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PERSIAN PERIOD اﻟﻌﺼﺮ اﻟﻔﺎرﺳﻰ David Klotz EDITORS WILLEKE WENDRICH Editor-in-Chief University of California, Los Angeles JACCO DIELEMAN Editor University of California, Los Angeles ELIZABETH FROOD Editor University of Oxford WOLFRAM GRAJETZKI Area Editor Time and History University College London JOHN BAINES Senior Editorial Consultant University of Oxford Short Citation: Klotz, 2015, Persian Period. UEE. Full Citation: Klotz, David, 2015, Persian Period. In Wolfram Grajetzki and Willeke Wendrich (eds.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, Los Angeles. http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz002k45rq 8777 Version 1, September 2015 http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz002k45rq PERSIAN PERIOD اﻟﻌﺼﺮ اﻟﻔﺎرﺳﻰ David Klotz Perserzeit Périodes perses In the last two centuries before the arrival of Alexander the Great, Persia invaded Egypt twice and administered it as a satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire. Although the Ptolemies later demonized the Persians, and most traces of their rule were systematically removed, the history of this fascinating period can be reconstructed thanks to written sources from different languages (hieroglyphic, Demotic, Aramaic, Old Persian, Greek) and the multicultural archaeological record. These periods of foreign domination helped solidify Egypt's national identity during the intervening Late Period (Dynasties 28-30) and set the stage for subsequent centuries of Greek and Roman rule. ﻗﺒﻞ وﺻ������ﻮل اﻹﺳ������ﻜﻨﺪر اﻷﻛﺒﺮ وﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪا ﻓﻲ آﺧﺮ ﻗﺮﻧﯿﻦ، ﻏﺰت ﻓﺎرس ﻣﺼ������ﺮ ﻣﺮﺗﯿﻦ وﺗﻢ إدارﺗﮭﺎ ﻛﻮﻧﮭﺎ واﺣﺪة ﻣﻦ ﻣﻘﺎطﻌﺎت اﻹﻣﺒﺮاطﻮرﯾﺔ اﻷﺧﻤﯿﻨﯿﺔ. ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ اﻧﮫ ﻓﻰ وﻗﺖ ﻻﺣﻖ ﻗﺎم اﻟﺒﻄﺎﻟﻤﺔ ﺑﺘﺸ�����ﻮﯾﮫ ﺳ�����ﻤﻌﺔ اﻟﻔﺮس، وﻣﻌﻈﻢ آﺛﺎر ﺣﻜﻤﮭﻢ أزﯾﻠﺖ ﺑﺸ�����ﻜﻞ ﻣﻤﻨﮭﺞ، إن ﺗﺎرﯾﺦ ھﺬه اﻟﻔﺘﺮة اﻟﺮاﺋﻌﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻤﻜﻦ اﻋﺎدة ﺑﻨﺎؤه ﺑﻔﻀﻞ اﻟﻤﺼﺎدر اﻟﻤﻜﺘﻮﺑﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻟﻐﺎت ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ (اﻟﮭﯿﺮوﻏﻠﯿﻔﯿﺔ، اﻟﺪﯾﻤﻮطﯿﻘﯿﺔ، اﻵراﻣﯿﺔ، اﻟﻔﺎرﺳ������ﯿﺔ اﻟﻘﺪﯾﻤﺔ، اﻟﯿﻮﻧﺎﻧﯿﺔ) وﺑﻔﻀ������ﻞ اﻟﺴ������ﺠﻼت اﻷﺛﺮﯾﺔ ﻣﺘﻌﺪدة اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎت. ﺣﯿﺚ ﺳﺎﻋﺪت ھﺬه اﻟﻔﺘﺮات ﻣﻦ اﻟﮭﯿﻤﻨﺔ اﻷﺟﻨﺒﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺳﯿﺦ اﻟﮭﻮﯾﺔ اﻟﻮطﻨﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺼ����ﺮ ﺧﻼل ﻓﺘﺮة اﻟﻌﺼ����ﺮ اﻟﻤﺘﺄﺧﺮ اﻻﺳ����ﺮات 28-30 ، وﻣﮭﺪت اﻟﻄﺮﯾﻖ ﻟﻌﺪة ﻗﺮون ﻻﺣﻘﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺤﻜﻢ اﻟﯿﻮﻧﺎﻧﻲ واﻟﺮوﻣﺎﻧﻲ. cholars divide the Persian Period Depuydt 2006). To distinguish from other in Egypt into two separate eras, the stages of Iranian history, this era is also called S First Domination (Dynasty 27, Achaemenid, named after the eponymous 525-402 BCE) and the brief Second founder of the dynasty, Achaemenes Domination that ended with the arrival of (Egyptian: jAxmjnS). In both periods, Egypt Alexander the Great (Dynasty 31, 343-332 was governed by a Persian satrap (Egyptian: BCE; for the problematic category of Dynasty xStrpn; Klinkott 2005). 