Why does the Bible Matter? The significance of the Bible for contemporary life

Reflections from the Centre for Bible, Ethics & Theology Why Does the Bible Matter? The Significance of the Bible for Contemporary Life

Edited by C.L. Crouch, Roland Deines, and Mark Wreford

This publication was produced by the Centre for Bible, Ethics and Theology at the University of Nottingham, with the generous support of Bible Society.

First published 2016 by Bible Society Stonehill Green, Westlea, Swindon, United Kingdom, SN5 7DG © 2016 Selection and editorial matter, C.L. Crouch, Roland Deines and Mark Wreford; individual chapters, the contributors All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permis- sion in writing from the publishers. ISBN 978-0-564-04527-3 Contents

2 Introduction ON BEHALF OF BIBLE SOCIETY Brian Howell

7 Foreword BY THE EDITORS C.L. Crouch, Roland Deines, and Mark Wreford 8 Why Does the Hebrew Bible Matter? C.L. Crouch 14 Why the Bible Matters: A Gospel View Roland Deines 26 Why the Bible Matters: A Pauline View Richard H. Bell 34 The Bible and Biblical Hermeneutics Anthony C. Thiselton 44 The Bible and Eastern Christianity Mary B. Cunningham 54 The Bible and Western Christianity Thomas O’Loughlin 64 Why Does the Bible Matter for Ethics? Philip Goodchild 72 The Bible and Systematic Theology Simon Oliver 80 Why the Bible Matters: Islamic Studies Jon Hoover 88 Why the Bible Matters: Jewish Studies Holger M. Zellentin 100 The Bible and English Literature Alison Milbank 108 Does the Bible Matter for Music? Peter Watts Introduction ON BEHALF OF BIBLE SOCIETY

he Bible is indisputably the most read book in history. Translated into over 2,500 lan- guages and counting, with 150,000,000 copies printed in China alone, it is by far the world’s best-selling book. Yet recent years have seen a decline in biblical literacy and Tinterest. Household ownership in the UK has fallen from 90 per cent after World War II to about 50 per cent today. Our own research at Bible Society indicates a latent positivity to- wards the Bible amongst the British public, but relatively low levels of active engagement. Indeed it does seem, as Eugene Peterson has said, that, ‘the Christian Scriptures need [to be pulled] back from the margins of the contemporary imagination where they have been so rudely elbowed by their glamorous competitors.’ o, in light of the Bible’s past and contin- within the areas it does touch upon. It does uing influence, how might we address however, point beyond the critical aspect of the increasing gap between this signif- the study of the Bible for current academic Sicance and our response? One of the most disciplines to the nature of reading, com- natural influences on a society’s thought munities, and texts themselves. It poses the lies in its centres of education and research. counter question, ‘If we neither understand Indeed, though theology was once known how people engage with texts, nor the role as the ‘queen of the sciences’ and deemed of texts in building a community’s identity, foundational to any inquiry into the natural can we truly understand the significance of world, it now receives marginal attention any document for our current culture?’ within modern universities. C. L. Crouch pens the first essay, focused In this volume, the Centre for Bible, Eth- on the Hebrew Bible. She raises the ques- ics and Theology (CBET) has addressed this tion of the relevance of such an ancient and issue head-on, and collected a number of diverse set of texts to the modern read- essays from experts in various disciplines, er. Her answer: its distance and diversity each discussing the importance of the Bi- make it an invaluable tool for understand- ble to their field. It neither attempts to be ing ourselves. The gap between the times comprehensive in terms of the breadth of of the biblical authors and our own allows academic disciplines, nor exhaustive even us a fresh vantage point to look at our own

page 2 Why Does the Bible Matter?: Introduction Introduction ON BEHALF OF BIBLE SOCIETY Brian Howell

practices and prejudices. Its multiple voic- es allow us to hear more than one side of often very complicated human issues, and to develop a sense of perspective, much as having two eyes viewing the same object gives depth. This depth effectively forces us out of our comfort zones, where we tend to oversimplify the world and our categories of what truth is. Roland Deines writes about the ongoing relevance of the New Testament, specifical- ly the Gospels. He speaks not only of their pervasive influence throughout the cul- tures of the world, but also of the unique messages found within them. For example, the Bible contains insights into how forgive- ness works and what it can affect, which may not be readily visible to the biblically illiterate. Conversely, the Bible has much to Dr. Brian Howell, former Dean of Studies and Research for say about the divine, and questions related Bible Society. to it, which people of all nationalities have pondered for millennia. claims just such a ‘critical,’ though not ‘de- Richard H. Bell looks at the Pauline cor- structive,’ study of the Bible is necessary pus and finds in it both a reflection upon to understand the ‘good news’ of God. In the Old Testament ‘condemning’ word examining this use of one ancient text by from God and the gospel’s ‘life-giving another, we come to see value in its differ- word’. Though he sees Paul’s use of the Old ent senses of meaning. Thus, this ‘gospel’ Testament as a ‘highly selective’ one which becomes one that pronounces humans ‘not transforms the meaning of the former, he guilty’ by virtue of their faith and participa-

