SANGEET NATAK journal of the Sangeet Natak Akademi, is published quarterly by the Sangeet Natak Akademi (National Academy of music, dance and drama for India). Printed at The Statesman Press, Connaught Circus, New Delhi.
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OCTOBER-DECEMBERI~8 The views expressed in Sangeet Natak are the writers' own and do not necessarily conform to the opinion of the publishers. Permission to reproduce, in whole or in part, any material published in this Journal must be obtained from the Secretary, Sangeet Natak Akademi, Rabindra Bhavan, New Delhi-r
EDITORIAL BOARD
Dr. V. Raghavan Mrinalini Sarabhai
Dr. Lokenarh Bhattacharya
Mohan Rakesh
Dr. Suresh Awasthi . Uma Anand: Editor Contents
5 MARTIAL MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF ANCIENT fNDfA K. v. Shakuntala
12 MUSIC IN KOOTIYATTAM L. S. Rajagopalan
26 CLASSICAL TRADITION OF NATA MovEMENTS Prof. E. Nilakantha Singh
35 DANCE AND RITUAL IN MANIPUR Prof Mohan Khokar
48 FORUM: TOWARDS A PROFESSIONAL THEATRE Adya Rangacharya
54 MEANING OF MUSIC Dr. B. C. Dcva & R. G. Virmani
Cover: Manipuri Ras dancers - Mohan Kholear MARTIAL MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF ANCIENT INDIA
K.V. Shakuntafa
The study ofour ancient musical system brings to light numerous conceptions which are no where found in the modem trends ofIndian music. From the limited sources available to us of the ancient musical system, we discover that music pervaded all departments of life and was closely associated with social, religious, cultural, martial and other aspects of life. As the history of ancient India is one of almost conti nuous warfare, the importance of music for battles and battlefields cannot be over-emphasised. Vedic literature, the later vedic samhitas and the epics, bear testimony to this fact. However crude the music may have been it was indispensable for warfare, as it infused courage and enthusiasm and enabled the warriors to undergo great exertions with the least strain. Shantiparva in Mahabharata (roo, 46) refers to various tunes such as Ksvedah, Kilakila, and Krakaca played mainly to encourage the soldiers.
It is generally assumed that the history of military music dates back to paleolithic times, where prehistoric man is said to have used primitive types of instruments and shouted in ecstasy to celebrate his victory over his foes in his struggle for existence. But we do not have any trustworthy account ofits beginnings, as it antedates man's records, and music alone reached too far into the past, in fact to the very beginn ings, so that no explanation for it could be given. SANGEET NATAK 6
The earliest authentic human product of what we may term literature dealing with this aspect of music are the vedas. According to them dundubhi and adambara were the instruments commonly used for warfare in ancient days. In the hymns of Rigveda (VI, 47, 29-3r) an inspiring and beautiful account of the battle drum - dundubhi - is given in which it is hailed as "accordant with Gods"; "thundering out strength", "filling the warriors full of vigour", "The first of Indra", and so on. There is a similar verse in Atharvaveda (V, 2Q-2r) which is full of praise for the battle drum and glorifies its powers. Apparently the war drum must have been looked upon with great veneration and regard by the Hindus, because its capture meant defeat.
.The same idea is expressed in some of the great Tamil works. In song 62 of Putam the Poet Kazhathalaiyar laments over the plight of the Cheeraand Chola kings saying "Uraisal Chirapi« Murei Cheriz hintanave", Song 63 of the same work speaks ofthe destruction of the Murasu, In Patthu pattu (3D) it is said "InnisaiMurasu Mi-Thozhiyapa". Similar references are offered in Takkaiyakkabharani (745) and Moovarul« (Erasavoola).
Needless to say music continued to be an essential and important feature in epic warfare, at a much later period. In fact a great variety of instruments were put to use, as elaborated in the two celebrated Epics. Nowhere do we find battle scenes more clearly portrayed than in Mahabharata, where the army marches to the conti nuous blare of trumpets, thundering of drums, blowing of sankhas, twanging of bow-strings, tinkling of bells, clapping of hands etc. This tumultuous uproar continued from sunrise to sunset, but with a mo ment's break whenever a great hero fell during the course of the battle.
In the Dronaparva (88, I) the army marches into the field to the music of bheti, mridanga and sankha. "Tadyamanasu bhetisu IIlridangestl uadatsu ea Pradhamapitesu Canhhesu", In Bhismaparva, (99, n,) bheri, IIlridanga and panava are mentioned and bheri and anaka in Dronaparva. In Virata parva (72, 27) gomukh«, sankha and adalllbara are mentioned. Out of these instruments the gOlllukha is said to be a cow-faced drum, as its name suggests. Again in Bhismaparv« (43, 7-8) it is said that sea shells were blown and drums beaten thunderously in order to produce a 7 MUSICAL INSTRUME..'JTS
loud and powerful din to encourage the soldiers in their advance. Four kinds ofinstruments are mentioned here "tata bheryasca, pesyasca, krakaca, govinshanikah". Out of these the last mentioned is presumably a cow hom. The other drums pesi and krakaca seems to have been very popular with the ancients and was commonly played along with bheti. The drum dindima, named after the din it produces, was played at the commencement of the day's battle, as illustrated in Karnapatva (32,42).
In Bhismaparva 5 drums are mentioned along with horns and shells. They are bheri, mridanga, panava, pushleara and dundubhl. Out of these the pushkara or the bhanda vadya, as it is known, is often men tioned in great Sanskrit literary works. The kettledrum, muraja, is also referred to in the same parva(58, 46). Prof Hopkins in his treatise on "ruling caste" (J.A.O.s. P. 319) erroneously identifies this as a tambourine for in fact this is a single-faced drum.
Kumbha is another instrument which is usually found played along with bheri, panava, anaka, gotnukha and sankha. This is referred to in Ramayana (VI, 37, 52) as kumbhamukha. Unfortunately the details furnished in the epic are so meagre that we are not able to come to a singular conclusion respecting its shape, construction, technique etc. But judging by its name it must be a pot-mouthed, spherical drum, beaten strongly with sticks.
Similarly there are other instruments mentioned in various texts about which we get very limited information. The Agnipurana refers to an instrument by name tanleu, In the 7th chapter of Harsha-carita kahala and leonika are also mentioned in Manasollasa (p. 137, v. 1209) as sounded at the commencement of the battle. Judging trom the context we conclude that the above mentioned three instruments should be of the sushira type. .
Thus a great variety of instruments representing all types were used in epic warfare. These instruments were grouped into some distinct units which formed a sort ofband by itself, based on their tone colour. This was designed mainly to have an harmonious effect when the instruments were sounded together. The ancients exhibited a SANGEET NATAK 8
highly developed taste in handling the instruments and used them with great discrimination.
The Jataka Tales provide us with stray references to military music while dealing at length with the campaigns. In Mugapakka Jataka (translation by Cowell VI, 14) orders are issued to sound the conch and tabour and wake the loud-mouthed kettledrum; to rattle the drums and sound the tom-tom with force and fill the air with its music. In Sonanadha Jataka (V 120) music is provided by drum, tabour and conch to cheer the King who returns back triumphant. Indian Antiquary (Volume VIn) refers to a Calukyan grant ofKing Kirtivarman II which described the dakka as a lotus-mouthed drum. In the Nagpur Stone inscription ·of the Malava Kings both damaru and jharjhara are mentioned. Out of the varied and numerous instruments that were put to martial use the dundubhi is of the greatest antiquity. The great variety ofdrums that we have today are all its progeny. This instrument has derived its name from the sound it produces, but a mythological origin is attached to its name as enumerated in Matsyapurana (13-14) where it is said that the sound of the drum caused death to Dundubhi and consequently from thence took this name. Though this instrument was considered of great importance and excellence in the vedic period, it seemsto have been superseded by the bheri at a much later period.
The bheri is a fear-infusing instrument as its name explains. This is synonymous with the mutasu which is frequently mentioned in Tamil texts. The instrument was usually made out of wood, equipped with the skin of the cow or that of an antelope, and anointed with ghee (Atharva, page 130, 132). This was particularly sounded as a hero entered the chariot before starting on a campaign (Ramayana VI, 31,28). The Bhismaparva of Mahabharata (54, 85) refers to mahabheri as accom panied by white conches. This evidently must be a little bigger in proportion than the ordinary sized bheri. Vasudeva Kxishna is said to have possessed four kinds of bheri as mentioned in verse 356 of Nijjuti
(Bhasa) namely kaumudiki, sangramiki, durbhutika, asivopasamini I. Periya-
I. Journal of the Oriental Institute, Baroda University March 1953- 9 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
puranam (493) refers to five kinds ofbheris but the names are not furnish ed in the texts.
The bheri is said to have possessed medicinal powers so that who ever sounded the instrument got cured of the diseases he had. An interesting episode is narrated at length in the Nalayagiri Slid (Page I07) which speaks of the custodian of the bheri, who sold its pieces to well to-do persons on receiving bribes and replaced them with ordinary pieces as a result of which the instrument lost its potency in due course. Lord Krishnaon seeingthis observed a fast for 3 days and at last succeeded
in getting another one. I
Conches too were held in high esteem by epic warriors, each of them carried a drum as well as a conch of their own. Krishna possessed a gold adorned shell, named Panchajanya, AIjuna had Devaddata; Bhima had Paundra; Yudisthira, Ananthavijaya; Nakula, Sughosha; and Sahadeva, Manipushpaka (M.B. VI, 24).
In the Rigveda, Samhita we meet with an instrument by the name bakura. This is said to have been employed by Asvins in their expedi tions against the Dasyus. As we judge from the circumstances we understand this instrument solely to have been employed for war purposes. Kautilya in his celebrated work Arthasastra makes mention of turyakaras - the trumpet blowers, and assigns them double wages compared to an ordinary musician.
Purananooru and other Sangam classes provides us with useful information regarding the military principles and practices of the ancient Tamils. The commonest of the instruments mentioned in these works are murasu, muzhavu, parai and sangu, about which we get references in profusion. Out ofthese instruments the murasu was hailed as one of the sacred objects ofroyalty. In Kalithoghai (5th Naidel, I5) the King Pandya is hailed as the possessor of cheera, chola and his own pandya mutasu. Thereby indicating his supremacy over the other two Kings. This was considered not only to be sacred but in fact as divinity itseI£ An inspiring account of this drum is given in the 50th verse
I. Journal ofthe Oriental Institute, Baroda University T953 SANGEET NATAK 10 ofthe Purananootu wherein the drum is taken out for a sacred bath and decked with fragrant flowers, beautiful peacock feathers and also with a necklace studded with sapphires. A special seat is assigned to it which is also looked upon "with the same amount ofdevotion and care. Sacri fices were offered in its honour.
The mayirkkall mutasu is said to have been made out ofblack wood with leather straps tied fast. (jeevakachil1tamill1i S.2152). The face was covered with the skin of a dead bull without the hair being removed from it or with the skin of a she-elephant which had vanquished a tiger (Patthll Pattu 334) and (Pertmkadhai 1.38). This was anointed with black mud and had a black spot or "eye" as it is referred to in these books. (Padittm Pattu S· 50; pllram 63). It was struck with sticks (Puram 143).
Kinai or tudi is another instrument of great military importance which is supposed to have possessed a clear and distinct sound. This is a double-faced drum played out on the left face as enumerated in Nala dirar (S· 388). This instrument is designed in the shape of the foot prints of a female elephant (Kalithogai P. 954). This is particularly played for 'Vetchi' which is a sort of prelude to the actual campaign, during which the enemies' cows were captured. The person who played on this was known as Tudiyan or Kinaiyan; the post of which was held to be hereditary (Purapporal Venbamalai 19). It is tied fast with leather straps and has a Karanai or black spot.
Kodlllllparai is another instrument used for this purpose. It is so known because ofits usage in war which means the death of many. Patuli] - a cymbal, and mdt/vayir are also frequently referred to. The Villiputhurar A1ahabharatatn refers to some of the war instruments such askaradikai - which sound like a bear, pertlmaram, mutadu and pedu parai. Similarly we get frequent ref.:rcnces to many kinds ofparai and murasu, The fact that two or more of them arc often mentioned together probably shows that they were not merely different names of one and the same instrument;
Camp music differed vastly from that of the battle-field music. The soft and melodious music of the camp is a pleasant contrast to the harsh and fearful music of the field. In the evenings the warriors were II AtuSICAL INSTRUMENTS
greeted by milder notes of the lyre and that of panava and mridang«. (M.B. VI. 99, 18: VII, 39, 31) which is a clear proof of their artistic sense and advanced knowledge in music.
The military commanders and chiefs who had won laurels on. the battlefield were rewarded with titles and distinctions and were given the right to appear in public with a special band in attendance known as Panchamahasabda - comprised of five primary musical instruments. SiLzpadigaram (P. 339 L. 144) refers to the I1IUZhaVIl being presented to the warriors in recognition of their chivalrous and brave deeds.
Another interesting and noteworthy usage of the instruments on the battlefields is for sending signals, military orders and other confi dential messages. The commencement and the conclusion of the days battle, the fall of a chief and similar other matters were communicated by means of these instruments. We get references about this in Sulaaniti (P. 243) and Asthasastra (P. 140) wherein there are instances ofthe battle orders being communicated through bugle sounds.
These facts make clear the highly developed and rich musical system of ancient Hindus and also the immense interest and con sistency with which they practised this art.
K. V. Shaleuntala presented thisarticle asapaper attheAll/sic Seminar heldbytheSal/geet Natak Aleademi ill 1957 ill New Delhi. . MUSIC IN KOOTIYATIAM
L. S. Rajagopalan
Kootiyattam is the staging ofSanskrit drama in Kerala,in a peculiar, unique and very ancient and traditional way. Though it is a neglected art, it has not died out entirely. Three or four Chakyar families have kept it alive and portions of dramas are staged even to this day with little change from the method of presentation from the times of King Kulasekhara Varma.
It may be made clear at the outset that in Kootiyattam no songs are sung nor are alapa ofslokas rendered in the Karnatak or other styles.
The musical aspects of Kootiyattam can be mainly divided into two sections.
I. Music connected with the vachikabhinaya (i.e.) the recitation or chanting of stanzas or even prose passages. 2. The back-ground music provided by the" mlzha», eddakka, kuzhithalam, the kuzhal and the sankhu.
Stylised speech Before the starting of the play the Nangyar, who keeps time with the kuzhithalam recites some vanJana slokas, such as "Sakala Surasura Gana Namitam". This is now done in a sing-song manner suiting the metre of the slokas. Then the Nambyar recites the benedictory verse. There is little music in these two items as performed today. 13 KOOTIYATTAM
During the course ofthe play the Chakyars have a peculiar way of chanting the verses. This is not ordinary recitation of the slokas in the typical Kerala styles nor is it singing of the slokas in any Karnatak or Hindustani ragas. It would be more or less appropriate to classify it with the chanting of the Vedas. The Chakyars call it "Swarathil ChoIluka."
The notes used for the chanting of Rig or Yajur vedas are well known- anudatta, udatta, swaritha and prachaya. This calls for the use of three or four notes. The chanting of some vedas- Sama Gana as it is called -. callsfor the use of five or six notes, in the elongation of the notes lies its musicality.
The recitation of the slokas by Chakyars may be assigned a place mid-way between the chanting of Rig or Yajur veda and that of the Sama Gana. There is a de:6.nite mode of recitation. There are some twenty such modes or "quasi" - ragas, if I may so term them. They can be divided into three sections.
I. Modes used by certain characters 2. Modes used for expressing certain sentiments (rasas) 3. Modes used for certain situations or some description of nature. There are some verses giving the names of these modes and their uses. The authors of these verses are not known.