31, see Lloyd 1988; for the chronology, see Persian Period, Klotz, UEE 2015 1 surrender after a heavy siege. Libya and Political History Cyrenaica quickly followed suit, and preemptively sent tribute to the Persian king. Dynasty 27 Cambyses 525-522 Cambyses humiliated Psammetichus III (Persian) Darius I 521-486 before the army in Memphis, and when the Xerxes I 486-466 latter king refused to accept the Persian Artaxerxes I 465-424 authority, he was condemned to death by Xerxes II 424 drinking bull’s blood (Pétigny 2010). Despite Sogdianos 424 his ephemeral reign, Psammetichus III Darius II 424-404 Artaxerxes II 404-402 completed a temple to Osiris in Karnak Dynasty 28 Amyrtaios 404-399 (Traunecker 2010) and was posthumously Dynasty 29 Nepherites I 399-393 commemorated by Udjahorresnet on his statue Psammuthis 393 (Posener 1936: 6), and thus he was more than Hakoris 393-380 a “nebulous figure” (Cruz-Uribe 2003: 46). The Nepherites II 380 Egyptian campaign began roughly in the winter Dynasty 30 Nectanebo I 380-363 of 526 BCE, and Cambyses was crowned by Teos 362-361 the summer of 525 BCE at the latest (Depuydt Nectanebo II 360-343 1996; von Beckerath 2002; Kahn 2007: 104- Second Artaxerxes III 343-338 105; Quack 2011). Persian Arses 338-336 Period Darius III 335-332 Cambyses then advanced with his army to th (Indigenous Khababash 337/6- Sais, capital of the preceding 26 Dynasty, ruler) where he disinterred the mummy of Amasis and abused his corpse (Herodotus III, 16). The Table 1. Chronology posthumous attacks upon Amasis are further evidenced by the systematic erasure of his Cambyses cartouches on both royal and private monuments throughout Egypt (fig. 1; Herodotus (III, 1-37; translation by Grene Bolshakov 2010; Klotz 2010: 131-32), and 1987) provides the most coherent account of possible attacks specifically targeting his the Persian invasion of Egypt, a theme temples (Coulon and Defernez 2004: 141-142; elaborated upon much later in the Coptic TAD A4.7-8, see Porten and Yardeni 1986- Cambyses Romance, and the Ethiopic Chronicle of 1999; Porten 1996: 142, 146; but cf. Burkard John Nikiou (cf. Schwartz 1949; Lloyd 1994; 1994b and 1995; von Pilgrim 2003). While Jansen-Winkeln 2002). Cambyses reputedly Amasis approved major temple construction attacked Egypt out of anger towards Amasis, projects throughout Egypt (Jélinková- who insulted Cyrus by sending Nitêtis, a Reymond 1957; Graefe 2011), none of his daughter of Apries and not his own child, to monuments stand today, but survive only as wed the Persian king (Herodotus III, 1-3; fragmentary blocks. Athenaeus XIII, 560d-f; Polyaenus VIII, 29; cf. Briant 2002: 49, 885; Ladynin 2006). Yet his foreign policy was a logical extension of his father’s campaigns, especially since Amasis had pledged Egypt into an alliance with Lydia, Babylon, and Sparta (Herodotus I, 177). With the logistical support of Arabian chiefs, Cambyses led his army through northern Sinai, from Gaza (Kadytis; Quaegebeur 1995) to Pelusium (Verreth 2006: 34-35; Kahn and Figure 1. Carefully erased cartouche of Amasis. Tammuz 2008). After a short battle, Amasis’s White Monastery Church, Sohag. heir, the short-lived Psammetichus III, and his mercenary army retreated to Memphis, only to Persian Period, Klotz, UEE 2015 2 Nonetheless, the damnatio memoriae did not last indigenous Egyptians: he received an long, as the statue of Udjahorresnet, carved impressive tomb in Abusir (Bareš 1999; under Darius I, once again mentions Amasis, Stammers 2009: 27-30)—work apparently and his son Henat served in Amasis’s began on this uncompleted sepulture in years posthumous royal cult (Cruz-Uribe 2003: 39). 