Brian Howell page 3 page 4 Why Does the Bible Matter?: Introduction tion in the historical and mythical event of faith, which allows it to offer access the Bi- Christ’s crucifixion and resurrection. ble’s deeper meanings. Antony C. Thistleton looks at the vari- Thomas O’Loughlin writes about the act ous approaches to interpretation of biblical of reading. Coming from a culture so differ- texts, initially outlining the various contri- ent from ours, a book such as the Bible is all butions of hermeneutics to the issue of the too often evaluated according to practices Bible’s importance. He describes the vary- which were not germane to its writing or ing approaches of traditional historical-crit- used in the centuries within which it was ical analysis of the Bible, which began written and collected, not to mention the with an approach that opposed theology majority of its history of usage. He reem- and history, but has since evolved into ap- phasises the idea of a book as a shared sto- proaches that demonstrate the compatibili- ry for a community—the glue that not only ty—even advantage—of the coexistence of holds it together, but allows it to face the faith and scholarship. This insight alone is future. helpful for those looking into the Abraham- Philip Goodchild examines the relevance ic faiths that dominate the belief systems of the Bible to ethics. Though the Bible is of- of most of the world. Secondly, Thistleton ten naturally connected to this arena, Good- examines the speech-act theory of J.L. Aus- child observes that this is not done in the tin and John Searle. In the performative ut- sort of straightforward manner we might terances that God makes in the Scriptures, expect. He highlights the nature of how such as promises, we find actions that seek we measure life: whether in terms of goods ‘to make the world match the words.’ Thus, and actions that can be measured, or in ‘re- one continuing value in Scripture lies in the ligious goods’ which are only ours when very acts it performs, just by being what it given away, such as time, attention, love, is. Understanding these trajectories and di- and devotion. The Bible speaks to both, but vine actions directly impinges on our cur- with an eye fixed on the latter. In a world rent understanding of the world and our- increasingly measured and ruled by the selves. material, the Bible is crucially instructive in Mary B. Cunningham writes of the val- the economy of lasting value and values. ue of the Bible for the Orthodox tradition Systematic theology is addressed by Si- of Christianity. Her discussion ranges mon Oliver. Though the famous Swiss the- across the nature of the canon of Scripture, ologian, Karl Barth divided the divine Word the Greek texts, and the extra-biblical texts into the incarnate, revealed, and proclaimed which also influenced the early church. She word, Oliver points to another aspect of the then turns to the complex nature of Bibli- Bible’s relevance. It is as a spoken word that cal interpretation, with its many senses, the Bible as God’s word interacts with hu- the role of a context of faith for its reading, man creativity. This means that the context, and its many paradoxes. Finally she points tone, and experience of the communication out the value of the Scriptures for living is as important as the words that are em- life. Though a monastic life may not be re- ployed. Thus, for the reader, it is only when quired, there is much to be gleaned from it. the particular setting, audience, and cir- It is this treasure, which the Orthodox tra- cumstance of a text are reconstructed that dition preserves by incorporating the study it carries its full weight and message. This of a group of texts—including the Fathers echoes strongly O’Loughlin’s comments and church teachings—into its communal about the nature of reading in ancient socie- Brian Howell page 5

The four evangelists, depicted as an angel (Matthew), a lion (Mark), a winged ox (Luke), and an eagle (John). ty, but also illuminates some weaknesses in Holger M. Zellentin looks at the com- how we understand texts and quotes even mon figure of Abraham as an example of in the modern era. one who both unites and divides the three Considering Islam’s relation to the Bi- major monotheistic religions. He observes ble, Jon Hoover helpfully outlines the that although particular understandings broad history of Muslims with the Bible, of this figure can be divisive, there is an touching on its similarity to the Qur’an, underlying interpretive framework with- early Muslim interpretive literature based in each tradition. What defines these vari- on the Bible, and subsequent reactions to ous traditions is their disagreement about it. He finds two contemporary Muslim ap- Scripture—especially that which they have proaches to the Bible—that of undermin- in common. In other words, to better un- ing it, and that of finding fulfilment of Mo- derstand a particular faith, it is instructive hammed’s prophecies within it. Though not only to understand which stories it Islam’s relationship to the Bible has often finds important to retain, but also to exam- been ambivalent, it has provoked a sub- ine the competing interpretations of these stantial response within Muslim scholar- narratives. The differences tell us what it ship and, hence, the questions to which it defines itself against, thus signalling what responds, making it indispensable to un- it upholds as significant. derstanding the history and issues with Alison Milbank recounts but a few of the which Islam is concerned. many instances in which English literature page 6 Why Does the Bible Matter?: Introduction depends on a knowledge of the Bible, from It is this utilisation of a common literature Marlowe’s The Tragic History of Doctor Faus- that has been preserved as expressing the tus to Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure, height and depth of human emotion, which much of the irony and many of the under- allows songwriters to both identify, and lying themes treated depend upon a gen- quickly reference complex ideas, and thus eral biblical literacy. But, as Milbank aptly have a hope of conveying further insight in observes, the Bible is key not only to the lit- such an economical verbal medium. erature, but to the language itself. Whether Whilst one could adduce arguments why in turns of phrase such as ‘skin of my teeth,’ the Bible is significant for a particular dis- or ‘broken heart,’ or the tone and rhythm of cipline, this collection of essays goes a step the language influenced by the King James beyond to demonstrate some of the practi- Version of 1611, the Bible is key to under- cal effects study of the Bible can have for standing the world’s current lingua franca. each field. Though Bible Society holds no Finally, Peter Watts considers the impor- editorial sway with respect to the position tance of the Bible to music. He first observes of any of these particular essays, we are the integral nature of music to the biblical keen to promote such engagement with the text, as well as its role in the Bible’s dis- Bible from the highest levels of academic re- semination and retention. Further, the Bi- search, to those just entering the field, and ble has provided musical artists a common everyone in the society informed by them. repertoire of images, stories and contexts. For that reason, Bible Society is proud to From classical music to musicals, pop-rock support CBET at the University of Notting- to metal, the Bible remains a common well ham, in general, and specifically with this from which composers continue to draw. publication, ‘Why does the Bible Matter?’