A verse in Malayalam giving the names of ragas is given below:
~ ~ Qlij~fdT"1rG05 ;j (~) cfi' lj)dftl41"dd€Cl~~ '(flT ~ SANGEET NATAK 14 ( ~ ) l{~ ~ lffiJTIllt if'" r...f~~ii3 ~ fir ~~ CfClf... f~~4"'4a ora-: '" " (~) <1l"'li<1i+lf'i mnurt etl~i:flI'1i ~ 'if ;liTq~ ~ ~ ;fflU ~ ~ (-t) WH''414111 ~flcdi ~ ~ ~ ~, 'il <'11<1€4 (lll~ qtj'fl(~~ C(1JA ('\ ~) 3Jlildqoj'1I4 ("if ~f1(1~liqlfl4d ~i>lqijl We shall take the ragas one by one: I. Indala Normally used by dheerodatta heroes some times by madhyama patras - lesser or secondary heroes ~ like Lakshmana. This mode is also used by Arjuna in the presence ofDraupadi 2. Cheti Pancham« for madhyama characters, for kanchttkis and chetis and for neetha patras. Children use this alone 15 KOOTIYATTAM 3; Antari for kavi vakl'a - for telling of stories, narrating 4. Veladimli in perplexed condition. Indicates fear. Or when a message is shouted to someone standing far away. S· Bhinna Panchama in extreme joy (like sambhoga-sringara) 6. Srikamara in unexpected joy 7· Aattan in sringara 8. Pourali in sringara moorchna (it is also used in vipralambha moorchana) 9. Muddan sringara (especially sambhoga, sringara of Rakshasas or demons). 10. Muralindala Sri Rama's normal sambhoga sringara II. Kaisiki hasl'a and bibhatsa I2. Tarkan in anger - roudra 13· Veera Tarlean for veera rasa 14· Dukka Gangharam for dukha andshoka sorrowful mood. IS· Danam for atbhuta and for bhal'a in fear 16•. Ghattanthari in news of the death of a Dushta, evil character 17· Thot/dll in bhakthi and saantha rasa devotional or peaceful mood I8. Korahurunji normal for monkeys I9· Poranir description of the Rainy Season 20. Srikandhi used at the end of an act. It is used . also in the killing of bad characters, for bhakthi, for the description of sunset and noon. Another set ofverses prescribing the ragas is quoted below: these verses are not familiar to the Chakyars I have contacted: ~ crufu" CJ1ft $«1'hHlIRi34; ~'il"'ltj('Rj~ fcJm d' To the uninitiated there would appear to be little difference between the different swaras used - especially so when only one character is on the stage. When however, two actors are on the stage - a master and servant - one can easily note that the way ofchanting is different. Going through the names of these ragas, one is struck by the similarity of the names with those of the ragas found in Indian music. Some of the names are even identical. Bhinn« Panchama is a Janya of Ganamoorthy in Kamatak music. Srikandhi is a Janya of Shadvindha-margini in Karnatak music. It is used in Kathakali music also. While Chedi Panchama is not traceable among Karnatak ragas there are a number of"Panchama" ragas. It is significant that Chedi Panchama is prescribed for use of Chedis in Kootiyattam. While Poutali is not found in Karnatak music there is a Bhinna Pourali, (a Janya of DhavalambaTl) . A much more significant point to be noted is the similarity of 17 KOOTIYATTAM the names of these ragas with the names-of Tamil Panns. In ancient Tamil music, ragas were called Panns and Thirams. They are also classified as suitable for day time or night time etc. The names of these panns can be seen in the compositions of Thevaram songs. The following raga-names are identical in Kootiyattam and Tamil panns: Indalam, Indalam is also used in Kathakali music. Some names are found, with only a slight alteration - which is only consistent with the normal change in other words from Tamil to Malayalam. Poranir Poranirmai Incidentally, Poranir is also found in Kathakali songs. Kaisiki Kousikam Srikamaram . Sikamaram Tarkan . Takkaragam Though Korakurunji is not found elsewhere, Kuranji is a common Kamatak and Tamil raga. There is a Tamil raga called Antheem Kuranji sung by the Koraua community. Dukhagandharam This is found l1l Kathakali music. In Tamil patlns, there is a Kantharam and Piyandai Kandaram, All these would go to show the close connection between Kooti yattam and Tamil culture. As already. pointed out the slokas are only chanted and not sung and so the similarity is confined only to the names of the ragas at present. Whether, in the distant past the slokas used to be sung in the ragas and later whether they were reduced to mere chants, or whether the names of the chant were adopted for ragas developed after the development of Kootiyattam, are matters for speculation. The modes of chanting have come down from gum to sishya for the last ten centuries or so. Due to the passage of time and the neglect of the art some ofthem are as good as lost. The time is, there fore, overdue to make proper recording ofthe various modes which are in vogue now. Later they could be analysed and a simple notation could be evolved for these chants to help the artists to remember the modes easily. SANGEET NATAK 18 We shall now consider the instruments: Kuzhithalan: or Cymbals: These are used by the Nangyar, for keeping the tala. The Nangyar is also an actress and is expected to know all aspects ofthe chanting and dancing and abhinaya of Kootiyattam. Sankhu or Condi This is considered an auspicious instrument, and a sign of royalty. It is sounded in the background when important presonalities appear on the stage (as in Kathakali, too). Edkka This is an hour-glass-shaped percussion instrument. The tension strings are manipulated by one hand and the drumming is done with a stick held in the other hand. Notes to cover nearly two octaves can be produced by the manipulation of the tension strings and there are experts, who can even play songs on the instrument. It is played in the sopanas of temples, and for lasya dances in Kathakali, and in Pancha vadya. While the instrument is a good accompaniment for Kooti yattam, the volume produced is so low that it gets drowned in the din of the other instruments. Kuzhal or Kurum Kuzhal This instrument is practically the same as the Shehnai ofthe north or the Mukha Veena of the South. This instrument is seen in the Chenda Mela ofKerala, where it is used as a tala instrument. It is usually the leading piper, who controls the Chenda Melam. One can hear melody played on this instrument during the Kuzhalpattu played during the temple festivals. The correct ftmction of the Kuzhal in the Kootiyattam orchestra is not clear. Ifit be for keeping the tala, as in the case of the Chenda Melam, it is not being used so now. Ifit be for producing a melodious refrain in the background, the question will arise - which ragas are to be played and when? As prevalent today the Kuzhal player - ifhe be one who is not good at Karantak music - often plays a series of notes which produce an unmusical or jarring effect. If the player is 19 KOOTIYATTAM good at Kamatak music he goes 011 playing a series of ragas at his command. These mainly, have no relation to the sentiments or action portrayed by the actors, Hence as it stands today, the function of Kuzhal is not dear..I for one, can never imagine that the originators of this wonderful art of Kootiyattam - who were so particular in the use of different ragas for different shades of the same rasa-would ever have allowed the indisciplined freedom that the Kuzhal player now appropriates to himself There is scope, rather an urgent need, for an immediate reform ill the mode ofplaying the Kuzhal. Either, it can confine itself to playing the jatis of the tala that is used, or it should confine itself to playing a melody appropriate to the sentiments portrayed, or to the character who in a particular scene dominates the stage. Considering the position of the chanting of the verses and the present-day indiscipline of the Kuzhal I am inclined to believe that the verses may have been sung in appropriate ragas once, At one stage a reformer must have come forward and altered the system and changed the singing to a Vedic type ofchant. Thatreformer - one, presumably with no ear for music - must have allowed the Kuzhal-wala to fend for himself It may be noted in this connection, that about I,OOO A.D. a poct, Tholan, (it is believed) brought about some reforms in Kootiyattam. Allowing the Vidushaka to speak in Malayalam, and his recitation of prati slokas in Malayalam parodying the verses (in Sanskrit) of the hero, his expositions or purusharthas (Veshya Gamana, Veshya Vanchana, Ashana and Rajaseva) etc. are attributed to the changes brought about by Tholan. The verses attributed to Tholan do not encourage one to believe that he was much inclined musically. It may be mentioned here that in North Indian music the im portance given in practice to sruti is stressed more than is the case with Kamatak music. In Karnatak music the importance given to tala is a bit more than in the North. In Kerala, melodic music, especially in the temple arts has practically disappeared, but the tala vadyas are given prime importance. Itis, therefore, not surprising that the wonder- SANGEET NATAK 20 ful Shehna! ofthe North becomes an obscure Mtlkha Veena in the South and a mere tala instrument in Kerala. Mizhav . 'The Mizhav is a big pot with a piece ofleather stretched tight and tied across its mouth. Formerly, it used to be made of clay. 'The present-day instruments are of copper. The ones at Trichur Temple are about 36" high and about 26" in diameter at the widest point. The neck protrudes some 5" from the body and the diameter of the neck is about 6". The Mizhav is held in a vertical position in a stand. A seat is arranged for the Nambyar on top of the stand. The Mizhav is not played when versesor prose passages are recited by the actors, who give a signal for the Nambyar to stop playing before they start the vachikabhinaya. In its' primitive form Mizhav is only one step higher than the Ghatam used in Karnatak music. It is played by beating on the leather surface with both the palms and the fingers. The Mizhav is the most important tala accompaniment in Kootiyattam. In a few temples in Madras State an identical or almost similar instrument is seen and is called Kota-Muzha. The Jatis for the various talas are played on the Mizhav for the danc ing and the abhinaya of the actor. As the instrument has only a piece ofleather stretched over the mouth ofa pot and since it is played with the palms it may be considered that much tonal variation is not possible, but the possibilities of the tonal variation may be understood by the following vayathari (or solkettu or boIs). Tharha Tharhim: Thaththa: Tha Thatha Tha Tha Tharhi Tharham: Tharhakim Tha Tha, Dhakkukum Dhakkukum Dhoram Dheram etc. Two instruments are used - one keeps time and the other plays the vinyasa. The mythology of the Mizhav is interesting. Kottiyattam itself is supposed to be a creation ofBrahma, who took words from the Rig veda, abhinaya (dramatic expression) from the Yajur, the swarar (notes ofmusic) from Sama veda and the rasas (moods) from the Atharva veda. 21 KOOTIYATTAM The disciples of Bharata (author of Natyasastra) were perplexed as to what should be the instrument for Kootiyattam. They had a dream in which the Mizhav appeared. The Mizhav has to be subjected to religious ceremonies like Jathakarma, Namakarana, etc., up to Upanayana. Only members of the Nambvar community can play on it and that, too, only at the time of performance. For practicing the talas some make-shift instru ments are provided for the students. The Mizhav is placed in the Kuthapa Sthana of the Kootamballam (Theatre). The Mizhav is said to be a confirmed Bachelor (Nitya Brahma Chart), who studies Rigveda constantly and meditates on the Nadabrahama with pranava (OM). The Mizhau is used only in Kootiyattam and not for any other temple ritual or art. We shall now consider the talas ofKootiyattam. dl<:'l@'llf'l ~ lirel@'ll ~: ~ Slftiti6ll1\ flrfu alctlt1f~ Brcr: ~ trnTd' .fldlj From these stanzas the importance given to tala may be guaged. Since the Nambyar is seated behind the actor, he has to be well versed in the art ofKootiyattam, ifhe is to play the appropriate jatis for the various talas to give proper effect to the abhinaya of the Chakyar. The following talas are usually used. I. Ekatala: Usually, 4 matras : similar to Ekatala of Kamatak music 2.· Dhruvatala: 14 mattas: similar to Dhruvatala of Karnaiak music. 3· Ttiputatala: 7 mairas: similar to Tisrajati Triputa of Karnatak music. 4- Thampatala: 10 mattas: similar to jhampatala ofKamatak music. 5· Chempatatala: S matras: similar to jhompata or Adi tala ofKamatak music. 6. Atanthatala: 14 matras: Ata tala ofKamatak music. As in the case ofthe ragas there are some verses prescribing a tala to be played for particular occasions. Some verses seem to be in complete. Information other than that given in the verses are also given below: Ekatala ~~~ '" ... When the ragas Srikatldhi, Thondu, Poraneir, Kaisiki, Indalam, Bhinnapanchaman and Dukkha Gandharan are used Ekatala is to be played. It is also used for Hasya Bibhatsa, for the Adbhuta rasa of Dheerodatta Characters. Ekatala of a different type is used when the Vidushakaka acts. It is also used for such dance bits known as Kundalamittu Mutichu Kottotu Kooti Chooluka. Dhtuvatala x x x x 23 KOOTIYATTAM 'fll (ifl:t:~fOlOl, , (Iii :q UCRI'ffi: Wlftfcrcr: '" When ragas Muddan Tarkan and Korakkunmji are used Dhruvatala is to be used. It is used in Adbhuta, Bhayanaka, Rakshasa - Sambhoga Sringara, Vipralambha, Sringara of Dheerodatta Characters. In Nitya Kriya Valiyakkitha, Valiya Keshadi Pada, Vattam Thattal etc. Thriputatala ~lffirt~ ~~~<:mrm: Medium tempo Thriputa is used when Veladhyli is recited. It is alo used in Bhayanaka, Yasiyasi Pullarikka, Matam Etukkuka, Parikraman, Armlgu Perumattam: Perumpara Kottuka. ~~rallY(04 (Iii ..• f In Gattantari raga Triputa in slow tempo is to be used. It is alsoused in Krodha, Roudra - especially of Dheerodatta characters, in Jaathi, Kailasamitikkuka Sikharam Pottichu Eriyuka. ~:q 4i(ICillli F When using Srikamara and Pourali, Triputa in fast tempo has to be used. In other dance bits Dhruvatala in fast or slow tempo has to be used. In Sri Rama's Sambhoga Sringara slow tempo Dhruvatala IS to be used. Jhampatala is used when Yougandharayana does Kangapatrathil Natakkuka. Also when Thattu is played. When a character acts thathe hears what othes are saying Atan is used. SANGEET NATAK When Ghoshthi is played (before the start of the play to assemble the audience) Chempatatala is used. In a dance ofJatayu, Lakshmi tala (sameasLakshisa tala ofKarnatak music) is played. Different talas according to circumstances have to be used for Nitya Kriya, Ther Perumattam, Pakshi Sthobham, Kalapurathu Natakkuka, Udghattatlam etc. The old acharyas have however, given one relief to the perplexed player. When in doubt he can use the Ekatala (like Sarva Laghu of the Mridanga player). ~Wrm~ W4((6 This glorious art is facing total extinction. There ale hardly four actors who can independently act and direct the plays. Junior actors may make up to another four. Though the Kerala Kalamandalam has started a course in Kootiyattam, there are only two students there for acting and none at all for playing the Mizhav. Due to the lack of training, which of course is due to lack of patronage a good actress (Nangyar) is hardly to be se~. Many Natlgyars go off the tala while keeping time, making the work of the Chakyar all the more difficult. There are barely a couple of good Nambyars for playing the Mizhav. Some of the Nambyars make such a din while playing that one can hardly sit inside the theatre. For the proper preservation of available records and to give new life to the art, it is essential to take immediate steps to remedy conditions. It should not be left merely in the hands of traditional families or in those ofamateurs. Acktlotvledge11letlts I. The verses on ragas are from A. Madhava Chakyar & P. Rama Chakyar. 2. The znd set ofverses on ragas are from Dr. K. Kunjunni Raja. 3. I have consulted the books ofPt. K. P. Narayana Pisharoti on this subject. 