wake of Atahualpa's conquests. Although Atahualpa was undoubtedly aware of the Spanish presence, he was too busy fighting the civil war to worry about a small band of foreigners. The empire's main expansion occurred in the 100 years or so prior to the arrival of the . Our knowledge of their

11 history dates back to the "chronicles" which included accounts of Inca history as related by the Incas to the Spanish chroniclers.

As a mighty military figure, historians have frequently compared Pachacutec to the likes of Alexander the Great and Genghis Khan. He was also a great urban developer. Pachacutec devised the city's famous puma shape and diverted the Sapphi and Tullumayo rivers into channels which crossed the city, keeping it clean and providing it with water. He built agricultural terraces and many buildings, including the famous temple and his palace on what is now the western corner of the Plaza de Armas in Cusco.

History: The Conquest

By the autumn of 1532, however, Pizarro was in northern Peru, Atahualpa had defeated Huascar and a fateful meeting was arranged between the Inca and Pizarro. The meeting, which took place in Cajamarca on 16 November 1532, was to change the course of South American history.

Remains of huge zigzag defensive walls at Sacsayhuaman. The Inca was ambushed by a few dozen armed conquistadors, who succeeded in capturing Atahualpa, killing thousands of unarmed Indians and routing tens of thousands more. The conquest of the Incas had begun.

After holding Atahualpa prisoner and then murdering him, he marched into Cuzco and was accepted by the people because their loyalties lay more with the defeated Huascar than with Atahualpa. The second reason was the superior Spanish weaponry. Mounted on horseback, protected by armor and swinging steel swords the Spanish cavalry

12 was virtually unstoppable. The Spaniards hacked dozens of unprotected Indian warriors to death during a battle. The Indians responded with their customary weapons - clubs, spears, slingshots and arrows - but these were rarely lethal against the mounted, armor- plated conquistadors. Pizarro himself entered Cuzco on 8 November 1533 after winning a series of battles on the road from Cajamarca.

Pisac Market, Peru By this time, Atahualpa had been killed and Pizarro appointed Manco, a halfbrother of Huascar, as a puppet Inca. For almost 3 years, the empire remained relatively peaceful under the rule of Manco Inca and Pizarro. In 1536 Manco Inca realized that the Spaniards were there to stay and decided to try and drive them from his empire. He fled the Spanish and raised a huge army, estimated at well over 100,000. He laid siege to the Spaniards in Cuzco and almost succeeded in defeating them. Only a desperate, last-ditch breakout from Cuzco and a violent battle at Sacsayhuaman saved the Spanish from complete annihilation. Manco Inca retreated to and then into the jungle at Vilcabamba. The conquest succeeded for two main reasons. Firstly, Pizarro realized that the emotion of the recent civil war still ran high and decided to turn this to his advantage.

In the early battles, the Indians were terrified of the Spaniards' horses and primitive firearms, neither of which had been seen in the Andes. It took Pizarro almost a year to reach Cuzco after capturing Atahualpa. In an attempt to regain his freedom, the Inca offered a ransom of a roomful of and two rooms of silver. This was to be brought from Cuzco. To speed up the process, Pizarro sent three soldiers to Cuzco early in 1533 to strip Coricancha or the "Gold Courtyard", of its rich ornamentation.

13 … of the Incas The city of Cusco is located in the Andes at an altitude of 3,326 meters (more than 10,000 feet). At that height, there is 30% less oxygen in the air. Anyone coming from lower grounds really must take at least a full half-day of rest to let their body adjust to this difference. Hiram Bingham train at We were told about this beforehand and did follow the advice that was the station in Cusco given to us. But still, we could feel our hearts beating much faster and we were short of breath as soon as we had to climb something.

Machu Picchu on the other hand is located at an altitude of approx. 2,400 meters and one feels immediately the difference in ease of breathing.

The Hiram Bingham A new train service was inaugurated only a few months ago. It offers restaurant train to take passengers from Cusco to the site of Machu Picchu in first class accommodations complete with brunch, private guided tours, afternoon tea and evening dinner. The train leaves Cusco at 9:00 AM and returns at 10:00 PM. It is called the Hiram Bingham train excursion. At the invitation of the City of Cusco, Jeff and I experienced this very comfortable way of visiting this site.