The New York Public Library Gutenberg Bible: one of 49 remaining copies existing of the first printed Bible. Foreword

he impact of the Bible on contemporary life can hardly be overstated. This is not an obvious claim, given the decline in biblical literacy witnessed in recent generations. And yet the underlying assumption of this collection of articles is that it remains Ttrue. The University of Nottingham’s Centre for Bible, Ethics and Theology (CBET) seeks to recognise this and to promote the idea that the Bible, as a first principle, should provide the backbone of contemporary theological discussions of belief and practice. The insightful contributions of our colleagues contained in these pages contribute to this aim by offering a robust, wise engagement with the Bible from a wide variety of perspectives. The essays encourage an informed grappling with this formative text, inviting readers to look again at the Bible and encounter its joys and challenges. In the same way that the Bible itself has shaped imaginations down the generations, we hope this publication will contribute in some small way to the task of re-presenting the Bible as part of our shared cultural heritage.

e are deeply are regularly challenged by whilst drawing on the deep grateful for Bible competing narratives, the reservoir of the Bible. Society’s gener- Bible remains a creative, Various of the essays in Wous support for this pro- imagination-shaping force this volume tell tales of ject, coming, as it does, at a with far-reaching influ- decline: the disappearance time of ongoing economic ence: the ‘natural’ cadenc- of biblical literacy; under- pressure—especially on es of the English language standings of Scripture im- the humanities as academ- themselves derive from the poverished by peculiarly ic disciplines. Nearly all of efforts of biblical transla- modern reading practices; a them owe a great deal to tors; the deep well of hu- lack of attention to the Bible the Bible: think of Michael- man experience deposited as foundational in our cul- angelo’s Last Judgment, in these texts is a source tural heritage. The Bible, it Handel’s Messiah, or Mil- of insight and strength for seems, has gone out of style. ton’s Paradise Lost. The col- both faith communities and Rather than merely lament- lection of seemingly dispa- floppy-haired song-smiths. ing this phenomenon, we rate ancient texts brought Similarly, the ethical im- hope this publication—in together in the biblical can- agination of the West has which cutting-edge schol- on has wielded so potent a biblical roots. This volume arship meets attractive de- force over our shared past makes some of the treas- sign—can help reinvigorate that its ongoing influence ure of the biblical tradition the conversation. cannot be dismissed. Even available across the reli- today, when its validity, gious-secular divide, re- C.L. Crouch, Roland Deines, authority, and normativity sponding to its challenges and Mark Wreford

Editors’ Foreword page 7 Why Does The Hebrew Bible Matter?

hy does the Bible matter? This is a collection of texts at least two millennia old—why do we continue to talk about, turn to, and study such ancient words? WWhy, indeed, does the Hebrew Bible matter? This is a diverse assortment of narratives, poems, laws and prophetic proclamations which are three hundred, five hun- dred, or even a thousand years older than the New Testament. Perhaps the most straight- forward answer to such questions is that, despite their antiquity, these texts continue to serve as the sacred texts for two of the world’s major religions—Judaism and Christian- ity—and as an interlocutor for yet a third—Islam. As such, they have served as the theo- logical, ethical and social bedrock of half of civilisation. As the importance and relevance of the Bible for these mighty religious traditions is addressed in other essays in this col- lection, however, what follows is aimed at something more fundamental: what is it about these texts that makes them matter to anyone at all—of any faith or none?