25 KOOTIYATTAM 4· The details of talas are from Narayana Nambiar and his father Mani Madhava Chakyar, 5· Pt. Subbarama Pattar and Pt. Narayana Pisharoti have helped much by their valuable suggestions. L. S. Rajagopalan: Although not a professional musicologist or theatre-worker, Shri Raja gopalan takes a keen interest in the performing arts especially the research andrevival aspects of forms ofdance, drama andmusic in the traditional fonns in Kerala - Hisfield ofstudy includes the music of Kootiyattam and Krlshnattam. CLASSICAL TRADITION OF NATA MOVEMENTS Prof. E. Nilkantha Singh To many, the Manipuri Vaishnavas are a strange people. They often weep or cry or lie prostrate at the mere mention of Lord Krishna or Radha, in the midst of a samkirtana performance. When Radha, in the role of an Abhisarika Nayika - the fearless heroine - begins dressingherself,the devout Vaisnava weeps - a sight which is certainly unintelligible from the traditional Hindu poetics. To understand the heart and mind of a Manipuri Vaisnava, one has to go to the depth of Vaisnavaaesthetics asinterpreted by the revered goswamins ofVrindavan. Particular mention may be made of the two outstanding works, Bhakti Rasamrta sindlm followed by the supplement, Ujjvala Nilamanl, of Rupa Goswamin, who attempted a reorientation to the understanding of the Rasa-Sastra, as the Vaisnavas conceive of it. The love of Krishna (Krishna-rati) becomes the dominant feeling - sthayi-bhava which, through its appropriate excitants, vibhavas as well as ensuants, anubhavas - and auxiliary feelings - vyabhicaribhavas - is raised to a supreme relishablecondition of the Vaisnava heart as the Bhakti-rasa. Bhakti, to the Manipuri Vaishnava, is not a bhava but a rasa which admits offive types -'- Santa (with sama-bhava), Prlta (with dasatva bhava), Preyas (with 27 NATA MOVEMENTS sakhyabhava), Vatsalya, (with vatsala-bhava) and Madhura (with Madhura rati), after Bhakti Rasamtta-slndhu. And of the five, the last one, namely Madhura rasa, is the mostjmportant, Being known as Bhakti-rasa-raj, it is the subject ofa very detailed treatment in Ujjvala Nllamani ofRupa Gosvamin, The eternal play ofKrishna and the gopis, with Radha as the most prominent of them is the theme dear to the hearts of the Manipuri Vaishnavas. A sloka from the standard work on Manipuri Dance, Govinda Sangee: LeeIa vtlas of Rajarshi Bhagyachandra (I764-89 A.D.) I says that dance is not merely for amusement or recreation but mostly for the love of the Lord, Bhagavat - naratanam bhagavat bhakteh anubha vataya matam na kevam vllasasya vtnodasua ca sadhanam. It is meant for bhagavat-pntl-bhagavat-pntl-hetutvat and represents the time-old tradi tion of the Manipuris -MampllTl vasinam esa visuddha ya parampara. All the dances, and festivals and leelas of the Manipuri Vaishnavas are bhakt,-oriented and they have got to be approached and appreciated from the bhakt, point of view. As a matter offact, the life cycle of a Mani puriis marked by a series of samkirtanas in its various stages-birth, sastlu puja on the sixth day, anna prasana, karnabedh, adopting the sacred thread, marriage, death - at the various stages of cremation, astlu samchayan, shraddha-and anniversary. Samlurtanas constitute the soul ofManipuri culture and it is aptly recognised as the 11lahayajna by every devout Vaishnava.. The artistes of the samlartanas known as nata k,rtakas are described thus by Govmda Sangeet Leela V,{as: Stre va atha puruso vap' natah san gunaklrtana11l learoti ishasva yah sabhmayam sa ttatakJrtaka. This is after the conventional classification of the artistes, with a particular accent-on bhaktl. But the Manipuris follow a distinctive tradition of garga carya according to which, natya, is divided into rupaka and rasaka in which songs and dance predominate - pradhanayam nntya gltadeh samlapadl apradhanyata. And of the six types of rasaka - maha, manju vasanta, mtya, nubesa gopa and talak, the last type of rasaka has a special I. Govinda Sangeet Leela Vilas by Rajarshi Bhagyachandra (1764 - 89 A.D.). Regarding this work,· there is at present a controversy about its origin and authorship. SANGEET NA TAK 28 reference to. the samklrta,ia performances of the natakirtakas. The tala· rasaka admits of two types - taHa (with the hands clapping) and nata palll in which the metal instruments are used - natapallyam .tu talah syadghana t1adyena sarvad«. This natapall, which admits of both lasya .and tandava 'aspects, is further subdivided into ghana melaka and dhruva melaka (with I4 mridangas used by the nartakas) known as Dhrumel by the Manipuris. The nataklrtaka of the various samkittanas come under the natapalli group. It must be mentioned in this connection that the Manipuris follow a distinctive tradition which I am inclined to characterise as nartana vartika tradition asdistinguished from the Natyashtlftra tradition ofBharat Muni. While describing the three traditions of sangeet the author of Govinda Sangeet Leela Vilas makes a special reference to this Manipuri tradition - Garga Naradadyam Citrarathadeems Ca Sampradayagatah. Because Brahma, as the story goes, having learnt the art from Vishnu, taught the Natyaveda at the request ofPurandara (Indira) to Gandharvaraj Chitraratha, Bharat and Garga-Gandharva raj Bharat Gargadibhyo dadou muda. At the command of Indra, Chitraratha taught it along with its angas and upangas to Arjuna who again imparted the shastra to Uttara of the Virata King and later to the women of Dvaraka. The classi fication of lasya into two, and ofthe tandava style intocalanam, gunthanam and ptasaranam is after the work, Nartana Vartika of which Chitraratha is the author, while the division of the rasakas into six follows rasa Prakasa of Gargacharya who was the teacher ofKrishna in the house of Nanda and Yasoda - both ofwhich represent a very ancient Vaishnava tradition. From a comparative study of the prevalent treatises like Natyashastra, Sangeet Ratnakara, Abhinaya Darpana etc., I have a feeling that Gargacharya might be a later addition of the medieval age whereas Citraratha must have been a very ancient one asgandharvas find a respect ful mention in the various classical treatises. It is only a pity the two great works viz. Nartana Vartika and Hasaprakasa are nowhere avail able and hardly recognised even at this stage of research on classical Indian dance at the moment. One feels one is reading a book ofwhich the first page is missing. We have to depend entirely on Govitlda Sangeet Leela Vilas which is based on the two books for a proper appre ciation of the distinctive classical heritage of Manipuri Dance. NAT.1 MOV£\fB'JTS Of the three aspects of tandava style, Gunthanan: represents move ments of the limbs (anga viksepanam) with a lot of bhramari utplavana (jumping) and tlpavesana (sitting) while the two legs and the knees are to be kept as close as possible. There should be only a distance of a tala between two legs. There should be no thrusting from (praksepa), shaking (kampana) hip movements (nitamva-chalana) in this style. This tandava style, though indicative of vigour (oudhyata), is based on sattua gtl11a (sattvagtmasryama) and is still graceful (sot/myatam). This is much used in the gostha bhangi parmg and slightly less in nata movement. ill the second style of tandava known as calanam the standing postures for the males - purusasthanakas (numbering 17, after Nattana Vartika) are appropriately used. There is much movement up and down in almost an endless series of movements with the heels touching occasionally and in the traingular and rectangular poses (tryasram cha ttlrasrakam). The thighs and knees are to be kept apart. At the first downward movement (sitting) the wrists are to be kept on the knees; the next sitting involves the elbows resting on the knees with the trunk loose (sithilam) and the head bent (nata). The movements of the legs can be from the calves, knees or thighs. Hands are not be kept on the head or below the navel. What is popularly known as cholom (either ofKaratala or Pung) ofthe various samk rtanas ofManipur is a corrupted expression of Calana which constitutes the basic movements of Nata pall. The last tandava style, prasaranam in which movements are more exaggerated and free is mostly used for dances representing fights (sam gramabhinayartham) • I shall not in to a detailed discussion of the various movements of angas, IIpattgas and pratyangas, most of which exist in this distinctive dance tradition and are also thoroughly analysed in the book, Govinda Sangeet Leela Vilas: Apart from slight differences in the number and nomenclature of the various movements of the limbs Gouinda Sangeet Leela Vilas preserves almost all the classifications as are found in the various treatises like Natyashastra, Abhinaya Darpanam etc. But follow ing the tradition, there is little discussion about eyebrows, eyelids, pupils, cheeks which are not used much in Manipuri Dance - Sam pradayibhedena sthulanam Ita darsanam, What matters ultimately is not SANGEET NATAK 30 the classifications so much as the pattern of movements - the co ordinated harmonisation of the various limbs in the total image of a distinctive Manipuri style. There is much stillness, softness and suggestiveness in the Manipuri style which gives a definite accent on what can be called angikabhittaya. Much is left to the on-lookers to perfect the meaning of the al1gikabhil1aya in which were being became insignificant and sometimes superfluous. I am prepared to call it a characteristic eastern tradition - the tradition of the Gandharuas, of the Nattana Vartika tradition which has its roots in the heart of the people. Strictly speaking, Natapalli admits of both the tandava and lasya styles. But what is popularly known as Nata Kittanas indicates the tandava style in which the Calanam tandava is predominant. This sam kirtana which finds supreme flowering in Manipur has been wonder fully adapted and conceived in the distinctive Manipuri pattern of a prayer-:- a form of a rasaka, while keeping the spirit of the strict Vais nava aesthetics. In the traditional sanikinana there are usually r6 artists forming a Circle in the mandap under the following analysis: One abhitteta (called'Isheihallba in Manipuri), 3 ofhis assistants, one imitator ofabhitteta (called dohara), 9 of his assistants and 2 players on 1ll1:idallga (pIIng). According to Govinda Sal1geet Leela Vilas the number may be r6, 32 or 64. The entire group is called nata pala, after the Bengali term,pala. The mandap has the centre with a rounded plantain leaf an.dwith a piece of cloth as the seat (asalla) on it and other puja materials like lamp, pan and fruits. This is called malldali pllja as 5 of the Vaisnava gods Shri Krishna Chaitanya, Nityananda, Advaits, Gadadhar and Srivasa are supposed to be seated and are worshipped when the samleirtana starts with the adhivasa. On this day a flag is also dedicated to the Lord to avoid any obstacles which might come in. the way of the samkirtana. According to Panditraj Atombapu, this corresponds to, Jarjara Puia for Indra as described in the Natyashastra. Four earthen pots (called ghitta) are placed in the four corners of the mal1dap to signify point') of worship. There are strict restrictions with regard to the style of dress. .All the nata kirtakas must. observe 12 tilakas, wear tulasi malas around the 31 NATA MOVEAfENTS neck and adopt sacred threads. Each should wear the dhoti in the trikatcha style and have a white turban on and remain seated with knees touching the ground. The big five - Isheihanba, dohar, kltombanba and two mridanga players should show proper respect to the distinguished assembly by lying prostrate (dandavat pranam) before all directly they make their proper introduction to the gathering of the rasileas. According to the Vaishnavic treatise, Bltakti Ratnakara, the khola (mridanga) and kartala constitute the wealth of Lord Chaitanya and both are to be worshipped. Following this tradition, the 16 sets of kartalas (ghana vadyas) and two ntridanoas are worshipped with lamps, tilaka and incense (in the nirajana or aratl manner) along with the nartakas who may be compared to the priests of a yajna which every samkirtana really is.. Clothes are distributed to each artist in place of money, after the tradition, by the performer ofthe yajna. This is the adhivasa stage of a samkirtana yajna - samskarah Gandham Malyadyeih Yah Syat tat Adhivasanani. The president of the assembly (called Maiulap Mapu in Manipuri) then makes the dhvani: Valaha Premse Kaha Shri Radhakrishna Valalta Prabhu Nityai Chaitanva Advaita Kahata santa sadho Madhurasa Vani Hare Hare. When this recitation reaches the expression Chaitanya, the mridang« players strike with the bola - Ten Ten Tat Tah Tang - which is known as the beginning of the raga of mridanga. The conch player starts aloud with his conch in a significant sound. The mridang« raga is followed imme diately by the raga of the particular song which starts with the alapa - Ta A Ri Ta Na Na A. This corresponds to Ha, ri,te, Ita of Sangeet sara and is really the alapa portion of the particular raga chosen by the Ishei hanba (Abltineta). Before this alap« stage, the mridauga raga will go along with a recitation from Isheihanba - Krishna Priti Ananda Hari bolo, to which all the remaining nartakas respond with one voice-"Hare Hare" This will be followed by a 'series of mridanga bolas along with the strik ing sound of the learatalas known as a sanchar of mridanga. When this finishes, the Ishei banba starts with Sabha vandana and Guru vaudana and returns to his original raga which should deal with a theme ofChaitanya known as -Goumchandro', This is to be followed by a few padavali SANGEET NATAK 32 songs'appropriate to the occasion, be it shraddha, marriage or any other ceremony. The talas of the 11lridanga also should pass through the gats oftintala, small or big as Manipuris call it ttikuta or tritiyaka, after Govinda Satlgeet Leela Vilas, tanchap (chaturasra ekatala) and menktlp (tryasra ekatala). The songs are to be sung by all seated in a distinctive posture. The next and most important stage is known as Raj11lel which is derived from a particular tala, rajmel (seven beats and two stresses in the Vilanvita laya). All the artists, after making a bow to each other in the patlchanga way should rise and start initiating a new song or pick the continuation of the old song which depends on the choice of the Isheihanb«. Rajmel admits of some important stages : bedighat, lambi ghat, melhou (the real rajmeQ, setllghat, melon (in the menleup laya madhya) and men thaba (in the druta laya). At the first stage of bedighat, all the kirtakas should move in an anti-clock-wise direction for a full round and while doing so, the Ishei hanba should bow down before the dohara and the two tIITidanga players with their kartalas touching the mridatlga and the hand touching the partala of the doharai, after wards placing it on the forehead. The remaining nartakas also, after the round, bow down to each other and then stand up and start singing. This is supposed to be a very sacred position which should in no case be disturbed. Lambi ghat then comes in and leads to the very complicated calanam movements in the vilamvita laya with the rajmela tala. This is followed by setu ghat which results in a quicker tempo (madhya laya) of the movements known as melon. . The final climax comes with a fast tempo (druta ·laya) and the kartalas and the mridanga bolas striking almost in ecstasy with perfect syncronisation and with all the :nartakas shouting "ehhh" upto the climax which is compared to the 'stova' of the Bhagavat which des cribes the divine bird Garuda carrying the image of Lord Krishna with wing flapping and reciting all the four vedas. This is indeed a grand imagination after the Manipuri scholar, Panditraj Atombapu, which is supported by a statement that kirtanas are always seen and not listened to-Kirtana Darsanaya. Many old rasikas would start rushing in at this climax and weeping and crying in ananda would lie postrate before the five, including the mridanga players. 