41/42 of Amasis (Bareš 2002)—even though he may have been buried abroad (Verner 1989; It was this Udjahorresnet, high priest and against Bareš 1999: 79-86). Furthermore, overseer of maritime shipping (jmj-rA kbnwt)— almost two centuries later, a priest from Sais not a military admiral as is often claimed (cf. restored one of his statues in the Ptah temple Darnell 1992: 81-84)—under the reign of at Memphis specifically in order to “keep his Amasis, who halted the imminent destruction name alive,” perhaps to honor his rescue of the of Sais. On his oft-discussed statue in the Neith temple (Anthes 1965: 98-100; Bareš Vatican, Udjahorresnet recounts how he 1999: 41-42; Kuhrt 2007 a: 415-416; for the personally interceded with Cambyses during post-Persian renewal of another Saite his visit to Sais (Posener 1936: 1-26; Lloyd monument, see Jansen-Winkeln 1997). 1982; Baines 1996). Udjahorresnet explained the theological significance of Sais and the local After the interlude at Sais, Cambyses goddess Neith, provided the Great King with headed south to campaign against Nubia an Egyptian titulary (Posener 1936: 161; (Herodotus III, 17-25). Kahn (2007) recently Serrano Delgado 2001; Blöbaum 2006: 392), assumed Cambyses marched entirely on foot, and persuaded him to banish foreign soldiers but Herodotus only employed the neutral from the sacred precinct (Thiers 1995: 498- Greek verb polemein to describe this campaign. 500, 513-514). Remarkably, he even claims to While this expedition ended in disaster, he have initiated Cambyses into the local temple apparently captured at least part of Lower services (Posener 1936: 17; cf. Serrano Nubia (Herodotus III, 97), and official Delgado 2004): Achaemenid monuments record Kush in their list of subjects beginning with Darius I “His Majesty himself went to the temple of (Morkot 1991). The installation of Persian Neith, and kissed the ground for her Majesty, garrisons at Elephantine and Syene reflects the very greatly, like all kings have done. He made continued engagement with Egypt’s southern a great offering of all good things for Neith, the frontier during this period. However, the Mother of God, and the great gods within Sais, pottery from the Second Cataract fort at like all good kings have done. Doginarti, previously ascribed to the Saite- That his Majesty did this, was because I had Persian Period (Heidorn 1991, 1992), has more made him understand the greatness of her recently been dated to Dynasties 25-26 (Neith’s) Majesty: she is the very mother of Ra (Heidorn 2013), and thus no longer confirms himself!” Achaemenid domination south of Elephantine. Frustrated in Nubia, Cambyses returned To label Udjahorresnet a “collaborator” north, dispatching an expedition against the (e.g., Lloyd 1982; Huß 1994) may be unfair. As Oases, apparently via the desert roads linking a prominent member of the indigenous and Thebes to Kharga, only to perish in an learned elite, he was perhaps one of the few unexpected sandstorm (Herodotus III, 26). Egyptians capable of rescuing the temple of Here, Cambyses was maintaining the foreign Sais from the invading army (Wessetzky 1991; policies of the preceding Saite dynasty, who Bareš 1999: 31-43). Aside from recognizing had already begun endowing large settlements Cambyses as the new legitimate king—the and temples in the Egyptian Oases (Kuhlmann same way Egyptians had accepted the usurper 1988; Colin 1998; Labrique 2008; Kaper 2013; Amasis a few decades earlier—there is no Darnell et al. 2012: 16-20), while evidence that Udjahorresnet acted against his simultaneously forging diplomatic ties with the fellow Egyptians for personal gain. Instead, he nascent Hellenistic colony of Cyrene in enjoyed a respectable reputation among northern Libya (Chamoux 1953: 135-150; Persian Period, Klotz, UEE 2015 3 Leahy 1988: 191-192).