he answer, I would on any particular subject is the Bible says is not too far suggest, is in in that rapidly disabused after a off. For example, the laws Tlittle adjective I men- just few minutes in the Bi- in Deuteronomy 22:22-29 tioned earlier: diverse. Far ble’s pages. about the various circum- from being some homog- Sexual ethics provide a stances in which a young enous, highly repetitive telling example. The Bible, woman might engage in mass, the Hebrew Bible as everyone knows, does sexual relations prior to contains a startling diver- not like sex. For those who marriage seem to imply sity of material. Its texts are married it may be just that for a woman to vol- contain profound differ- about tolerable—one is untarily engage in sexual ences in their theologies, obliged to be fruitful and activities prior to marriage deep disputes in their eth- multiply, after all—but was punishable by death ical thought and argumen- even then it is a bit shame- (albeit rather crudely, the tation, and disagreements ful and otherwise com- laws do seem to be mak- in their conceptions of the pletely forbidden. Except: ing an attempt to exempt world and its workings that is not what the Bible a victim of rape from fur- which are so fundamental says at all. ther, punitive consequenc- as to be potentially irrecon- If we start with the legal es). Likewise, the imme- cilable. The notion that ‘The material, it might first seem diately preceding law in Bible says’ any single thing like this stereotype of what Deuteronomy 22:13-21—in

page 8 Why Does the Hebrew Bible Matter? Why Does The Hebrew Bible Matter? C. L. Crouch

which the young woman an caught in extra-marital who had been passed off sexual activities in Deuter- MEET THE AUTHOR as a virgin to her betrothed onomy 22:22-24. (Notice (when, in fact, she was not) how the consequences­ for is stoned to death outside the unmarried woman in her father’s house—would Deut. 22:28-29 are less se- seem to suggest that for vere: her honour, and by a woman to enter into a extension her father’s hon- marriage with prior sexu- our, may be re­stored by the al experience was a capital ‘proper’ engagement of the crime. guilty parties.) All this may Even here, however, the at first glance seem utterly permutations of these laws alien, even abhorrent, to a and the details they offer reader in twenty-first cen- about the particular cir- tury Britain. A similar logic cumstances they envision persists, however, in many give the modern reader a of our own expectations Dr. Crouch is Associate Professor provocative set of tools to about young women’s be- in Hebrew Bible at the University begin to think about sexual haviour in the twenty-first of Nottingham, where she teaches ethics—both in the ancient century. It may be seen in on biblical ethics, prophecy and world and in the modern traditions such as the fa- Israelite history. She has written one. The clear concern in ther giving away the bride on the ethics of warfare, on biblical these laws is the reputation at a wedding (preceded by creation narratives, on the book of of the young woman, be- conversations and insinu- Deuteronomy and on Israelite ethnic cause her reputation serves ations, however jokingly identity. as a proxy for the reputa- phrased, about a young tion of her father or hus- man’s intentions vis-à-vis young women—the former band. This is evident in the the young woman in ques- may boast of notches on the location of the stoning out- tion), in the often unspo- bedpost, whilst the latter side the father’s house in ken but nonetheless extant Deuteronomy 22:21, as well double standard of sexual tend to play down the ex- as in the especially severe behaviour for young men tent of their experience— consequences for the wom- and sexual behaviour for and in the public shaming

C.L. Crouch page 9 page 10 Why Does the Hebrew Bible Matter? of young women whose be- Elsewhere, Abigail de- use of sex by those with- haviour is perceived as too liberately abandons her out power to achieve their provocative or too sexual. If husband to ally herself necessary ends, the biblical we recoil from the idea that with David (1 Sam. 25). narratives recognise and access to a young wom- Bathsheba, though her re- respond to the complex an’s body ought to be con- fusal of David’s summons issues involved in discern- trolled by her father, why may have been politically ing what constitutes moral do we have such difficulty and socially difficult (if not sexual behaviour. with the idea that a young impossible), is never said Even less frequently re- woman might freely decide to have cried out (2 Sam. membered among the bib- about that access for her- 11). Given that the pair are lical depictions of sexual- self? The perceived extrem- undoubtedly in the city, ity is the witness of Song ity and apparent alienness a strict application of the of Songs, a collection of of the biblical material, in Deuteronomy legislation poetry variously interpret- other words, can function would prescribe not only ed as the words of human as a way of highlighting David’s death but also her lovers and as an expres- and facilitating discussion own. Yet—though David is sion of the love between about our own cultural as- explicitly punished, even if God and Israel or God and sumptions. not by death—no condem- the church. Either way, the And, in fact, it does not nation of Bathsheba passes text speaks to the intensity take much further investi- the narrator’s pen. and power of sexual desire gation in the biblical texts In Genesis 38, Tamar as a fundamental aspect of to realise that the authors goes so far as to solicit human experience—either (and perhaps the audienc- Judah’s custom on the side by creating the space for es) of these texts were well of the road in order to get the positive expression of able to recognise the com- herself pregnant—directly sexual intimacy between plexity of actual sexual contravening the expecta- two human beings within practice. The book of Ruth tion that she wait for Judah a collection of sacred texts, tells the story of a young to allocate her body to his or by appropriating sexu- woman—a young foreign next surviving son (which, al desire and longing as a woman, no less—who notably, he has failed to metaphor for the intensity challenges the expectations do). of the desire between God of female sexual passivity In each of these narrative and humanity. by actively pursuing a sex- texts the biblical authors in- Another well-known ex- ual relationship with the corporate sexual behaviour ample of biblical diversity older Boaz. (‘Feet’, it may into their accounts in a way concerns the differences be helpful to explain, are which recognises that the between the creation sto- not just the things that a reality of human sexuality ries in Genesis 1 and Gen- person walks on, but a He- is complicated and messy. esis 2-3. There are seven brew euphemism for gen- Whether the concern is to days of orderly structure italia.) Ruth’s audacious prod an older and uncon- in Genesis 1, culminating actions take place with the fident man towards sexual with the creation of human support of, or even at the and marital union, the real beings, all performed by instigation of, her mother- difficulty of sexual refusal fiat by a God whose au- in-law Naomi. in the face of power, or the thority over the universe C.L. Crouch page 11