Typical landscape on the way to Machu Picchu But there was adventure… The Mayor of Cusco had not been able to have dinner with us on the previous night because he had to inaugurate twelve different events that evening and some took a bit longer than anticipated. So, just before we left Machu Picchu to return to Cusco, we received a phone call from his office telling us that he would have the train stopped mid-way from Cusco at Ollantaytambo, and have us picked up by his personal chauffeur to bring us faster to Cusco to have dinner with him that evening. And that is what happened. We had a great evening together, but it did not take long for us to fall asleep that night.

It is remarkable that Machu Picchu was first brought to the attention of the world in 1911. The Spanish invaders at the time of the Conquest and during centuries of colonial rule, never discovered the city, and Hiram Bingham, nobody ever led them there, suggesting that the site had long since American archaeologist who revealed Machu been abandoned and forgotten. Picchu to the world In the nineteenth century explorers like Eugenie de Sartiges, George Ephraim Squire, Antonio Raimondi and Castelnau never reached Machu Picchu, although most of them crossed the Andes to the almost inaccessible ruins of Choquekirau, built high above the Apurimac river. In fact, the outside world simply stumbled upon Machu Picchu, for it had never been lost to those who lived around it. Those same people eventually led the American explorer, Hiram Bingham, and his team to the site in 1911. Hiram Bingham, now world-famous as the discoverer of Machu Picchu, did not initially travel to to explore the land of the Incas. In fact, the Hawaiian-born Yale and Harvard educated historian first journeyed south from the

Machu Picchu 14 to complete his study of the great nineteenth century liberator, Simon Bolivar.

In December 1908, Bingham attended the First Pan-American Scientific Congress in , . It was there that he decided to follow the old Spanish trade route from Buenos Aires to Lima, and it Machu Picchu was to that end that he traveled to Lima and hence to Cusco.

In Cusco Bingham made the acquaintance of one J.J. Nunez, then prefect of the Apurimac region, who invited him on the arduous trip to the ruins of Choquekirau, thought at the time to be the site of Vilcabamba, the much sought "last resting place of the Incas."

Tourism is the number On his return to the USA, Bingham decided to organize another one industry in Cusco expedition to Peru. He arrived in Lima in June 1911 where he began and at Machu Picchu to study the seventeenth-century chronicles of and Fernando de Montesinos. The writings of these two men first inspired Bingham to seek the last two capitals of the Inca, Vilcabamba and . Leaving Lima in July, Bingham returned to Cusco from where he journeyed on foot and by mule through the Urubamba Valley, past Ollantaytambo, and on into the Urubamba gorge.

On July 23, Bingham and his party camped by the river at a place called Mandor Pampa, where they aroused the curiosity of Melchor Arteaga, a local farmer who leased the land there. Through Sergeant Carrasco, the policeman who was his guide and interpreter, Bingham learned from Arteaga that there were extensive ruins on top of the Machu Picchu stone ridge opposite the camp, which Arteaga, in his native Quechua, called work Machu Picchu, or "old mountain".

Terraces where the Incas cultivated various crops

The Lama is a great lawnmower for the site, cheap and efficient

15 The Incas built the staggering citadel of Machu Picchu in a dramatic mountain setting. Machu Picchu survives as the most famous legacy of the fated Inca Empire.

According to Bingham, "The morning of July 24th dawned in a cold drizzle. Arteaga shivered and seemed inclined to stay in his hut. I offered to pay him well if he showed me the ruins. He demurred and said it was too hard a climb for such a wet day. But when he found I was willing to pay him a sol, three or four times the ordinary daily wage, he finally agreed to go. When asked just where the ruins were, he pointed straight up to the top of the mountain. No one supposed that they would be particularly interesting, and no one cared to go with The mountains are spectacular and very me." high Accompanied only by Sergeant Carrasco and Arteaga, Bingham left the camp around 10 am. After a short while the party crossed a bridge so unnerving that the intrepid explorer was reduced to crawling across it on his hands and knees. From the river they climbed a precipitous slope until they reached the ridge at around midday. Here Bingham rested at a small hut where they enjoyed the hospitality of a group of campesinos. They told him that they had been living there for about four years and explained that they had found an extensive system of Machu Picchu reconstituted terraces on whose fertile soil they had decided to grow their crops. architecture Bingham was then told that the ruins he sought were close by and he was given a guide, the 11-year old Pablito Alvarez, to lead him there.