33 NATA MOVE,"tENTS This will be followed by the tala tal/chap and then by the tala menleup in which the dohara will execute graceful calanam movements and he will be followed by others. The mridatiga players will strike prastaras known as Alamkar pumlon, which will be followed again by a climax. The nartakas will then remain seated in a distinctive posture and sing some rasas like sambhog, jalakeli and svadhin. The samleritanahas almost come to a close at this stage and they are indeed marking time, as it were, waiting for the order of present. The conclusion will be provided by themes dealing with SL'\: Gosvamins (six Goswamins of Vrindavan), Jaya Bhai chaitanya Nityai and finally all will a shout Valaha Prem se Kaho Shri Radhe Krishna - Haribola Haribola. When the lelrtana concludes, the above-mentioned five will bow down to the distinguished audience as if waiting for their reactions, words of praise and appreciation, which the audience liberally shower upon them. The second type of Natapalli known as Dhruua me/aka represents also an unique type of samkirtana. There are I4 mridanga players in it and the same formalities will be applied, perhaps in a much stricter way and with more details. The accent here is on the complicated talas known as sacharas which are 14 in number and dedicated to I4 personalities. The president will make the jayadhvani first with the following words -" Shri Krishna Caitanva Priti ananda Haribolo Haribolo, to which the remaining nartaleas will respond with "Hare Hare." This first Caitanya Mridatiga Sanchar will be followed by I3 remaining inde pendent sancharas dedicated respectively to Nityananda Advaita, Gadadhar, Shrlvasa, Doadasa Gopal, Asta Mahanta, six Gosvamins, sixty four mahantas, GOI/fa Bhakta Vrinda, sat sampradaya, fourteen mridangas, all the bhaletas and lastly Shri11led Radha Gouinda. Dhruva me/aka samkirtana is a highly stylised pattern of Yajne which involves a lot of training, expense and patience. It admits of 4 types - maha dhruuamelaka (known as malta dhrume/); g~lIfa dhrumel (composed during the reign of of Maharaja Naresingh I834 A.D.) nityai dhrumel and leirema dhmme1 (composed during the reign ofMaharaja Chandrakirti r860 A.D.). Historically speaking, nata kirtanas first assumed the name of Bangadesh Pala during the reign of king Garibniwaz (r814 A.D.) with slight differences in the styles of dress, singing and even the size and 5ANGEET NATAK 34 look of the IIlridatlga. The king adopted the Ramanandi cult and hence prayers were offered to Rama Krishna and Govinda, It is also called Bangadesh from the fact that a Bengali kirtaniya group introduced the form of leirtana, In the Bangadesh Dhru/11el,· another sanchara, known as Gouradumdra has been added making the number altogether IS. There is not much difference between the old Bangadesh and the new samkirtana so far as the basic aspects and attitudes are concerned. Both the nata kirtaka groups arc receiving the patronage ofthe raja ofManipur even now. To the Manipuri Vaishnavas samleittana is really a .Maha Yaina a form of worship and prayer, associated closely with the life of the people. The Sanskrit work, Narada samhita sums up beautifully this spirit: "I do not dwell in heaven, nor in the heart ofYogis, nor in the Sun. There only I abide, 0 Narada, where my lovers sing." r:rof. N~lkantlza S!nglz teaches Philosophy at the Govemment D. N. College, Imphal bu: his interest lII.the ml~1C anddance of Manipur is of scholarly depth, He presented a paper at the ~eet C.0vmd Seminar heldby the Sangeet NatakAkatfemi in Delhiin 1967 andhasparticipated III Seminars onaspects eifManipuri dance. He writes onthesubjeafor newspapers andjOl/mals. DANCE AND RITUAL IN MANlPeR Text and Photographs Mohan Khokar Getting into the Ras costume. Ras Mandap of the Govindji temple, lmphal, where Sakhis dance round the images of Srikrishna and Radha. While one Sakhi dances tIle Ras others await tlwir turn squattillg inside their stiff mId cololl~{rjl skirts. Tile Ras dallce, witll Srikrishlla, Radha and thegopis. Left: Dne of the hundreds of Umang Lais, or shrines of native deities, before which the Lai Haraoba dance is peiformed. Below: The Lai Haraoba procession is headed by musicians, drummers, and maibas and maibis priests and priestesses professing the old Meithei religion. Carriers of sacred emblems, Jans, vessels, parasols and banners comprise an essential part oj the Lai Haraoba pageant. The ancient gods oj the Meitheis are propitiated through the MaibiJagoi, danced by projessionals whose tradition israther likethatof thedevadasis. Above: The Lai Haraoba uSIIally commences late in the afternoon and continues tiII the early night. The proceedin,,?s go onfor days together. Below: The rear of the Lai Haraoba procession is composed of young ,,?irls who arrange themselves according to age, in diminishing order. Right: Pena, string-and-bow instrument, peculiar to Manipur, an essential to the Lai Haraoba accompaniment. Left: Khamba Thoibi, a dance based on the celebrated lovers of that name in Manipur legend. Below: In another version eif the Lai Haraoba, men dressed as ancient warriors and women asprincesses dance together. .~---.-~ Above: The Sanlecertan, a ritual in dance and song, is pe~formed on all occasions of rel~gious s~nificance, sudi as birth, marriage, death alld Shradha. . Right: The Kartal Cholom, a part of Sanleeertan, is danced with: ;ymbals in the hands. - ThePIIIIg Cholot«, a part of theSankccrtan, danced witha drum, bya single dancer or by I1SI/1I1I1Y as a hl/ndred performers. 45 MANlPURl DANCE Nestling securely in the fond embrace of the nlgged ridges that demarcate the Indo-Burma border Oil one side and the Assam Hills Districts OIl theother, the tiny State of Manipur has, through the ages, evolved andpreserved its own distinct traditiolis of art and culture, inelllding a variety of dances and related rituals, which collectil'ely go under the name of'ManiptlTi Dance'. Dance andmusic verily run in the blood ofthe Manipuri people, and it is rare, indeed, to find a Manlpuri who cannot dance orsitlg. TheManipuris have always been a simple and all intenselydevout people, content to live ill a world of their oum. They have a rich lore of legend and mythology, and this includes a number of stories which refiect thepeople's 10Vt for dance alld music. Song alld dance are, infact, so inextricably woven into the pattern of their life that the Maniputis regard themselves as hal'ing descended from the Gandharuas, the. celestial musicians anddancers. The very origin of their dance is ascribed by the Manipuris to celebrated deities. Legend has it that once, when LordKrishna was enjoying the mystic 'Ras' dance in the company of his beloved Radha and other milkmaids, Lord Siva and his consort Parvati happened to see this performance. Delighted, Siva and Parvati decided to arrange a similar entertainment for themselves. Siva went outin search ofa suitable place, and finally selected Manipur, and it is here thatheandParvati performed and enjoyed their 'Ras' dance. Countless centuries later, the same dance was perfomled again, but this time by two mortals, Prince Khamba andPrincess Thoibi, believed bytheMani puris to be the incarnations of Siva andParvati respectively. Thisdance came to be known as 'Lai Haraoba', which isthemost ancient dance oj Manipur, performed to this day. Theprincipal dances ofManipur today are the 'Ras' dances. Thetradi tion of these dances bega1l early in the I8th century, but they attained maturity andperfection onlyaboutforty years later, during thetime ofKingBhagyacham{ra, agreat lover andpatron of the arts. There are four main types of'Ras' namely 'Maharas', 'Kunjaras', 'Vasantaras' and 'Nityaras' but there are also certain off-shoots, such as 'Nartak' and'Nrirya', The Ras dances allpertain toLord Krishna andalltheperfomlers are women andgirls, except in thecase ofKrishna who is sometimes impersonated by a young boy. Closely related to the 'Ras' dances are the 'Parengs' which are generally perfonned at the beginning of a 'Ras'. There are several kinds of 'Parengs', the more popular ones being 'Brihdaban Pareng' alld 'Bhangi Pareng', aud the themes of all of them revolve rOlllld Krishna. The different dances are i;lte1lded to be pe~forl/led at d~[ferent times in the year, and in Manipur such peiformances invariably take place ill the 'Nat Mandap', a dance hall annexed to practically ellery temple in the State. The costume of thedancers is colotl1:Jizl andglittcring in the extreme. whilc Krishlla .,?CIleralIy appears ill a yellow dhoti and wearing various ornaments. andgarlands (if}lolvers and a crown bedizcned with peacock feathers, his companions-Rad/Ill atld the milkmaids - wear red or green bulging skirts studded with bits of mirror, dark velvet blouses and ,fiimsy, translucent white veils which COller the [ace. The 'Ras' dances of Manipur arc cssetltially lyrical, and they allhall( extremely gracejill and liquid, ellell sinuous, movements, coupled with soft alld light steps ill which the heel practically never touches down. The dancers for the most partsway to the sides orspin at one place, with the hands close to the sides with effortless ease and with a mote or less fixed, belligll, angelic ex pression 011 the face. The central figure of the dance is, of course, Krishna, alld as his companions dance round him they oJtell take poses and positions fvhicll give the ~[fect of well-composed tableaux. Like the dance, theaccompany illg music, too, is 10llg-drawll alld languorous. Next to the'Ras', the important dance oj Manipur is the 'Lai Haraoba'. TlJe main peiformance of 'Lai Haraoba' takes place in April or May every year, ill the village of Moitano, hallowed by its association with the immortal lovers Khamba alld Thoibi, to whom rejerence has already been made. wte« performed in the traditional manner, the 'Lai Haraoba' can be described asall elaborate ritual punctuated with various dances. The performances generally take place 011 the village greens alld in [ron: ofthe shrines oj local, animistic gods. Every day, from abont three in the 4temooll till Sfl1ldOIVII, met! and womell, yOll1lg and old, dance together, and the entire celebration may last tell days, orevenmore. The male dancers appear dressed asancient warriors, while the females don the attire oj the temple priestesses of Maniput.. In its actual rendering, the 'Lai Haraoba' attempts, in a vagueilnd rambling manner, to ll1ifold and re-enact the story of the creation of the world, and this it does 47 AfANIPURI DAl\"CE through a series ofloose-knit movements anddances, some of which are symbolic, some suggestive, and some even lewed or ludicrous. Apart from the 'Ras' and 'Lai Haraoba', the Manipuri dance also incorporates certain numbers, known as 'Cholorns', which are quite vigorous and which often display quick and sharp movements of the body and dexterous footwork. Important in this category are the 'Mridanga Cholom' ioliidt is perjormed by several men, all of whom dance together andplay the drum as they dance, and the 'Kartal Cholorn', in which a number ofmel/ or women dance together, all the while showing the pattems ofrhythm by striking small tasselled cymbals which they hold in their hands. Prof. Mohall Khokar. At presellt Special Officer for Dance at the Sangeet Natak Akademi. See •Sangeet Natak" 1. Forum TOWARDS A PROFESSIONAL THEATRE Adya Rangacharya After almost forty years of meddling with drama and dramatic activities my one definite achievement has been to know and under stand myself as a 'pess-optimist'. Forty years intensive and extensive experience should give one the authority ofat least coining a word which not only describes me but the problem and future of Indian Drama as I see it. Since political Independence 1 have read about a score of seminars and participated in a dozen where everytime new ideas have been bandied about and the old situation allowed to continue. Govern ments, academies, individual institutions, Five Year Plans and publicity motives have taken steps to encourage Drama, sponsor festivals, organize competitions and award prizes. For one like myselfwho contri buted to, organized and spread dramatic activities long before all these carrots Were dangled the present situation should have been exhilarating but for the fact that for all the smoke there is no fIre to be seen, not even a spark. At the same time a new awareness can be observed in the few-very few-honest efforts and experiments to find modern Indian Drama. One has to be a "pess-optimist" in these conditions. 1 have the advantage of spending plenty of time to consider the present and future of Indian drama since that is the only thing I do when 1 am not writing plays. Unfortunately, the advantage has turned out to be a doubtful one. 1 am too overwhelmed with ideas to be able to chase particular ones. In one of his novels Thomas Hardy speaks of a dog which so faithfully followed his master's flock that 49 PROFESSION.1L THE-J TRE when the latter, on one occasion, fell over a cliff the dog also followed! 'That's the fate', comments Hardy, 'of thinkers who pur sue an idea too faithfully.' Perhaps the present article shows my doing just so. Here, however, let me attempt to follow only three ideas. The first is that a 'Professional' Theatre should be brought into existence as early as possible. This does not mean that what we, in India, know as professional theatre and what exists in some linguistic regions under that name, should be encouraged or revived. A time has come when, in the interests ofthe future ofour Theatre, we must clearly distinguish the professional from the commercial theatre. Our so-called 'Pro fessional Theatre' is commercial theatre pure and simple. The one purpose, as in the case of films, is to collect the maximum returns for a minimum investment. rf the commercial theatre is generally on the decline in various parts of the country it is just because there are not as easy profits as in the case of films. Usually, the commercial theatre has one thing to contribute to the progress of the Theatre. It not only helps to maintain an audience in existence but often-times it brings into existence a growing theatre-going public. But even this is no advantage in the present circumstances, for the development of a modern Indian Theatre. For one thing, these commercial ventures are usually in the hands of persons to whom 'Modern Indian Theatre' has no meaning. For another, because of the profit motives, these ventures play on the safe side by descending, if necessary, to the standards of an undefined and untutored audience. Thirdly, except in rare instances, talented artists do not find a steady place here as they would mean a cut in the profits. Even part from all these considerations, taking India as a whole, there is practically no commercial theatre except in Calcutta or in Bombay and Poona. In other places wherever there is any, it is hardly worth any consideration from the point ofview of the quality ofeither the production or the audience. Leave alone modernity, it is not even as ostentatiously false as an Indian film. It is for this reason that a pro fessional theatre, in the real sense ofthe word, is essential in the interests of the future of our Theatre. 5.,-UVGEET l\!ATAK 5° Throughout India there is another Theatre, not organized, known as the Amateur Theatre. Here we find new writers, new producers, new actors though there is no such thing yet as a new audience. Those who arc engaged in this theatre are fired with enthusiasm, imbued with a sense of modernity and aspiring for a better future.ln everything but the final execution, Theatre is not only a passion but a profession to this class of soi-dissan! amateurs. They take every opportunity of knowing what goes on in the theatre outside India, they study histori cally their own traditional theatre, they train themselves in the Theatre. Arts and they are not afraid to learn by their mistakes. This theatre is the core of the real professional theatre of the future. Today its activities arc purposeless; the efforts sporadic and the achievements unnoticed and uri-assessed. lt is a pity that in spite of all-India institutions like the Central Sangeet Natak Akademi and the Natya Sangh (Theatre Centre), India, very little - practically nothing is being done to establish such a 'Pro fessional Theatre' in all the linguistic regions of the country. Often times, substantial funds are frittered away for superficial purposes like buying 'modern' equipment or for Government propaganda (called publicity). Let us first have a modern theatre before we think of modern equipment. No equipment by itself can ever help us in bring ing into existence a modern and growing audience. Films and circuses are doing what a cultural medium like theatre need not do. By establishment of a 'Professional' theatre it is not intended to suggest that some or most of the existing thousands and thousands of amateur groups should be subsidised into permanent groups of paid artists; nor is it suggested that the Akademis or the Natya Sanghas should maintain a troupe or troupes of their m;V11. What is worth en couraging in the amateurs group is their enthusiasm, particularly the spirit of dedication among them. Most of them have the talent but few ofthem know the art. "The first thing to be done is to train a select fe\'! in the art of Dramatics. At present we have a National School of Drama in Delhi and training is supposed to be provided in one or two Universities among the eighty or so Universities in this vast land. But what is the impact of this training on the Indian amateur theatre 51 PROFESSIONAL THEA TRE world! Practically nil. As a matter offact most ofthe amateurs do not realise the necessity ofsuch a training nor do they not know that train ing is provided at half-a-dozen centres. The problem of language, apart from other considerations as well, makes the Delhi School a limited institution. Even as it is, the good results of training are exhi bited mostly to the official world of Delhi and occasionally to a select audience in one or two cities. The general audience outside has no knowledge of the School. Some cities might have witnessed occa sionally, the second-rate productions of a visting foreign troupe not knowing that in their own country trained artists put up better ones. The dozen or so who are trained, after the training is completed, might find that they have plenty of time in their after-life to unlearn all that they have learnt. In other words, good intentions and modest efforts lead ultimately to wastage. Professional theatre, as defined here, cannot be established unless the artists themselves are both trained and provided opportunities to put that training to constant use. There is nothing to prevent and everything to justify our Universities including training in Dramatics. Dramatic activity is notjust a vulgar relaxation or an uncultured activity. From physical culture to the understanding of human nature, from phonetics to painting it includes the study ofa number of subjects. If the regional Universities