CBET Photo Competition 2015 winning entry by Cat Quine: “This image plays with the concept of archaeological strata: it toys with the idea that the Hebrew Bible is often hidden by all the other things scholars have to deal with.” forms the resounding theme of the chap- pects of that creation, as they instruct their ter. Compare this to the intimate story of readers and hearers how they ought to live Genesis 2-3, in which an anthropomorphic in and relate to it. God wanders in a garden with Adam and Why have the biblical texts preserved creates for him a companion called Eve, for us three such different accounts of cre- and which is at pains to explain the whys ation? Despite the determined efforts of and wherefores of some of humanity’s several generations of interpreters, they more peculiar habits—clothing, marriage, are hardly mutually compatible in any childbirth and so on. Beyond Genesis the literal sense: the divine conflict against biblical understanding of the universe’s chaos which is evident in the Psalms is creation becomes even more diverse, with adamantly rejected by the magisteri- many texts remembering a story of God’s al portrayal of absolute divine power in creation of the universe as a result of his Genesis 1, while the order and nature of powerful victory over the forces of chaos the creation of the male and female hu- (for example, Pss. 18 and 89 and Job 38-41). man beings in Genesis 1 are difficult, if not The stories of creation which these texts impossible, to reconcile with the account tell reflect very different ideas of how and in Genesis 2-3. The differences are quite why the world looks and works the way apparent. Why, then, does the canon pre- it does. They highlight quite different as- serve them all—rather than arbitrating page 12 Why Does the Hebrew Bible Matter?