Almost immediately, he was greeted by the sight of a broad sweep of ancient terraces. They numbered more than a hundred and had recently been cleared of forest and reactivated. Led by the boy, he re- entered the forest beyond the terraces. Here young Pablito began to reveal to Bingham a series of white granite walls which the historian immediately judged to be the finest examples of masonry that he had ever seen. They were in fact, the remains of what we call today the Jeff Cody and guide Doris at Machu Picchu Royal Tomb, the Main Temple, and the Temple of the Three Windows.

As evidenced by his writings, Hiram Bingham was genuinely inspired by the beauty of the region he was exploring.

According to Bingham, "I had entered the marvelous canyon of the Urubamba below the Inca fortress. Here the river escapes from the cold plateau by tearing its way through gigantic mountains of granite. The road runs through a land of matchless charm. It has the majestic grandeur of the Canadian Rockies, as well as the startling beauty of the Nuuanu Pali near Honolulu, and the enchanting vistas of the Koolau Ditch Trail on Maui, in my native land. In the variety of its Children in traditional charms the power of its spell, I know of no place in the world which costumes can compare with it. Not only had it great snow peaks looming above the clouds more than two miles overhead; gigantic precipices of many-colored granite rising sheer for thousands of feet above the foaming, glistening, roaring rapids, it has also, in striking contrast,

16 orchids and tree ferns, the delectable beauty of luxurious vegetation and the mysterious witchery of the jungle. One is drawn irresistibly onwards by ever-recurring surprises through a deep, winding gorge, turning and twisting past overhanging cliffs of incredible height

Above all, there is the fascination of finding here and there under San Augustin swaying vines, or perched on top of a beetling crag, the rugged detail masonry of a bygone race; and of trying to understand the bewildering

romance of the ancient builders who, ages ago, sought refuge in a region which appears to have been expressly designed by nature as a sanctuary for the oppressed, a place where they might fearlessly and patiently give expression to their passion for walls of enduring beauty."

Other people saw and even lived at Machu Picchu before Hiram Bingham even set foot in Peru, but had neither the means nor the opportunity to bring the "lost city" to the attention of the outside world. Lima, Plaza Mayor, Bingham himself found two families living at the ruins and was led to oldest building the main plaza by a young boy. As early as 1894, a local farmer called Agustin Lizarraga led one Luis Bejar Ugarte to the ancient city. This same Lizarraga took his friends Gabino Sanchez and Enrique Palma on a treasure-seeking trip to the ruins on July 14, 1901, visiting all the accessible parts of the then uncleared site. When Bingham arrived at the ruins he found the rock that the three friends had signed with their names and the date of their visit. In his later writings, however, he downplayed this discovery. Lima, Plaza Mayor, Archbishop’s Palace The three treasure hunters met Anacleto Alvarez (whom Bingham later encountered) who told them that he had been living among the ruins for 8 years, where he grew his crops of corn, yucca, sweet potatoes and sugar cane on the fertile soil that the Incas had carried up from the river valley to build Machu Picchu's magnificent 300 meter high series of terraces!

Lima, Plaza Mayor, Lima, World Heritage City balconies Brief History In about 1250 BC, groups such as the Chavín, Chimú, Nazca, and Tiahuanaco migrated into the region from the north. Lima began life way back in 1535 thanks to Francisco Pizarro, who founded the city on 6 January, the same day as the Catholic Day of the Kings. That's why you will hear Lima referred to quite often as the City of Kings. Lima, Plaza Mayor Subsequently, disputes over jurisdictional powers broke out among fountain and buildings the Spanish conquistadors, or conquerors, and in 1541 a member of one of the conflicting Spanish factions assassinated Pizarro in Lima. In 1569 the Spanish colonial administrator arrived in Peru. During the ensuing 14 years he established a highly effective, although harshly repressive, system of government. Toledo's method of administration consisted of a government of Spanish officials ruling through lower-level officials made up of

17 indigenous figures who dealt directly with the indigenous population. This system lasted for almost 200 years.