and the Delhi and other schools were to show their efforts on a planned basis to the Indian audience then both the need and the benefit of training would be realised. Not only that, amateur productions on the whole would be galvanized to better and still better quality. An illustration to show why training at University level is required may not be out of place here. Between a commercial and an amateur theatre production usually there is a distinctive difference in the choice and the type of the play. That, however, does not always mean one is better than the other. On the other hand, the principle underlying the selection seems to be the same in both the cases, viz. entertainment ofthe audience. Ofcourse, the element ofentertainment is an essential part of drama. Even in. our .tradition Bharata - the author of Natya sastra has said that a play should be so entertaining as to drive away SANGEET NATAK 52 sleep from the eyes of an audience-(nidra-vinoJatlalll). But no expert ofdramatics, no thinking lover ofthe Theatre does ever admit that that is the only element of a play. A good play must also be good litera ture, good enough to acquaint us with the ways of the world (Loka charita). To recognise a good play not only has one to be an expert on Theatre but also a literary critic. The absence of this qualification in the amateur theatre has been responsible for the absence of good plays. A critical faculty is more likely to be cultivated at the University level. The third and the last idea I would like to chase here is the educa tion of audiences. The mention of such an idea may sound presump tuous if not actually foolhardy. In these days of democracy the audiences, like the electorates, are the masters and even like political masters these also need no education. Nevertheless the fact remains that our theatrical arts have not progressed mainly, among other reasons, due to the audiences. Indian films are a glaring example of this. Per haps there is nothing modern in this. Even Bharata speaks of a drama audience mostly consisting of 'women, children, and foolish persons' (stru-bafa-moorkha). But, because of that Bharata does not ask us to cater to them. He advises us to cow them down by 'loud music of various instruments before the commencement of a performance'. Unfortunately but inevitably our modem commercial theatre would rather cater to the audience. For a different reason, our amateur theatre too seems to be inclined to do the same. Since amateur productions are sporadic and 'singular' (i.e, usually one and only one performance) every time it has to attract an audience. Except in half-a-dozen cities in India there is no such thing as an audience for the amateur theatre. And when on an occasion a few people come together to witness an amateur show they gather there for every other reason except seeing good Theatre. Which is good? Which is bad? There is not enough of the Theatre nor enough of an opportunity to compare and judge. Taste-what is significantly called ruchi in Sanskrit dramatics is conspicuous by its absence. Taste is as much a responsibility of the purvcyor as of the con sumcr, and in the existing conditions ofIndian Drama the initiative must 53 PROFESSIONAL lliEATRE rest with the former. Provided he has the taste, two conditions will have to be brought about to help him do his duty; one, he must have the means to repeat the performances and two he must have sufficient number of small theatre-houses. Teacher-pupil ratio is as important here as in education in general. A smaller audience would inevitably be a select audience; a number of select audiences would as inevitably mean spread of education. Funds and grants may more usefully be spent in helping achieve this. I do not know if these ideas of mine are capable of being carried out in practice. But my experience makes me believe they are worth consideration. Adya Rangacharya (Sriranga). Born in 1904, Sriranga trained asa linguist at the University of London andbeoan his career asa University teacher. After his teaching career, he turned to writing plays.o He hasto his credit 29 full-length andmore than 47 one act plays in Kannada, the majority of whid. have been performed. SOllie ofhisplayshave been translated into Hindi andother Indian languages andperformed. He hasbeen anactor-producer rfplaysandis founder president oftheNatya Sangh Mysore State. He was eleaed President of the Kannada Sahitya Sammelan in 1966 and received; the 5.,angeet Natak Akademi Awardforplay-writing in 1963. He was also elected Fellow rfthe Akademiin 1947· MEANING OF MUSIC anempirical study of psychological responses to Indian Music Dr. B. C. Deva and K. G. Virmani The present investigation is partof a larger study in the cross-cultural response to music. The research project was initiated by Mr. Charles Keil, USA. The purpose was tostudy the response ofsubjects from various cultural groups ofdifJereut countries and to see whether a given piece of music elicited the same or different response. Our experiments were confined to Indians. Though both Indian and Western music was used inthis study, we are presentitlg here our results pertaining to only Indian music. Mr. andMrs. Keil expect to publish a larger work which will include our results also. We are thankful to: Dr. V. K. Narayana Menon, formerly the Secretary of the Sangeet Natak Akademi, for his sympathetic encouragement. Sri E. Alkazi, Director, National School of Drama, New Delhi, for kindly giving us facilities for this research at the School. The staff and students of the National School of Drama for their generolls cooperation in the experiment. Dr. A. D. Taskar, Statistician, Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, for his valuable advice on the statistical methods adopted here. PREAMBLE Music is one ofthe most affective of arts. Yet it is so nebulous that it is also the least amenable to conscious definition and analysis. Problems ofmelodic integration and emotional response have yet to be tackled in a scientific manner and reasonable solutions found. 55 MEANING OF MUSIC The question ofthe relation ofa raga to the mental state isan intrigu ing one and deserves careful experimental study. But the subject itself is not new. For instance, Bharata in his Natyasliastra gives the jatis and their rasas; he also gives the rasas for instrumental music. However, we cannot, reasonably, take such statements as applicable to current music. In modern times Bhatkhande has discussed this in his various writings (Brihaspati, I959). Essentially his points are: Generally three rasas are in evidence in music - sritlgara (erotic), veera (valour) and kanm« (pathos). Ragas with Ri and Dha are erotic, ragas with ga and ni are valorous and those with ri and dha are pathetic. This statement is, of course, a very general one. Omkarnath Thakur rightly points out that it is not merely the notes which produce a mood but also various other factors like graces, tempo, octave levels and so on (Thakur, I955). According to him those ragas moving in the upper octaves are never somber and dignified; they express faster emotions like anger, excitement and en thusiasm. Those with an emphasis on Sa-Ma relation are peaceful, and mature. Ragas of Khamaj group are erotic and lighter in vein. Those with ri, dha and Ma have pathos predominantly; and ragas with ri, dha and 1I1a show tiredness, lack ofenthusiasm, etc. In the case of Hindustani music many of these factors determine also the time of singing the raga (Deva, I967). It is obvious that an aestheticfor music can only be a part ofa larger aesthetic of the emotional expressions of man. Music, of course, will present its own specialproblems in a general theory ofaffectiveexpression. A comprehensive theory of aesthetics of art was developed in India cen turies ago. This was the magnificent concept ofthe rasa. A profound and penetrative analysisofthe human mind, the rasa theory had itsnatural foundations in drama and literature. Since drama, literature and music were inextricable parts ofa totality ofartistic expression, it seems to have been assumed that the theory of rasa, which was eminently suitable to referential arts (like drama, literature, painting and dance), could explain the affective states of music (Deva, ibid). SANGEET NATAK But a close examination of the problem shows that music, per se, may not lend itself to such psychological analysis. While music may generate mental states parallel in neural dynamics to those defmable in literature, it can in no way produce the referential syndromes of litera ture. (This in no way should be a discouragement but an enticing pro blem). This question becomes even more intricate when we consider the nature of Indian (classical) music as a stimulus. Even if we do not take into account the microstructure, the macrostructure ofa raga is itself amenable only to a statistical definition: like a language (Deva, ibid.; Deva and Nair, 1966). Bound by traditional 'rules' of alphabet, syntax, punctuation and accent, a raga has only a gencrally definable form, each presentation of it bcing unique in a unique sense. Thus, experiments in the psychological responscs require a large number of samples of a givcn raga for any reliable inference to be drawn; largencss of the size of such a sample ofstimulus, in the case ofa raga, has to bc present besides the largeness of the size of the sample of respondents from a well-defined population of individuals in a culture under experimentation. Since both these aspects ofsampling were delimited in the prescnt experiment, the results thcrcofcan, therefore, be considered as only exploratory. EXPERIMENT Introduction Till recently, only gcneral statements could bc made about the intrinsic powers of music to arouse feelings and emotions in the listener. These general statements were based mostly on intuitive speculations or on the introspective rcports of the phenomenon experienced. How ever, with the advent ofthe phonograph as well as tape-recording, and thereupon the better measuring devices of the behavioral sciences, many attempts were made in the West to understand the aesthetic aspects of music through controlled experimentation and empirical studies (Hevner, 1935; Ellis and Brighouse, 1952; Farnsworth, 1954; Henkin, 1955; Zimny and Weidcnfcller, 1962; and, Keil and Keil, 1967). Most of these studies uscd Western musical cxccrpts as the stimulii, and almost all of thcm have used non-Indians as respondents to these stimulii, in their efforts to quantify and name thc affectivc states. The present study MEANING OF MUSIC is an effort to quantify the components ofthe feelings aroused by classical Indian musical (Hindustani) excerpts, in Indian listeners. The aim of the present paper, which is the first in a series, is as already stated, to 'suggest' rather than to 'create', since the data reponed are based on just one small portion of the musical form, the raga, as also on a very small sample ofrespondents; contributions to the theoretical framework ofIndian musicology will follow in the next ones. Presently, it is planned only to exemplify a methodology in current use in the behavioral sciences and to anticipate that more workers in the field will pick it up and study more rigorously the power ofvarious ragas to arouse specific moods viz., Rageshri for "evening, dark, somber, deep" etc. The Measurement Technique The technique employed for quantifying nature of moods aroused by musical samples was that of Osgood's "semantic differential" (Osgood, Suci and Tannenbaum, I957). Semantic differential is a method of observing ;u;.d measuring the psychological meaning of things, usually concepts (Kerlinger, I964). Although everyone sees things a bit diff erently, sometimes very differently, there must be some common core of meaning, some common disposition, in all concepts (Deva, ibid.). Indeed the definition of 'concept' makes this clear. Now, by using musical compositions or excerpts ofragas as 'concepts', we could measure their psychological meaning, that is, the moods aroused by these, with the help of this technique. Format and Administration The instrument itself is simple and easy to usc. It consists of a number of 'scales' - a set of symbols or numerals so constructed that the symbols or numerals can be assigned by rule to the individuals or their behaviour. Each of the scales is a bipolar adjective pair chosen from a large number ofsuch scales for a particular research purpose. The indi viduals are asked to rate on these scales 'concepts' whose meanings are being measured (Kerlinger, ibid). Details of these adjective scales are given in a later section. The way in which it was administered to the present sample of respondents will follow shortly. Themanner in which response is recorded on these scales by the respondents will become clear from the set of instructions given to them, which follow: SANGEET NATAK 58 Instructions Please do not look at the following pages until instructed to do so. One of the purposes of this study is to find the words that people use to best describe certain feelings or moods they have while listening to music. On each ofthe following pages you will find a list ofpolarised adjectives. Your task is to encircle the one mark between each of these pairs that best describes the mood, feeling or atmosphere of the music you are listening to. First, decide which word best describes the mood; second, quickly estimate the extent or intensity of the adjective you have selected. Here is an example, already marked (Table I). TABLE I Marked Example in a Semantic Differential Format I 2 3 4 5 6 7 LARGE SMALL SAD HAPPY CALM EXCITED ~ ~ e-, ...... s-, E o '" -.:l E ... '" ,.d-B ,.d '" ...'" t<'" ~ 0'0 .~ t< ~ &Vi ~Z Vi & ~ (The middle dot should be encircled when both words are equally descriptive of the musical mood or when neither word feels right to you). The music will change with each page but the list ofadjective pairs always remains the same. Simply ask yourself as you listen to each piece of music, "what mood is being created?" We are not asking for precise mechanical descriptions. Just let your immediate feelings guide your marks. Try not to take special notice ofparticular phrases, accents or dynamics but concentrate upon describing the overall feeling of the music. Allow about two minutes per page - work fairly fast. Do not look back or skip around. You will be told to begin each page only after the music has been given a few minutes to establish its mood. (Keil and Keil, ibid). 59 MEANING OF A1USIC Adjective Scales Twenty-two adjective scales were used (Table 2). Most of the adjective scales selected might be used to describe a raga's mood. The synestheticbasisofIndian musicaltheory (postulatedrelationships between ragas and colour, time ofday, season, quality ofmovement and sensation) matches very nicely the with synestheticlogic behind Osgood's approach. The three fundamental dimensions that appear regularly in Osgood's many studies are, (r) "evaluative" (good-bad, usually being the pivotal scale), (2) "potency" (hard-soft) and (3) "activity" (active-passive); other factors as well may emerge in particular studies according to the pro perties ofthe stimulii or concepts being judged. To diminish the pervasive quality of "evaluation" in our study, and to obtain agreater variety offactors or dimensions, the more obvious evaluative scales (good-bad, beautiful-ugly) were excluded deliberately. .Emphasis was given on scales (including a graphic one) that might produce dimensions on the order of"activity", "tension" or "expansion", "potency", "receptivity". It was felt that adjective pairs of this sort would be more suitable to the description ofthe musical experience. The basic question in our minds was not, "How do you like this music?", but rather, "What do you think this music is like:" (Kei!and Keil, ibid). Musical Excerpts Used Four musicalexcerpts were used. In each casethe excerpt contained the alap - initial developmental movement prior to the entrance of tabla - ofthe raga. A briefdescription ofthese ragas is given below: I. Ka{i Ascent: Sa Ri ga Ma Pa Dha l1i* Descent: Sa ni Dha Pa Ma ga Ri Emphatic notes: Pa, Ri, Sa Characteristic phrase: Pa Ma ga Ri, Ri ga Ma Pa, Ma ga Ri Time: .Evening to midnight *The Indian set for notation given here corresponds to the following Western scale (of C): Sa ri Ri ga Ga Ma rna Pa dha Dha ni Ni c Db D Eb E F Fil G Ab A Bb B (C sharp) (Dsharp) sharp (Gsharp) (Asharp) SANGEET NATAK 60 TABLE 2 Final set of twentytwo adjective scales used' SHALLOW DEEP MASCULINE FEMININE CALM AGITATED RIGID FLEXIBLE DRY WET EXPANDING CONTRACTING 11(100« WEARY REFRESHED SWEET BITTER THRILLING SOOTHING SACRED SECULAR COOL WARM COLOURFUL COLOURLESS SOBER. DRUNK ACTIVE PASSIVE CLOUDY SUNNY OPEN CLOSED TIGHT LOOSE USUAL UNUSUAL LIGHT HEAVY EVENING MORNING CONTROLLED UNCONTROLLED e-, 0 .... ;::: 0 .... t>, .£ tJ -.= U.... H ..c ..c-5 ..c H x '5 ,~ o'u ,~p '9 >l.J 0' Vi ~Z Vi 0' 1Adapted from Keil, C. & Keil, A. (1967). 