Perhaps also the authors, There is something perfectly exquisite editors and communities about the impossibilities contained in which developed and be- the Hebrew Bible: that two—or three, or queathed these texts to more—texts cannot all at once be ‘true’— each successive generation and yet they are, nevertheless. recognised that too much agreement, too much con- sensus, is rarely a good amongst them to decide time as this language em- thing. There is a wonder- which one was ‘right’, and phasises the intimacy of ful line in Lewis Carroll’s “eliminate the rest? humanity’s relationship Through the Looking-Glass Perhaps these diverse to God, it articulates the about believing as many depictions of the origins of nature of humankind as as six impossible things the universe were allowed something which is near- before breakfast, which— to stand, one alongside the ly—if not quite—divine, from an admittedly unex- other, because the compil- elevating humankind to- pected direction—suggests ers of these texts—and the wards the divine and its the potential and power of later arbiters of the canon fullest potential. impossibilities. There is as a whole—recognised The story in Genesis 2, on something perfectly exqui- that we gain more from the other hand, creates the site about the impossibil- the richness of their vari- intimacy between God and ities contained in the He- ety than we might have humanity by approaching brew Bible: that two—or won from the simplicity their relationship from the three, or more—texts can- and coherence of a single opposite direction: rather not all at once be ‘true’— account. Thus the two ac- than drawing humanity and yet they are, neverthe- counts of the creation of up towards God, the text less. The diversity of these humanity each, in differ- emphasises God’s willing- texts, in other words, forc- ent ways, emphasise the ness to come down to the es us out of the monotony intimacy of the relation- human level, describing of the mundane, towards ship between these new God as keeping the hu- an acknowledgement and creatures and their creator, mans company in the gar- an appreciation—if never but their differing ways of den and coming to visit a full grasp—of the com- talking about this intimacy and look after them there. plexity of our realities. By emphasise and illuminate Both of these texts speak reminding us constantly of this concept in suggestive to the importance of the the existence—even neces- ways. In the creation sto- divine relationship with sity—of multiple perspec- ry of Genesis 1, the author humankind—one lifting tives, they resist our temp- uses the language of God humanity towards God, tation to provide simple making humanity in his one bringing God down to answers. own image (Gen. 1:26-27) earth—and, in their logical The image I’d like to to present the relationship incoherence, offer greater suggest for what we have between God and this new theological and anthropo- in the Hebrew Bible is creation as the intimate logical insight than either something akin to a com- relationship of a parent to could provide individual- munity—a community of its new child. At the same ly. texts which, like any com- C.L. Crouch page 13 munity, comprises a diverse assortment of ted. To engage these texts in the context members. Just like a church, a synagogue, of modern lives, then, is to accept an in- or an academic department, these texts vitation to join their conversation. Rather have disagreements and arguments— than declaring, ‘This is what it means to be sometimes quite virulent ones, reflective human,’ these texts invite their audience to of the importance that the issues they ask a more complicated question: ‘How do address had for their authors. The bibli- we acknowledge and engage with both the di- cal texts represent a diversity of ancient versity of human experience and the diversity opinions on what it means to be human, of interpretations of that experience?’ on what it means to be a human being in It is the diversity of the biblical texts, relation with the divine, and on the ap- and their attendant complexity, which is propriate manifestations of these in ordi- why these texts continue to matter. They nary (and extraordinary) human lives. In reflect the diversity of the ancient world their diversity, these texts preserve a dia- itself, but also the ability of our prede- lectic—a dialogue, a conversation—about cessors to allow and to create space for some of the most profound questions hu- significant and meaningful differences of man beings face. Despite all their disagree- opinion. They challenge us, with our all ments, this diverse collection of texts has too human preference for simplicity and also managed to co-exist. In this they pro- order and consensus, to stretch our minds vide a welcome model for our own lives. beyond their natural confines, and allow Indeed, the mere fact that the canonical for—even encourage—an apparently im- collection(s) of Scripture preserve this di- possible diversity. alectic demands the attention of those in- terested in the ongoing relevance of these texts. It suggests that the forces behind this agglomeration of texts were less interested in the production and dictation of absolute moral norms than they were in the process of trying to discern them: that they were more interested in the lived experience of human beings, trying to work out what it means to live in a world created by God, than in pre-empting that process by fiat. Like a community, the advantages which come of having a diverse assemblage of perspectives and opinions outweighs the Further Reading sometime difficulties of the disagreements and uncertainties. • Barton, John. Understanding Old Testament Ethics: Approaches and Explorations. London: Westminster John Knox Press, 2003. It also suggests that these texts recog- • Barton, John, and Julia Bowden. The Original Story. London: nize the contingent nature of their interim Darton, Longman & Todd, 2004. • Gertz, J. C., A. Berlejung, K. Schmid, and M. Witte. T&T Clark conclusions, and preserve them not as the Handbook of the Old Testament. London: T&T Clark, 2012. final word on the subjects they pursue so • Green, Joel B., and Jacqueline E. Lapsley, eds. The Old Testa- ment and Ethics: A Book-by-Book Survey. Grand Rapids: Baker much as a witness and an invitation to the Academic, 2013. • Rogerson, John W. According to the Scriptures? The Challenge of process in which they are deeply engaged Using the Bible in Social, Moral, and Political Questions. London: and to which they are deeply commit- Equinox, 2007. Why The Bible Matters: A Gospel View

his is an important question, to which I would like to give a four-part answer. Firstly, I want unashamedly to make the point that the Bible matters because it is T received by a significant portion of the global population as the word of God. In this perspective, it is a book of meetings between God and this world, whose central sto- ryline of the creator God’s self-disclosure to his creation continues to inform the lives of billions today. This leads to the second point: that the Bible matters because many people take it seriously as an important signpost on their life’s journey. Though Christianity’s vitality may appear to be waning in the West—in contrast to its vibrant rise in the Glob- al South—its influence on everything, from politics to the arts, not to mention ethical thought, remains. Knowing nothing about the Bible means neglecting the most important foundational text in European culture. On the other hand, precisely because the Bible is so important to so many a short warning seems an appropriate third point: wrongly read, the Bible can be a dangerous incentive towards fanaticism, racism and bigotry. This is why it is vital that we continue publically, and as a community to read, understand, discuss and apply the biblical message. Finally, I want to take a short example from the Bible to demonstrate the irreplaceable relevance of its message to contemporary lives.

I - The Bible as Word of God provoked the biblical authors to speak and write in such a way that their words were preserved, transmitted, edited and In the Christian tradition the Bible is seen read again and again. The manifold reli- as the word of God.1 Although many hu- gious experiences that shaped Israel, and man authors contributed to the core 66 later the church, as God’s people are re- books, the ‘real’ author of the Bible is flected in the different literary modes and God. Some form of revelation—initiated genres used to preserve deposits of God’s by God—stands at the beginning of a pro- revelation: historical narratives recount Is- cess which ultimately produces Scripture rael’s historical experience of God’s elec- and ‘Bible’. The prototypes of our biblical tion, guidance, judgment, and restoration books were written in response to this ex- in descriptive terms; the Torah, prophetic, perience—either personal or collective— and wisdom literature are dominated by and in order to preserve what the writers prescriptive material. This range of mate- valued as a divine disclosure. Something rial relates different modes of divine dis- extraordinary, something inspirational, closure—a hierarchy from the ultimately