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    ANTIGONI ZOURNATZI Cyrus the Great as a “King of the City of Anshan”* The Anshanite dynastic title of Cyrus the Great and current interpretations Since its discovery in the ruins of Babylon in 1879, the inscribed Cylinder of Cyrus the Great (fig. 1)1 has had a powerful impact on modern perceptions of the founder of the Persian empire. Composed following Cyrus’ conquest of Babylon in 539 BC and stressing above all his care for the Babylonian people and his acts of social and religious restoration, the Akkadian text of the Cylin- der occupies a central place in modern discussions of Cyrus’ imperial policy.2 This famous document is also at the heart of a lively scholarly controversy concerning the background of Cyrus’ dynastic line. The Persian monarch Darius I –who rose to the throne approximately a decade after the death of Cyrus the Great and who founded the ruling dynasty * This paper was initially presented in the First International Conference Iran and the Silk Road (National Museum of Iran, 12-14 February 2011). A pre-publication ver- sion was kindly hosted by Pierre Briant on Achemenet (Zournatzi 2011, prompting the similar reflections of Stronach 2013). The author wishes to express her appreciation to Daryoosh Akbarzadeh and the other organizers of the Tehran conference for the opportunity to participate in a meeting that opened up important new vistas on the complex interactions along the paths of the Silk Road, for their hospitality, as well as for their most gracious permission for both the preliminary and the present final publication. Thanks are equally due to Judith Lerner for a useful discussion concerning the possible wider currency of Cyrus’ Anshanite title outside the Babylonian domain, and to Michael Roaf, David Stronach, and the two reviewers of the article for helpful comments and bibliographical references.
  • An Introduction to Old Persian Prods Oktor Skjærvø

    An Introduction to Old Persian Prods Oktor Skjærvø

    An Introduction to Old Persian Prods Oktor Skjærvø Copyright © 2016 by Prods Oktor Skjærvø Please do not cite in print without the author’s permission. This Introduction may be distributed freely as a service to teachers and students of Old Iranian. In my experience, it can be taught as a one-term full course at 4 hrs/w. My thanks to all of my students and colleagues, who have actively noted typos, inconsistencies of presentation, etc. TABLE OF CONTENTS Select bibliography ................................................................................................................................... 9 Sigla and Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................... 12 Lesson 1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 13 Old Persian and old Iranian. .................................................................................................................... 13 Script. Origin. .......................................................................................................................................... 14 Script. Writing system. ........................................................................................................................... 14 The syllabary. .......................................................................................................................................... 15 Logograms. ............................................................................................................................................
  • Sphinx Sphinx

    Sphinx Sphinx

    SPHINX SPHINX History of a Monument CHRISTIANE ZIVIE-COCHE translated from the French by DAVID LORTON Cornell University Press Ithaca & London Original French edition, Sphinx! Le Pen la Terreur: Histoire d'une Statue, copyright © 1997 by Editions Noesis, Paris. All Rights Reserved. English translation copyright © 2002 by Cornell University All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, New York 14850. First published 2002 by Cornell University Press Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Zivie-Coche, Christiane. Sphinx : history of a moument / Christiane Zivie-Coche ; translated from the French By David Lorton. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8014-3962-0 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. Great Sphinx (Egypt)—History. I.Tide. DT62.S7 Z58 2002 932—dc2i 2002005494 Cornell University Press strives to use environmentally responsible suppliers and materials to the fullest extent possible in the publishing of its books. Such materi­ als include vegetable-based, low-VOC inks and acid-free papers that are recycled, totally chlorine-free, or partly composed of nonwood fibers. For further informa­ tion, visit our website at www.cornellpress.cornell.edu. Cloth printing 10 987654321 TO YOU PIEDRA en la piedra, el hombre, donde estuvo? —Canto general, Pablo Neruda Contents Acknowledgments ix Translator's Note xi Chronology xiii Introduction I 1. Sphinx—Sphinxes 4 The Hybrid Nature of the Sphinx The Word Sphinx 2.