6r MEANING OF MUSIC Miscellanv: It's mood is said to be "light, happy and contended, very gentle and harmonious, no depth". "Of shining whiteness, Kapika (Kafi:) who inspires lust, tenderly sits on the lap of her play-mate in the royal palace,fond ofparrots she is dresscd in blue and decked with jewels. She is the image of sensuos ness" (Danielou, 1954). "This raga is generally sung from evening to midnight and in the month ofphalgull during any of the eight watches of the day. Songs of love (erotic) and devotion are sung in this raga. It is very well amenable for expressing the delicate feelings of the heart" (Thakur, 1959). Thus, it depicts gaiety, is light, liquid, devotional, romantic, pleasant: religious joy. II. Misra Mand This is a variety ofraga Mand, wherein notes normally used in Mand are employed. The following are details for Mand: Ascent: Sa Ri Ma Pa Dha Descent: Sa Ni Dha. Dha Pa Ma, Pa Ga Ri Emphatic notes: Sa, Ma, Pa Characteristic phrase: Ma Pa Dha PaMa Ga Ri Sa Ri Ga Sa Time: Night Miscellany: It is a raga oflighter moods and rarely, ifat all, is serious music rendered in it. It is said to be derived from the folk tunes of Rajasthan. Thus, it is more dallying, no deep emotion; is erotic. III. Puriya Dhanasri Ascent: Ni ri Ga 11Ia dha Ni Descent: Ni ri Ni dha Pa, lila Ga ma ri Ga, ma Ga ri Emphatic notes: Pa, Sa, Ga and Ni Time: .Evening, twilight SANGEET NATAK 62. Miscellany: "The combination of ri and dha with 11Ia indicates a mood of tiredness .•. and shows the weary mood of nature before sunset" (Thakur, 1955). Thus, it gives a feeling of physical tiredness, longing, grave dark, and somber. IV. Rageshri Ascent: Sa, Ga, Ma, Dha, Ni Descent: Sa, Ni, Dha, ni, Dha, Ma, c« Ri Emphatic notes: Ga, Dha Time: Second watch of the night Miscellany: "One would like to call Rageshri not a raga but a ragini, considering its sweetness and softness" (Raga is generally considered masculine and ragini feminine). "Rageshri has a mood which is made ofboth the moods - steady and flirt ing" (Thakur, 1954). Thus, it givesfeeling ofnight, dark (no sunshine), somber. profound, deep and moving. The recordings of these four excerpts were extracts from the per formance of Ravi Shankar on sitar. As already stated, only the alap portion of the raga was used for the purpose of takin g excerpts in each case. Sample ofRespondents The data for the present experiment was collected from 37 students of the National School of Drama, New Delhi. The sample which consisted ofboth males and females had an age range of20-30 years. Experiment Proper The 37 respondents were seated comfortably in an auditorium. The blanks ofthe format (Table 2), one for each ofthe excerpts, as also personal data-blanks and instruction sheets, were distributed among them. The respondents were asked to fill in personal data like name, age, etc. Then, they were asked to read the instructions with the experi- MEANING OF MUSIC menter who read them aloud. The marked examples of the instruc tions (Table r) were also explained to the audience on a black- board. At this stage it was enquired whether anyone ofthem had any question or doubt about using the format. The doubts were cleared by repeating the already marked examples only; discussionwas intentionally avoided. After having confirmed that the instructions were clear to the respondents they were given two minutes of music, to start with Ka/i raga excerpt, to establish their mood, after which they were asked to get ready for marking. Kaii raga excerpt was repeated for two minutes and they were asked to record their impressions on the format during the replay. The same procedure was repeated for the remaining three excerpts. The time limits were strictly adhered to and all extraneous disturbances were meticulously kept under control during the experiment. Scoring Procedure The conversion ofadjective choices ofa sample ofrespondents into quantitative terms was the next step. Thefollowing illustration, wherein we have taken the case ofSad-Happy polarised adjective, makes quantiz ing or metrization clear. Adjective Scoring Weight SAD extremely I quite 2 slightly 3 both or neither 4 slightly 5 quite 6 extremely 7 HAPPy In terms of the above illustration, scoring for the example, already marked, in Table r will be: for Large-Small, 7; for Sad-Happy, 4; for Calm-Excited, 2. Scoring on similar lines, the basic SANGEET NATAK quality of all individual's musical experience can be obtained on all the adjectives and on any 'concept' (ra,f[a) in quantitative terms. Once this was obtained, we could determine averages and measures ofrelation ships between various adjectives through statistical manipulations, so as to form an idea of the group's musical experience which represented culturally determined common denominators of meaning. The nature of such statistical analysis is discussed in what follows. METHOD OF ANALYSIS In this section we will introduce briefly the statistical method of factor analysis wluch is basic to this study. Certain fundamental concepts like theory ofpsychological measurement, distribution of scores, averages or means, variance, standardized scores, the correlation coefficient, mathematical model for factor analysis, the correlation matrix, the method of principal components in factor analysis and the rotation 0 f factors which arc considered as'elements' of the method of analysis under description are, however, included an as Addendum to the present paper, so as to facilitate ready reference. The present section as also the subject matter of the Addendum follows extensively the argu ment of Harmanin his, Modem Factor Analysis (Harman, 1960). FACTOR ANALYSIS Factor analysis is a statistical method of reducing a 'large' number ofempirical indicators (in the present case, 22 adjective scales) to a 'small' number of conceptual variables known as factors. Here the term factor should be differentiated from the one used in arithmetic, where, a factor is one of the two or more quantities which, when multiplied together, result in the given quantity, e.g., six and four are factors of twenty-four. The factors yielded by the present statistical analysis, however, are meant to convey all the essential information ofan original set of, say, 11variables into some III components such that m is almost always less than 11. Thus, the chief aim is to attain scientific economy of description. In other words, the purpose is to measure, objectively, the 'core'ofsome indicators, in the present case, polarised adjective scales (11=22). This does not mean that factor analysis discovers the "fundamental", since one gets out of this analysis only what one puts into it. Unless the indicators being 65 MEANING OF MUSIC analysed do not exhaustively describe the situation, the 'core' of that situation could not be called "fundamental", since, one gets out of this analysis only what one puts into it. Nevertheless, in an experiment with n greater than twenty or so the 'core' measured docs have appreciable practical utility. Factor analytic technique has been chiefly applied in the field of psychology for providing mathematical models - a simplified mathe matical theory frequently postulated to explain the underlying behaviour ofa body ofobserved data - for the explanation ofpsychological theo ries ofhuman abilities (intelligence) and behaviour. At one time it was so bound up with psychology that it was considered as a psychological theory rather than a statistical method. But, at present its subject matter is better recognized as a branch of multivariate statistical analysis. And, it has been successfullyapplied in such other varied fields as political science, business, economics, biology and medicine (Harman, ibid.) RESULTS Three things will be covered under results. They are, first, the Profile for the excerpt, secondly, Table ofFactor Loadings for the excerpt, and thirdly, Dimensions ofMeaning as extracted by factor analysis for each of the exce:-pts. A brief description of these modes of presenting data foDows: Pro~lc The profile consists simply of thc means of rcsponse of the participants to each of the bipolar adjective scales. It represcnts in quantitative terms the basic quality of the groups' musical ex pericncc. Further, the profile also enables us to derive plus or minus sign following the dimension "label" (under Dimension of Meaning) pointing to the pole of the dimension that seems to have been emphasised by the respondents; plotted averages below or above the mid-point (neither, or both) give an idea ofthe groups' leaning towards one pole or the other ofthe given bipolar scale. The profiles ofthe four excerpts in terms of the responses recorded by the group are given in Figures 1,2,3 and 4· SANGEET NATAK 66 Table of Factor Loadillgs The Table of Factor Loadings gives the loadings upon six or seven factors obtained through rotation by the varimax criterion (see Addendum). From the Addendum it may be noted that factor loadings represent the weight ofeach factor in the concerned empirical indicator, in this case each of the 22 bipolar adjective scales; larger the loading, more important is that factor in deter mining the total score on the indicator. Only those factors accounting for more than 10 percent of the common variance (the principal components) and some smaller factors which were potentially interesting were included. Tables of factor loadings for the present data are given in Table Nos. 3 4, 5 and 6. Dimensions of j\{callillg Dimensions of Meaning represent the final stage ofpresenting data, in which, the factors are 'named' by taking into considera tion their weights on different bipolar scales, as extracted from the Table of Factor Loadings. For example, that factor which has heavy loadings (more than 0'60) on the scales, Colourful Colourless, Active-Passive, Sweet-Bitter, Refreshed-Weary, Light Heavy and Open-Closed, simultaneously, could be named as depicting bhava (affect) ofthe excerpt in question. For naming the factors in the Dimensions of Meaning the loadings on the principal potentially important scales are shown thus: bold type adjective scales indicate a loading on that factor greater than 0'66, lower case adjectives a loading on that factor between o· 5'0 and o· 60, and lower case adjectives in parentheses a loading above o- 35 but less than o- 50. An asterisk indicates that the loading is "pure", that is, more than triple the loading on any other factor. The Dimensions of Meaning for the four excerpts are given in Table Nos. 7, 8, 9 and 10. MEANING OF MUSIC The next section, is concerned with the interpretation of these results. The interpretation closely follows the style of presentation of data. The 22 x 22 matrix ofcorrelation, representing the basic data of the study, for each excerpt was not included in reporting data so as to save space. Interpretation ofResults (Charts and Tables are given at the end of the article) Kafi: Figure T, Tables 3 and 7. The intended mood of this raga as stated earlier is that it depicts gaiety, is light, liquid, devotional, romatic, pleasant and stands for reli gious joy. From Ka~'s Dimensions of Meaning, the following description of the mood, feeling or atmosphere, in order of importance, seems to have been created in the respondents: 1. It has a 'lot ofaffect' (Factor I). 2. It is 'humid and cool' (Factor II and V). 3. It is 'soothing or tranquilizing' (Factor ID). 4. It has 'depth' (Factor IV). 5. It does not 'agitate' (Factor VI). 6. It is 'not dense', but light (Factor VII). A comparison of the mood 'created' with the mood 'intended' in the case of Kafi raga clearly establishes a similarity between the two. Gaiety, pleasantnessand joyfulness is contained in the first Factor christen ed 'Affect' (mer), through 'refreshing', 'sweet', 'colourful', 'active', 'open' and 'light'. An interesting part of this factor is a medium load- ing on the adjective pair, sacred-secular, with the mean tilting towards sacred. One way of interpreting this could be that this establishes the religiousness or devotional aspect of the 'Affect'( mer} of this raga, al though a separate factor "religious" would have established greater SANGEET NATAK 68 similarity between the created and the intended moods. Absence ofsuch a separate dimension on religiousness may have something to do with the fact that religion has become a value-laden term in an age which is more or less biased towards behaviouristic science. Further, that Kafi raga is light and liquid seems to have been fairly communicated. We do not appear to have obtained its romantic dis position except that there is depth in its music. The upshot ofthe above experiment, as far asKafi raga is concerned, is that it docs create the moods that have been traditionally associated with it. At this stage, it is necessary to note the findings of the already quoted parallel study by the Keils in the USA on American respondens. They report that in the case of Kafi,;j"the feeling of religious joy at the Hindu spring festival, as expressed by Ravi Shanker, generates confusion, ambivalence or indifference among uninitiated Westerners .... (There) are all symptoms ofa shaky analysis or what might be called "meaning vacuum" .... In sum, our :rcspondents, considered as a group, were mystified by Kafi-Holi and our semantic differential data reflect this mystification quite accurately" (Keil and Keil, ibid). The comparison of our findings on Indian respondents with those of the Keils on Westerners points out interesting hypotheses for further research on the topic. Misra Mand: Figure 2, Tables 4 and 8. The intended mood of Misra Mand raga, as stated earlier is one of lighter vein, and rarely, ifat all, is serious music rendered in it. It is said to stand for no deep emotions. From the Dimensions ofMeaning ofthis raga, the following moods in order oftheir importance seem to have been created in the respon dents: r. It has a pleasing and gay atmosphere (Factor I, VII). 2. It is refreshing and light (Factor (IT). 3. There is no 'newness' in it; that is, it is usual (Factor ill). 09 MEANING OF MUSIC 4. Its affect is sweet (Factor IV). 5. It is not 'agitating' (Factor V). 6. It has depth (Factor VI). As in the case ofthe previous raga, a comparison ofthe intended and the created mood for Misra Mand shows clearly that there is quite a bit of similarity between the two. The lighter vein of the raga seems to have been fully communicated. In terms of the Keils, American res pondents, however, have stressed its 'warmth' like mood. Another difference between the Indian and American respondents concerns its dimension of 'newness'. We find it 'usual' while Americans find it 'unusual'. This may be due to the fact that the raga being 'folk' here might have been felt as novel there. Interesting hypotheses can be deduced from these findings about 'culture' and music. Puriya Dhanasri: Figure 3. Tables 5 and 9. As in the previous cases, in this case also we restate the intended mood of the raga - physically tired, evenin~, longing, grave, dark and somber. The following created moods in order of their importance come out ofthe Dimensions ofMeaning for Puriya Dhanasari: 1. It has sweet, colourful, deep and heavy affect (Factor I). 2. It reflects stability (Factor ll). 3. It has sanctity, a sort ofsacredness (Factor ItI). 4. It has a cloudy atmosphere (Factor IV). 5. It has no vigour,is rather weary (Factor V). 6. It has no vitality (Factor VI). Once again through present experimentation we can see a close similarity between intended and created moods. There are clear indica tions that its affect is sweet and colourful and it is stable in its formation. Moreover, the moods of sobriety, weariness and darkness are also being communicated with the same piece. It is interesting to note that the Keil s a 1 soc roun d c.ror Westerners, """weary, somb" er or "heavy"moo ds SANGEET NATAK 70 on this raga. A noteworthy point of departure between the findings of these two studies, however, is that while Westerners "disliked" the music, Indians felt it rather "sweet" and deep. Rageshri: Figure 4, Tables 6 and roo For this raga the intended moods were, night, dark, somber, pro found, deep, and moving. The following created moods stand out of its Dimensions of Meaning: J. It has sweet, soothing and deep affect (Factor I). 2. It has negative vigour, that is, weary. Further along, with being weary, it is cloudy and has a darker atmosphere (Factor II). 3. Its formation is stable (Factor III), and it is s.~ (Factor IV). 4. There is no novelty about it (Factor V). 