page 14 Why the Bible Matters: A Gospel View Why The Bible Matters: A Gospel View Roland Deines

foundational and binding ble is the ‘first principle’ (the Torah as revealed on for Christianity. MEET THE AUTHOR Mount Sinai) to personal counsels inspired by na- II - The Bible as ture’s revelation of God’s wisdom (Prov. 8:22-36). First Principle Further, the responsive genres (psalms, prayers, As a truly global move- laments, liturgies) enable ment, Christianity has seen human encounter with the its centre shift to where divine, which can lead to growth and demand is at new understandings and, its highest—in the South. as a result, to new writ- In 158 countries and terri- ings. Although the histori- tories, about two-thirds of cal process which turns an all the countries and terri- experience of God’s revela- tories in the world, Chris- tion into its written depos- tians form the majority of Born and raised in Germany, Prof. it in the Bible is a compli- the population. Even in Roland Deines came to Nottingham cated, partly inaccessible England and Wales, where in 2006. He is an expert in Jesus and story, what really matters Christianity is in decline, Gospel studies with a profound here is the outcome: in the it remains the largest re- interest in Matthew’s Gospel. end these writings, that ligion: nearly 60 per cent His other teaching and research can be found in any Bible, identified as Christian interests include the Letter of are accepted by all Chris- on the 2011 census. Un- James, the Jewish context of the tians as the word of God. fortunately, for many of New Testament and the process by Debates about biblical au- them biblical literacy is which texts received the status of thority have accompanied no longer an integral part the history of Christianity of their Christian life. This (Holy) Scripture. Theologically, the from its beginnings, but means it is necessary to re- question that matters most for him even these debates demon- lay biblical foundations, as is how God’s active role in history strate that, while the impli- a Christian life cannot exist can be accessed in a historically cations of this conviction without them. The divid- responsible way. may vary in detail, the Bi- ing of history into ‘before

Roland Deines page 15 page 16 Why the Bible Matters: A Gospel View

Christ’ and ‘after the birth of Christ’ is a a book; rather, Scripture wants to be a di- daily reminder of the importance of Jesus’ alogue partner, worthy of consultation in life, death and resurrection—the pinnacle every generation anew. It is a living word, of the biblical master narrative. This same for the living. Jesus—the one who sustains ‘all things by The Bible’s influence on ethical decisions his powerful word’ (Heb. 1:3)—persists as and our understanding of a ‘good life’ an important reference point for the ma- might not always be obvious. It has come jority of people in this country, as for a to feel—or, perhaps, not feel—similar to third of the world’s population. For them, the foundation of a building; everyone the Bible serves as a foundational source knows it is there, but it only requires at- text, functioning as a first principle and tention when it starts to tumble. The worth reference point for ethical judgments, both of both is most acutely felt when they are individual and societal. in danger. When society faces fundamen- Obviously, not all who consult biblical tal and controversial questions about how teaching act in accordance with it, nor do we should act as a community, take re- all necessarily agree with its ethics; they sponsibility and behave ethically—how to should not feel obliged to. In fact, Chris- ‘do the right thing’—people often attend tian self-identity, while (hopefully) in- more to ‘what the Bible says’ than to other spired by biblical ethics, does not follow voices, whether ancient and modern—Pla- the Bible to the letter: ‘The letter kills, but to, Aristotle, Aquinas, Thomas Hobbes or, for that matter, Richard Dawkins or any of our many politicians. In short, the content Biblical ethics cannot be sealed and teaching of the Bible still matter. in a book; rather, Scripture As a central part of the Bible’s content, wants to be a dialogue partner, Jesus’ teaching is vital for many Christians. worthy of consultation in But it is perhaps not too surprising that every generation anew. non-Christians, even opponents of belief, draw on his teaching as well. People who would not necessarily identify themselves as Christians use Jesus as an example in a the Spirit gives life’ (2 Cor. 3:6). In this, given situation or quote biblical teaching Paul’s attitude follows Jesus’ example of as inspiring: even out of context biblical “how to fulfil God’s will: Jesus was faith- wisdom is often eye-opening, thought pro- ful to the way Israel, as God’s people, had voking and loaded with insights about hu- experienced God through their history. He man traits.2 The Bible’s iconic status is also was faithful and true to Israel’s Scriptures. used by ‘publicitoholics’ seeking head- And because he was faithful and true he lines who publicly express disdain for Je- was also free to say, ‘You have heard what sus or the Bible to achieve it: the nastier the was said to those of previous times... but comment, the bolder the print.3 Such state- I say to you’ (Matt. 5:21ff.). He was free to ments rarely reveal a deep grasp of what say that the law and the prophets were in is being dismissed—as is, sadly, often the effect until John the Baptist came, but since case even when well-meaning believers then—that is, with his own coming—‘the use a simplistic representation of biblical Kingdom of God is proclaimed’ (Luke teaching to support a political agenda.4 It 16:16). Biblical ethics cannot be sealed in seems many people never realise that the Roland Deines page 17