Lima continued to grow in importance and in 1551 the University of San Marcos, the first in the New World, was founded there. To this day it remains autonomous, and outside all government influence. In 1567 the Jesuits arrived. They immediately set about founding site plan schools and colleges and introduced the printing press. Owing to its convenient harbor at , 15km (9mi) away, the town of Lima developed rapidly and was the center of the Spanish trade monopoly, which lasted until the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713.

General Jose de San Martin proclaimed the independence of Peru in Lima on 28 July 1821. It was later, during the government of Mariscal Pachacamac site model Ramon Castilla, that Lima took a crucial step over other cities of the

American continent by building a railway between the cities of Lima and Callao, the first railway in South America. During this time gaslight and the telegraph were installed and black slavery was abolished.

Whilst at war with Chile, Lima was attacked on 14 January 1881. The national library was turned into a barrack, and many valuable books Pachacamac temple and manuscripts were destroyed or sold as waste paper. Works of art were carried off or broken by the victorious Chileans, who occupied the town for nearly three years. After the attack Lima suffered from the political rivalries of Cáceres and Iglesias, and there was civil unrest until Nicolas de Piérola became president in 1895.

Life was more or less rosy until about 1920, when Lima started experiencing a sudden population growth. The growth spurt was View from Temple del attributable to the city's rapid urbanization and industrialization, Sol towards the ocean generating a wealth that was simply not trickling down to the rural areas. Rural began to flock into Lima, putting enormous strains on the city infrastructure. The urban population in 1919 stood at 173,000; within 20 years, it had trebled.

Lima's growth - and growing pains - have continued at an astonishing pace. Today's population figure stands at nearly eight millions. Lima is simply too big to support itself. The city has a few wealthy and middle Typical earthen class suburbs but the majority of people live in poverty. Sadly, there architecture doesn't seem to be a short-term solution and, with the population conservation problems continuing to expand, it seems Lima will continue to grow beyond at Pachacamac bursting point.

Historic sites and events Pachacamac During our first day in Lima, while waiting for the other participants to arrive, Jeff, Claudia and I visited the site of Pachacamac in the company of our engineer colleagues from University Catolica.

18 Situated about 31 Km southeast of the city center, this extensive archaeological complex made up of palaces and temple-pyramids is the closest major site to Lima.

Although Pachacamac was an important Inca site and a major city when the Spanish arrived, it had been a ceremonial center on the Señor de Los Milagros central coast about 1,000 years before the Inca Empire. Begun in AD Procession 200, the site was later expanded by the before being conquered and added to by the Incas. The impressive Templo del Sol offers an excellent view of the coast.

Lima: Señor de Los Milagros Procession We were fortunate to be in Lima on a very special day: the day of the religious procession celebrating the Lord of the Miracles. Lima, Plaza Mayor, looking at government In 1651, a black slave painted an image of Christ crucified and it was palace placed in a church in Lima. During 1655, a strong earthquake shook Lima and again in 1687. Following the latter, the image left the church in procession for the first time to ask God to stop the earthquakes and the aftershocks. In 1715 the image became the patron against earthquakes and has since then been revered each year in procession.

Lima, Plaza Mayor, Lima: Plaza de Armas beautiful balcony Also called Plaza Mayor, this 140 square-meter plaza was once the heart of Lima. Though not one original building remains, the impressive bronze fountain in the center is its oldest feature, erected in 1650, and its oldest building is the cathedral, reconstructed after the 1746 earthquake.

Lima, San Francisco The exquisitely balconied Archbishop’s palace to the left of the Monastery, founded in cathedral is a relatively modern building, dating to 1924. On the 1672, style northeast side, the Palacio de Gobierno was built in 1937 and is the residence of Peru’s president.

Lima: San Francisco Church This Franciscan monastery and church is famous for its catacombs and its remarkable library, where we can see thousands of antique San Francisco texts, some dating as far back as the conquistadors. It also has a very Monastery Library fine museum of religious art. contains approx. 25,000 books from as early as the 17th century The underground catacombs are the site of an estimated 70,000 burials. The building, which is one of the best preserved of Lima’s early colonial churches, was finished before the earthquake of 1687 and withstood both this and the quake of 1746 better than many others. However, the 1970 earthquake caused considerable damage, but much of the church has been well restored.

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