5. It is not flexible (Factor VI). Discussing on the lines of the previous cases, it is concluded that the intended mood is almost similar to the created mood. The Keils also report similar findings. Concluding Remarks The research reported in the preceding pages was exploratory in nature. The purpose was to exemplify a methodology in current use in the:behavourial sciences and to seek an experimental approach for identifying intrinsic powers of music to arouse feelings and emotions in the listener. Both the sample of stimulus and the sample of res pondents were delimited within the present scope. Though more analysis could be performed on this very data, it was kept to the minimum must. The results interpreted above do show that the technique in ques tion shows great promise for further well-controlled and extensive research in the :field of music on larger samples ofrespondents. This is also being planned by the authors of the present paper, for different ragas and on different excerpts ofthe same raga. It is felt that the above findings will definitely stimulate the type of researchers in music for whom these were intended. 71 MEANING OF MUSIC References 1. Brihaspati, K. C. D.: Bharat Ka Sangeet Siddhaut, Prakasan Sakha, Suchana Vibhag, U.P., 1959, pp. 258. 2. Daniclou, A.: North Indian Music, Vol. II, Halcyon Press, London, 1954, pp. 197. 3· Deva, B. C.': Psyhoacoustics ofMusic and Speech, Music Academy, Madras, 1967, Chapter II: Raga and Rasa, and others. 4· Deva, B. C. & Nair, P. S.: Forms of Music, Sangeet Natale, 2, April, 1966. 5. Ellis, D. S. & Brighouse, G.: Effccts of music on respiration and heart-rate, AlIlericanJotirnalofPsychology, 1952, 65. 39-47. 6. Farnsworth, P. R.: A study ofthe Hevner Adjective List., Jotlmal ofAesthetics, 1954, 13, 97-103. 7. Harman, H. R.: Modern Factor Analysis, Uni. of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1960. 8. Henkin, R. 1.: A factorial study of the components of music, Journal ofPsych 0 logy, 1955, 39, 6I-r8r. 9. Hevner, K.: Expression in music: A discussion ofexperimental studies and theories, Psychological Review, r935, 186-204. roo Keil, Charles & Keil, A.: Musical meaning: A preliminary report, personal communication, 1967. I I. Kerlinger, F. N.: Foundations of Behavioral Research, H. R. & Winston, Inc. NY., 1964. 12. Osgood, C. E., Suci, G. J. & Tannenbaum, P. H.: The Measure- ment ofMeaning, Uni., of Ill. Press, Urbana, 1957. 13. Thakur, Omkamath: Sangeetanjali, Vol. m, I955,P;.I7; 14. Thakur,Omkamath: Sangeetanjali, Vol. IV, 1955, p. 153. 15. Thakur, Omkamath: Sangeetanjali, Vol. I, 1959, znd Ed., p. 97. 16. Zimny, G. H. & Weidenfeller, E. W.: Effccts of music upon GSR ofchildren, Child Development, 1962, 33(4), 891-896. 72 2 3 4 5 6 7 SHAllOW DEEP MASCULINE FEMININE CALM AGITATED RIGID FLEXIBLE DRY WET EXPANDING CONTRACTING WEARY REFRESHED SWEET BITTER THRllLING SOOTHING SACRED SECULAR COOL WARM COLOURFUL COLOURLESS SOBER DRUNK ACIIV£ PASSIVE CLOUDY SUNNY OPEN CLOSED TIGHT LOOSE USUAL UNUSUAL LIGHT HEAVY EVENING MORNING CONTROllED UNCONTROLLED ~ ~ ~ :: ":::"0t;-.C ::: ~ .~ ~ ~ --S..E .~ E Ji 0- V1 ~~ ~ a ~ FIGURE I: KAR Pro61e: Plotted averages of response of the participants to ~ch of the bipolar adjective scales. 73 2 3 4 S 6 7 SHALLOW DEEP MASCULINE FEMININE CALM AGITATED RIGID FLEXIBLE DRY WET EXPANDING CONTRACIlNG (JO'OOn' WEARY REFRESH.ED SWEET BIITER THRILLING SOO1HlNG SACRED SECULAR COOL WARM COLOURFUL COLOURLESS SOBER DRUNK ACTIVE PASSIVE CLOUDY SUNNY OPEN CLOSED TIGHT LOOSE USUAL UNUSUAL LIGHT HEAVY EVENING MORNING CONTROLLED UNCONTROllED >. >. ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ ~ .~ j]:E j .~ ~ ~ C/ Vi ;:qZ Vi a ~ FIGURE 2: MISRA MAND Profile: Plotted averagesofresponse of the participants to each of the bipolar adjective scales. 74- 1 2- 3 4 5 6 7 SHALLOW DEEP MASCULINE FEMININE CALM AGITATED RIGID FLEXIBLE DRY WET EXPANDING CONTRACTING ?JlJ111TO~ MMIV WEARY REFRESHED SWEET BITTER 1HRILLING SOOTHING SACRED SECULAR COOL WARM COLOURFUL COLOURLESS SOBER DRUNK ACTIVE PASSIVE CLOUDY SUNNY OPEN CLOSED TIGHT LOOSE USUAL UNUSUAL LIGHT HEAVY EVENING MORNING CONTROLLED UNCONTROLLED >. ;>. ~ ~ .... '"" ~ ~ ~ 0 u ~ = E .~ ..E ~ -5..E .~ e x - .~ o"Ej·~ - t( "'-l 6 tn ~z v:; 6 .u FIGURE 3: PURIYA DHANASRI Profile: Plotted averages of response of the participants to each of the bipolar adjective scales. 75 2 3 4 5 6 7 SHALLOW DEEP MASCULINE FEMININE CALM AGITATED RIGID FLEXIBLE DRY WET EXPANDING CONTRACTING ~~~o~ ~ WEARY REFRESHED SWEET BITTER THRILLING SOOTHING SACRED SECULAR COOL WARM COLOURFUL COLOURLESS SOBER DRUNK ACTIVE PASSIVE CLOUDY SUNNY OPEN CLOSED TIGHT LOOSE USUAL UNUSUAL LIGHT HEAVY EVENING MORNING CONTROLLED UNCONTROLLED ~ ~ ~ ~8~2' -g E .~ .- ~:€ ~ .E 2 t( .... ~ c ~ .~ x UJ a Vi :::::z Vi a w FIGURE 4: RAGESHRI Profile: Plotted average of responses of the participants to each of the bipolar adjective scales. S....NGEET N.1TAK 76 TABLE 3 KAFI: Table of Factor Loadings by Method of Principal Components with Unities Entered in the Diagonal Cells* Principal Factors Sr. Adjective Scales No. I II III IV V VI VII 1. Shallow-Deep -II 25 -02 73 21 14 -04 _. Masculine-Feminine -06 51 09 09 25 -48 32 3· Calm-Agitated 47 31 -26 -54 -19 02 17 4· Rigid-Flexible -09 47 -43 12 -32 . -13 25 5· Dry-Wet -3 2 65 -01 -08 -32 18 -13 6. Expanding-Contracting 25 43 44 -17 36 -18 -45 7· ~-~ 06 -17 -13 03 14 78 -29 8. Weary-Refreshed -70 20 13 °4 25 22 12 9· Sweet-Bitter 74 -13 -16 23 -02 18 10 10. Thrilling-Soothing -04 -16 80 13 06 -18 -01 II. Sacred-Secular 52 46 03 -24 -33 II -02 12" Cool-Warm 47 -22 -13 -27 57 18 23 13· Colourfill-Colourless 79 -25 00 -07 -18 -17 -07 14· Sober-Drunk -06 49 -32 -48 28 13 -14 IS· Active-Passive 75 00 -06 28 .-10 -21 -04 10. Cloudy-Sunny -35 -36 13 -68 19 -14 17 17· Open-Closed 65 53 15 02 14 -06 -30 18. Tight-Loose -43 -39 -54 06 -27 -25 -27 19· Uusual-Unusual 31 -07 -37 12 34 -21 -21 20. Light-Heavy 67 -18 17 12 03 26 46 :!I. Evening-Morning 21 -61 12 -22 -22 -12 -30 22. Controlled-Uncontrolled 02 -II -65 12 47 -25 -04 * Each figure within the table has a decimal point before it, which has been omitted to save space. 77 MEANING OF MUSIC TABLE 4 MISRA MAND: Table ofFactor Loadings by Method ofPrincipal Components with Unities Entered in the Diagonal CeIIs* Principal Factors Sr. Adjective Scales No. I II III IV V VI VII I. Shallow-Deep -48 -17 -14 25 -26 -3 6 -06 2. Masculine-Feminine -14 -03 66 13 39 -19 -30 3· Calm-Agitated -43 22 25 14 -01 3° -13 4· Rigid-Flexible -22 -50 °7 29 19 -23 32 5· Dry-Wet °9 -43 -46 18 36 -21 -04 6. Expanding-Contracting 49 -12 17 44 -26 -16 -04 7· ~-~ 34 °5 -02 27 -40 46 -12 8. Weary-Refreshed -30 -09 -03 14 25 -03 -07 9· Sweet-Bitter 43 22.- 27 59 -17 °3 15 10. Thrilling-Soothing 57 -19 -16 15 -15 -21 12 II. Sacred-Secular 14 -3 8 -42 -3 1 -03 3° 27 12. Cool-Warm 52 01 19 -48 17 -01 -24 13· Colourful-Colourless 5° -33 12 -14 34 12 46 14· Sober-Drunk -41 41 -27 09 42 30 20 -04 -22 15· Active-Passive 53 32 22 -22 36 16. Cloudy-Sunny -58 -24 25 -36 -18 28. -16 -10 -45 17· Open-Closed 59 -19 -27 -04 19 18. Tight-Loose -16 31 -48 43 39 28 -17 -I7 -40 19· Usual-Unusual -20 19 -64 -07 -35 20. Light-Heavy 22 66 -3 8 -27 -07 -14 28 -II 6 -22 21. Evening-Morning 3° -15 42 12 4 22. Controlled-Uncontrolled -14 7° 15 23 24 -33 19 * Each figure within the table has a decimal point before it, which has been omitted to save space. SANGEET NATAK 78 TABLE 5 PURIYA DHANASRI: Table of Factor Loadings by Method of Principal Components with Unities Entered in Diagonal Cells* Principal Factors Sr. Adjective Scales No. I II III IV V VI VII r. Shallow-Deep -67 -:27 01 °S -26 -07 30 2. Masculine-Feminine -49 -20 -17 -22 -47 48 -09 3· Calm-Agitated 69 IS -21 26 -33 -13 17 4· Rigid-Flexible -63 07 01 -23 -40 -IS -IO 5· Dry-Wet -64 OS. -30 -17 -IO -36 17 6. Expanding-Contracting 57 -21 -02 -04- -14 -34- 45 7· ~.-MW 39 04- -46 -50 23 06 -26 8. Weary-Refreshed -4-4- -21 15 06 52 -32 -09 9· Sweet-Bitter 79 25 -10 -09 -09 -22 -05 10. Thrilling-Soothing -IS -27 39 -51 39 -3 8 06 II. Sacred-Secular IS °3 55 33 -48 -22 -22 12. Cool-Warm 30 -50 -39 47 02 14 00 13· Colourful-Colourless 81 24- 18 07 13 -03 -14- 14· Sober-Drunk -01 67 -53 -16 09 08 13 Active-Passive 15· 5° -13 46 -30 07 35 26 16. Cloudy-Sunny -07 24- -04 67 4-1 22 10 17· Open-Closed 68 -07 27 -42 -23 19 02 18. Tight-Loose -3 6 61 -02 14 -19 -37 -13 19. Usual-Unusual 12 55 25 -03 -02 00 -37 20. Light-Heavy 76 -14- -17 °7 -09 -33 II 21. Evening-Moming -31 48 59 18 04- 18 30 22. Controlled-Uncontrolled -06 72 -09 -26 05 II 38 * Each figure within the table has a decimal point before it, which has been omitted to save space. 79 MEANING OF MUSIC TABLE 6 RAGESHRI: Table of Factor Loadings by Method of Principal Components with Unities Entered in Diagonal Cells* Principal Factors Sr. Adjective Scales No. I II III IV V VI VII 1. Shallow-Deep -51 -27 -42 14 -18 01 14 2. Masculine-Feminine -42 32 08 08 19 22 48 3· Calm-Agitated 46 °5 33 58 -26 -13 -02 4· Rigid-Flexible -48 -3 2 22 04 17 -39 -03 5· Dry-Wet -74 -13 °7 42 -15 -II -17 6. Expanding-Contracting 33 10 -38 45 19 -27 32 7· ~-.MMI' 22 43 -08 10 -49 -32 46 8. Weary-Refreshed -« 65 -20 21 09 -10 -10 9· Sweet-Bitter 79 -II °S -29 03 °3 -12 10. Thrilling-Soothing -63 -47 -12 -18 -10 -39 II II. Sacred-Secular 33 09 40 04 27 -23 -21 12. Cool-Warm °9 46 -46 IS 02 41 -14 13· Colourful-Colourless 55 °9 « -21 01 -30 22 14· Sober-Drunk 30 28 II 55 -16 00 -47 15· Active-Passive 45 -46 -19 -IS -34 -05 -22 16. Cloudy-Sunny 19 66 09 -34 -26 07 28 17· Open-Closed 54 -33 -40 14 37 -26 17 18. Tight-Loose -29 -3 8 42 -04 -22 « 16 19· Usual-Unusual 13 -II 10 15 7° 31 16 20. Light-Heavy 36 -42 -22 10 -37 32 II 21. Evening-Morning -47 5° 31 -22 -01 -II -19 22. Controlled-Uncontrolled °3 -3 1 58 47 -07 18 30 * Each figure within the table has a decimal point before it, which has been omitted to save space. SANGEET NATAK 80 TABLE 7 KAFI: Dimensions of Meaning.' Total Bi-polar Adjective Scales Otl which Amountof variance Suggested Pole Factor appreciably loaded, in terms of letter variance explained Name 2 ingnotation for amount of loading, explained upto this andresponded order of polarity (percent) factor (percent) I, Colourful-Colourless*, Active 20'2 20' 2 Affect + Passive*, Sweet-Bltterx;" Re- mer freshed-Weary, Light-Heavy, Open-Closed, Sacred-Secular, (calm-agitated), (cool-warm), (tight-loose), and (cloudy-sunny) II. Wet-Dry, Evening-Morning, 13'2 33' 4 Humidity + Open-Closed, Masculine-Feminine, mi?m (sober-drunk), (flexible-rigid), (sac red-secular), (expanding-contract ing), (tight-loose), and (cloudy sunny) III. Soothing-Thrilling*, Controll 10'0 43'4 Tranquillity + ed-Uncontrolled, Tight-Loose, m (expanding-contracting), (flexible- rigid), and (usual-unusual) IV, Deep-Shallows; Cloudy-Sunny, 52' 3 Depth + Calm-Agitated, and (sober-drunk) wrrmrr v, Cool-Wann, (controlled-uncont 7'5 59' 8 Atmosphere + rolled), and (expanding-contracting) q Id 1"1 <(!J VI. Rolling-Angular, and (mascu 6'6 Agitation line-feminine) ~ VII. (light-heavy), and (expanding- 5'1 71'S Density contracting) 'ifo'IClT IFor fuller description ofthe tabulated categoriespleasesee text, 2In order to convey more completely the names suggested by us for the factors, near equivalent in Sanskrit for the same have also been given below their Englishversion, 8r MEANING OF MUSIC TABLE 8 MISRA MAND: Dimensions of Meaning Total Bi-polar Adjeaive Scales on which Amountof variance Suggested, Pole Factor appreciably loaded, ill terms of letter variance explained Name ingnotation for amount of loading, explained uptothis andresponded order of polarity (percent) factor (percellt) I. Open-Closed, Cloudy-Sunny, 15'4 15"4 Atmosphere + Soothing-Thrilling, Active-Passive, "lldliHOj Cool-Warm, Colourful-Colourless, (expanding-contracting), (deep shallow), (sweet-bitter), (calm agitated), and (refreshed-weary) II. Controlled-Uncontrolled, Re 12'5 27' 9 Activity + freshed-Weary, Light-Heavy, f*l19fh1dl Flexible-Rigid, (wet-dry), (sober drunk), and (sacred-secular) III. Feminine-Masculine, Usual- 9'9 Novelty Unusual, (tight-loose), (wet-dry), i1cft;:raT (sacred-secular), and (light-heavy) IV. Sweet-Bitter, (cool-warm), (ex 8'6 Affect + panding - contracting), (tight mer loose), (evening-morning), and (cloudy-sunny) V. (sober-drunk), (rolling-angular), 6'8 53'2 Agitation (feminine-masculine), (tight-loose), ~ and (wet-dry) VI. (evening-morning), (rolling-angu 59'9 Depth + lar), (deep-shallow), and (usual wrr'mff unusual) VII. (colourful-eolourless) (open-closed), 5"8 Gaiety + and (usual-unusual) 'ffi1rn SANGEET NATAK H2 TABLE 9 PURIYA DHANASRI: Dimensions of Meaning Total Bi-polar Adjective Scales onwhich Amountof Variance Suggested Pole Factor appreciably loaded, in terms of letter- variance explained Name jng notation for amount of loading, explained "pto this and responde4 order of polarity (percent) factor (percent) I. Colourful-Colourless*, Sweet- 25"5 25'5 Affect + Bitter*, Heavy-Light, Calm- 'In II. Controlled-Uncontrolled, Sober- 12'0 37'5 Stability + Drunk, Tight-Loose, Usual-Un- f~<:crr usual, Cool-Warm, (evening- morning) III. Evening-Morning, Sacred-Secular, 9' 3 46'8 Sanctity + Sober-Drunk, (rolling-angular), ~CIT (passive-active), (soothing-thrill- ing), and (cool-warm) IV. Cloudy-Sunny, Soothing-Thrill- 8'7 55'S Atmosphere ing, Rolling-Angular, (cool-warm), Glial Gl '(01 and (closed-open) V. Weary-Refreshed, (sacred-secular), 7'2 62'7 Vigour (feminine-masculine), (cloudy- mer, ~ sunny), (flexible-rigid), and sooth- ing-thrilling) VI. (feminine-masculine), (soothing- 6'3 69'0 Vitality thrilling), (tight-loose), (wet-dry), m (passive-active) MEANING OF MUSIC TABLE 10 RAGESHRI: Dimensions of Meaning Total Bi-polar Adjective Scales on which Amountof Variance Sttt?gested Pole Factor appreciably loaded, in terms of letter variance explained Name ingnotation for amount of loading, explained IIpto this and responded order of polarity (percent) factor (percent) I. Sweet-Bitter, Wet-Dry, Sooth- . 19°4 19°4 Affect + ing-Thrilling, Colourful-Colour mer less, Closed-Open, Deep-Shallow, (rigid-flexible), (evening-morning), (calm-agitated), (passive-active), (weary-refreshed), and (masculine feminine) II. Cloudy-Sunny, Weary-Re- 13 ° 1 32 °5 Atmosphere freshed, Evening-Morning,(sooth clldlCl(OI ing-thrilling), (cool-warm), (pas sive-active), (rolling-angular), (heavy-light), and (tight-loose) III. Controlled-Uncontrolled, (cool- 9' 1 Stability + warm), (colourful-colourless) (tight fBn:dT loose), (deep-shallow), (closed open), (sacred-secular), and (ex panding-contracting) IVo Calm-Agitated, Sober-Drunk, con 8'0 49°6 Agitation trolled-uncontrolled), (expanding l;1fl1 contracting), and (wet-dry) Vo Usual-Unusual, (rolling-angular), 1'1 56°7 Novelty (closed-open), and (heavy-light) ~ VI. (tight-loose), (cool-warm), (sooth 63"0 Flexibility ing-thrilling), and' (rigid-flexible) ~ SANGEET NATAK ADDENDUM K. G. Virmani Thc subject matter of the Addendum, as already stated in the text of the research paper, is certain fundamental concepts like theory of psychological measurement, distribution of scores, averages or means, variance, standardized scores, the correlation coefficient, mathematical model for factor analysis, the correlation matrix, the method ofprincipal components in factor analysis and the rotation of factors, which are considered as 'elements' of the method of analysis employed in the paper. They are included as part of the paper so as to facilitate ready reference for some ofour musicologists who are not used to the type of 'vocabulary' used in our research. On Measurement: Measurement is the assignment of numerals to objects or events, according to rules. Numerals are merely symbols, scratches on paper, each being a distinct form not identical with any other. Such assignment has two purposes. First, when numerals have been assigned to represent quantities of objects or things, psycho logical or otherwise, manipulations of such quantities may be carried out symbolically rather than physically. Secondly, with the vast amount ofknowledge already gained by mathematicians on the number systems new relationships and insight can be derived by operating, under the rules ofmathematics, with those numerals assigned to psycho logical objects or things. After all, scientists have become fully aware that mathematics, with its number system is a game of signs and rules, man-made and arbitrary, like the game of chess (Guilford, 1954; Siegel, 1956). However, before the number system may be employed to describe quantities of some particular variables, it is necessary to demonstrate that the variables possess the kind ofintrinsic structure which the number system itself has. That is, there must be a similarity of structural rela tions between the mathematical system of number and the physical 85 MEANING OF MUSIC system of quantity. In practice it is never necessary to go to this ex treme and, as a matter offact, it ,~ould be impossible to do so, for there are some postulates underlying the system of rational numbers which could not be verified completely in any empirical context (Guilford, op. cit.). Reverting back to measurement, since there are different kinds of rules, there are different kinds ofmeasurements; but for each kind some degree of isomorphism obtains between the empirical relation among objects and the formal relations among numbers. Among the empirical properties of the world for which numbers may serve as models the most important are identity, order, intervals and ratios. Correspond ing to each ofthese uses there is a type ofscale ofmeasurement, namely nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio, whose classification with examples is given below. (Garrett, 1958; Guilford, op. cit.; Loevinger, 1951; Seigel, op. cit.; Sprott, 1964; Wood, 1960). identity numbers may serve as names or labels to identify (nominal) item or classes; "numbering" of football players. order numbers may serve to reflect the rank order of (ordinal) items; "I" st class, "2"nd class performance. interval numbers may serve to reflect the differences or distances among items; Fahrenheit or centigrade temperature scale, calendar time - "1967", "1889". In this case arbitrary zero has been set by convention only, because as will be noticed "0" (zero) A.D. does not mean 'nothingness' of exis tence oflife or history. ratio numbers may serve to reflect the ratios among items; all physical measurements like "60" inches of height, "roo" kg. of weight etc. Here zero is absolute zero, that is, "0" height means "nothing ness" of height. In this case it is possible to equate meaningfully ratios of numbers on the scale, e.g., the ratio 12:8 is equal to the ratio 3:2 and both SANGEET NATAK 86 stand for the same relation between two real quantities. Such is not the case for the earlier three scales. The purpose of the above briefdescription is to state the underlying assumptions in psychological measurements; it is customary to do so in case of propositions for which the evidence is a mathematical proof, because such statements strengthen the consideration of their appli cability in context. Thus it becoms clear that measurement may be of several kinds and may be taken to various degrees of precision. The measurement of the power of music to arouse feelings and emotions in the listener by means of adjective scales described above and expressed as a score constitute more or less an interval scale. These scores may be added or subtracted just as we add or subtract inches (ratio scale) but we cannot say that a score of 6 is twice as good as a score of 3, as neither is taken from a zero ofjust no 'aroused feeling' on the adjective scale. Further, in terms of interval scale, it is justified to use statistical procedures like mean, variance and product moment, correlation co efficient and other statistics that depend on these values which form the basic data offactor analysis. The glossary ofthese terms now follows. Glossary of Basic Statistics for Factor Analysis Distribution of Scores: Data collected from the experiment ill terms of scores of N(herein, 37) individuals on 11 (herein, 22) adjective scales is known as the distribution of scores. A convenient algebraic notation ofsuch a distribution may be: ISt Scale znd Scale nth Scale XnN Such a distribution when arranged and classified 1..'1 some systematic way, like score of I b~ two individuals, score of 2 by seven individuals MEANING OF MUSIC score of 3 by I4 individuals and so on, in terms of the 'frequency' of occurrence ofscores is referred to as the frequency distribution ofscores. The arrangement of raw distribution into frequency distribution is the first step statisticians take in systematizing data in an effort to analyse and interpret the results of an experiment. Mean: Popularly known as average, it is a representative of the values of all the scores made by the group. The statistical process of extracting information from resulting data includes this step of 'reduc tion of data'. Averages reduce the information contained in N scores into a single measure - measure of central tendency - around which most of the values of the scores lie and as such gives a concise descrip tion of the performance of the group as a whole. Such a measure enables us to compare two or more groups on one indicator or same group on two or more indicators. Without going into the types of such measures and their pros and cons, the mathematical notation of the arithmetic mean used in·the study may be given as, where Mj represents XjI+ Xj1. + Xj3 +Xj4 + .... +XjN ~= ------the mean of scores on N the j th adjective scale In summation notation (E) which means summing over all values of N, the above formula is written as, E Xji Mj= (i= I,2,o 0.0. oN) N Variance: Next step in analysing the data is to find some measure ofthe 'variability' ofour scores, i.e., ofthe 'scatter' or 'deviation' ofthe separate scores around their central tendency. Comparison of two distributions ofscores through their means is only partial. In a case of equal averages (say, 4) of two distributions, so far as the means go there may appear to be no difference in the feelings of two groups but on closer inspection ofdata, it may appear that in the first group the scores ranged from 3 to 5 while in the second group they ranged from I to 7. This difference in range shows that the second group "covers more SANGEET NATAK 88 territory" and is more 'variable' or heterogeneous in scoring. The first group is referred to as more homogeneous or its variability in scores is small. Range is a crude measure of variability in a distribution. A sophisticated and stable measure evolved and extensively used by statisticians is known as variance and is defined as the averaged sum of squares of deviations of scores from their mean. Using the conven tional symbol ofGreek letter sigma ( 0\), its mathematical notation will be, Variance = Standardized Scores: Referred to as Z-scores, standardized scores are obtained from raw scores through a simple mathematical trans formation shown below: 0; = ------O\j This transmutation does not change the shape of the distribution. The uses of such a shift results in a little convenience in interpreting/ comparing results; all distributions of Z-scores have a zero mean and unit variance. Correlation Coefficient: The relationship between two sets of scores on various adjective scales are ascertained statistically in the form of an index referred to as correlation coefficient and denoted by the the letter r. The formula for this measure is, (where j and k represent the rj/c = two sets ofscores) In relation to the above described measures of central tendency and variability, r may be defined as the averaged sum of the products of z-scores on two scalesbetween which the relationship is being measured. Such a value varies from -1 to +1 according as the relationship is negatively perfect (high score on one scale, low on the other for a parti cular individual) to positively perfect (high score on one scale, high on MEANING OF MUSIC the other for a particular individual), no relationship being indexed by the number zero. Between these two limits increasing degree of positive' relationship may become indicated by such coefficients as o· 33, 0.65,0.92, and increasing degrees ofnegative relationships may become indicated by such coefficients as -o·rS, - 0·47, -o·S9. Such correlation coefficients representing the measurement of intercorrclations among all the adjective scale score distributions of a study constitute the basic data for factor analysis. Because, as long as such coefficients have values sufficiently more or less than zero (case of no relationship), it leads one to believe that the two activities have in common some fundamental functions referred to erlier by us as the core ofthe concepts. Once the correlations are determined, the scores ofindividuals usually are not referred to again. Mathematica1ModeI for Factor Analysis It is the object of a factor analysis to represent an indicator Zj in terms of several underlying 'factors'. The simplest mathematical model for describing a variable in terms of several others is a linear one and that is the fundamental assumption underlying all of the present-day factor analysis methods. The terms of this linear model mean that an individual's score on an indicator is the weighted sum of his scores on the separate components which enter into performance on that indicator. A given component or factor may enter into the scoresof several indi cators; in fact, its nature can be explored only ifit does. Algebraically, we may write the basic assumption as follows: Zji = aji F« + ajz Fzi + ajm Fmi + Uj; In this equation Zji refers to the standard score ofthe individual j on the indicatorj. The quantity Fli refers to the score ofthe individual on the first factor, this score also being expressed in standard form. The coefficient ajI refers to the "weight" or "loading" ofthe first factor in the indicator j; the larger the coefficient ajf the more important is factor fin determining the total score on indicatorj. There aremcommon factors. Uj is known as the unique factor in testj which means that it is involved only in one indicator namely, j. The factor score is a SANGEET NATAK 90 characteristic of the individual and will have the same numerical value for the individual in all indicators in which that factor occurs. The coefficients of different factors characterize the indicator and are the same for all individuals. The immediate purpose of factor analysis is to assign numerical values to the coefficients, the a's, in this equation. In order to accom plish this purpose one must have a sample of individuals who all attempt several indicators inovlving more or less the same factors. The relation ships between the scores on the various indicators are then ascertained in terms of correlation coefficients. These intercorrelations are present ed in a tabular form as: Correlation Matrix Indicators I 2 3 4 11 I r12 rI3 '14 rIll 2 r12 '23 r24 r21l 3 rI3 '23 '34 '311 4 r I4 '24 '34 r4n II 'III 't1t1 Since there is only one correlation between any given pair of indicators, correlation matrix is 'symmetrical about the principal diagonal'. The analysis cannot be carried out until some quantities are entered in the principal diagonal. Different entries were suggested by theore ticians on different grounds, though, on the face of it, unity should be entered in the diagonal since the correlation of a set of scores with itself should be one. These and some other considerations generated heated and inspired controversies about the "best" method of factor analysis. However, by this time it has become evident that different types of factorial solutions correspond to the diffcrent mathematical theories in the description of a particular scientific problem. A brief introduction to the method of 'Principal Components' will now be given. 91 MEANING OF MUSIC Method of Principal Components If one were to make his choice entirely upon statistical considera tions, a rather natural approach would be to represent the original set of variables in terms of a number of factors, determined in sequence so that at each successive stage the factor would account for a maximum of the variance. This statistically optimal solution was first proposed by Pearson at the tum ofthe century, and in the 1930's Hotelling provided the full development of the method. While this procedure is very straightforward, it entails a very considerable amount of computations and becomes impractical with ordinary computing facilities when the matrix is of order 10 of greater. This difficulty has however been over come by the use of high-speed electronic computer. The reference system ofthe principal factor solution is the criterion of the 'ellipsoidal fit'. When the factors are represented by the principal axes of the ellipsoids, each successive one contributes a decreasing amount to the total communality. In other words, the first principal factor accounts for the maximum possible variance; the second factor accounts for a maximum L.'1 the residual space with the first factor removed; the third factor, a maximum in the residual space excluding the first two factors; and so on until the last common factor accounts for whatever remains. The factors are determined in such a way as to be uncorrelated, There are as many factors as there are indicators, but the last few are likely to be of small importance. Unique facotrs are assumed to be non-existent or ofjust the magnitude that would be accounted for by the unreliability of the various test indicators. The method of principal factor solution can account for both negative as well as positive correlation coefficients. Accordingly, approximately half of the 'loadings' of each of the factors are negative that is, r« may be bipolar factors. A bipolor factor is not essentialy different from any other but is merely one for which several of the vari ables have significant negative projections. Such variables may be regarded as measuring the negative aspect of the usual type of factors. Thus, if a number of variables identified with "fear" are represented by positive projections, variables with negative projections might be inter preted as measuring "courage". SANGEET NATAK The above description has given the general appearance and pro perties of a principal factor solution. Its mathematical derivation and computing procedures are too complex to be presented here. Prog grammes for Electronic computors are available for solving the matrix. Flow chart for programming the principal factor solution isalsoprovided by Harman wherein the mathematical derivation is explained. En passant, enumeration of chief among the other procedures for extracting factors may be mentioned. These include, Spearman's Two factor solution, Holzinger's Bi-factor solution, and Thurston's Centroid method. Rotation of Factors: The end product ofthese solutions, generally are not acceptable to psychologists, although, some prefer the principal factor solution. In search of "meaningful" factors, psychologists have introduced various theories in the hope ofarriving at a form ofsolution which would be unique and apply equally well to any branch ofhuman knowledge other than their own. Within the scope of these theories methods of transforming some initial factor solution to the another 'preferred' type ofsolution were tried, the sole purpose being increasing the meaningfulness of the leadings. Such transformations were given the name of 'rotation' making use ofgeometric representation offactor analysis. Some graphical methods were tried earlier but have now been discarded because they used subjectivejudgments. Many new 'analytic' methods have been evolved. 'Varimax criterion of Rotation' is one of them. Given by Kaiser,it defines the simplicity ofa factor as the variance ofits squared leadings and argues that when this variance is at a maximum the factor has the greatest simplicity in the sense that its components (rotated loadings) tend toward unity and zero. Hence the name, Vari max. It may be noted that this method is adapted to the assumption of orthogonal simple structure. Conclusion: Further explanation as also the statistical test of hypotheses in factor analysis are not included within the scope of the present addendum. For fuller details Harman is the standard text. (Harman, op. cit.). 93 MEANING OF MUSIC Addendum References I. Garrett, H. E.: Statistics in Psychology andEducation, (5th cd.) NY: Longmans, Green, I958. 2. Guilford, J. P.: Psychometric Methods (znd ed.), NY: McGraw Hill, I954. 3. Harman, H. H.: Please see 'Reference' for the main paper. 4. Locvinger, J.: Intelligence, in H. Helson (Ed.), Theoretical Founda tions of Psychology, NY: Van Nostrand, I95I. 5. Siegel, S.: Non-parametric Statistics, NY: McGraw Hill, I956. 6. Sprott, D.A.: Probability Theory and Statistics, in R. G. Stanton & K. D. Fryer (Eds.), Topics in Modern Mathematics, NY: Prentice Hall, I964. 7. Wood, Dorothy, A.: Test construction: development alld interpretation ofachievement tests, Columbus, Ohio: Merrill, I960 . Dr. B. C. Deva, At present Special Officer for Music at the Sallgeet Natak Akademi. See"Sanoeet Natak" 2. S. K. Virmani, a young behavioral scientist, has ~een conducting r~s~arcJles in Psychology andPsychometry ill the Directorate of PsychologIcal Research. MInistry ~f Defence a~d Ministry of Railwaysfor the last 6 years or so. He is M.A. (Matll~m~tlcs) fr.om P,~n)~b University, M.A. (Psychology) from Delhi University and lz.olds a ~ertiJicate.lI1 St~tlS~ICS from the Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta. At presen~ he.ls wo.rkmg asfumor. SClentiJi.c Officer (Psychology) in the Ministry of Railways. Shri Vlrmalll takes a keen interest 111 Indian classical music. f--11° SANGEET NATAK AKADEMI. PUBLICATIONS FOR SALE Price "SANGEET NATAK" Quarterly Journal Rs. 3'00 (Annual Subscription Rs. 101-) SANGEET NATAK AKADEMI FILM SEMINAR REPORT - 1955 Rs. 10'00 (in English) ANTHOLOGY OF ONE HUNDRED SONGS OF RABINDRANATH TAGORE VOL. I (a) in Staff Notation (in English) Rs. 25'00 (b) in Akademi Notation (in Hindi) Rs. 20'00 SANGEET NATAK AKADEMI BULLETIN 'Tagore Centenary" Number (in English) Rs, 10' 00 SANGITAGYA-KA-SANSMARAN Rs. 3'00 by Late Ustad Vilayat Hussain Khan (in Hindi) KUTIYATTAM by Dr. Kunjunni Raja Rs. 2'00 CATALOGUE OF TAPE RECORDINGS Rs. 20'00 MONOGRAPH ON MUSHTAQ HUSSAIN KHAN Rs. 2' 50 by Smt. 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