William Tyndale—depicted here in a woodcut from Foxe’s Book of Martyrs (1563)—was burned at the stake for translating the Bible so that people could read it in their native language. Bible is the most examined piece of liter- porary knowledge and scientific thought; ature in the world: every aspect of it has repressive and prone to abuse; fundamen- been treated and studied with the most talist, totalitarian, patriarchal, and [insert sophisticated methodologies available at your own negative adjective here]. Despite any given time. Let’s not forget, the study such denigrating attitudes towards bibli- of the Bible was at no time in history con- cally inspired thinking, the vehement re- fined to ‘the church’. The Bible was read action just demonstrates the one point that by philosophers and philologists, histori- needs to be made: Jesus still matters; his ans and clergy, Jews and Muslims, Marx- teaching still matters; his ethical ideas still ists and atheists and many more from all matter. The fact that Christianity is seen walks of life. For two millennia the Bible as so active and effective that it must be has provided a starting point for media censored by certain regimes is further tes- attention, controversy and that most val- timony to its profound impact on individ- uable of currencies, publicity. What other ual lives and societies. book stirs up such heated discussion? This is because any statement about the Bible III - The Bible as Dangerous is a claim—at least indirectly—about God. For the atheist mainstream any ethical Reading framework shaped by religion is to be re- garded as no longer in line with contem- The history of the Bible reveals an im- page 18 Why the Bible Matters: A Gospel View

mensely powerful and therefore potential- As much as Peter is to be admired, ly dangerous book. It is little wonder that though, his stance has dangers if applied even churches have sought at times to dis- large-scale. Uncritical and literal belief in suade believers from reading the Bible on ‘Holy Scriptures,’ or what is perceived as a their own.5 The Bible is dangerous because divine order, can lead to terrible atrocities. In the Bible, the prescription of genocide (Deut. 20:16-18) stands alongside the de- There are indeed dangerous scription of brutal punishment for minor statements in the Bible—if misdemeanours (Num. 15:32-36); even Je- taken out of context, un- sus can be described as riding a white horse historically and uncritically. over a battlefield, killing with a sword coming out of his mouth (Rev. 19:11-21). Admittedly, this last depiction comes it empowers: it allows people to form their from the book of Revelation, which con- own understanding of what is right and tains a lot of figurative expressions, which wrong, justice and authority, and to speak informed readers understand for what “truth to power—something power brokers they are. But in a less figurative saying, are rarely keen on. Jesus makes shockingly brutal remarks: Stories of rulers suppressing the ‘word of It would be better for those who destroy God’ can already be found in the Bible. In the trust of children to have a large mill- Jeremiah 36, the prophet instructs Baruch stone fastened around their neck and to to write his words on a scroll, then sends be drowned in the depths of the sea (Matt. it to the king of Judah in the hope that he 18:5-7). It is a disturbing saying—but read- might listen and avert divine judgement. ing about child abuse by clergy one wish- The king was not convinced. Instead, he es that these professional representatives cut portions from the scroll as they were of the Bible had taken it more seriously! read and threw them into the fire. After There are indeed dangerous statements in that he ordered the arrest of Jeremiah and the Bible—if taken out of context, un-his- his scribe but they could not be found (Jer. torically and uncritically. This is why aca- 35:26). In the New Testament, two of Je- demic study of the Bible, in an open forum sus’ followers were arrested for preaching like the university, is necessary and help- in his name after his death and resurrec- ful for Christians and for society. tion. They were ordered ‘not to speak or Such academic study has to be both teach at all in the name of Jesus’, to which historical and critical. To be ‘historical’ it they replied: ‘Whether it is right in God’s must take the human origin of the Bible sight to listen to you rather than to God, seriously: its writing was less a miracle you must judge; for we cannot keep from than the result of a historical process that speaking about what we have seen and can be studied in almost the same way as heard’ (Acts 4:18-20). A little later, Peter as other historical developments. Even if one spokesperson for all the apostles said: ‘We allows for something like divine revela- must obey God rather than any human tion which demands an account that goes authority’ (Acts 5:29). This is very bold: a beyond the traditional empirical limits of fisherman defying the civic and religious historical method, it will have been accom- authorities, backed only by his conviction panied by a recognisable impact that can he knew God’s will. be accessed with the tools of historical re- Roland Deines page 19 search.6 Religious studies, which includes ilarly critical approach: fundamentalism the study of texts like the Bible, works best and radicalization are not the preserve of when it brings together both the person- the religious. ally committed and those with greater When the Bible is approached in this distance. When Christians and non-Chris- way—carefully and in dialogue with the tians discuss the origins, development and rich traditions of Christianity and bibli- content of this influential, enriching, dan- cal interpretation—its meaning is not lost gerous book together, with mutual respect but clarified. Despite its potential misuse, for each others’ convictions, both afford some of the most encouraging, helpful each other the opportunity to see their and comforting sayings originate in the respective blind spots. Demanding—as Bible; many lives and our cultural herit- some do—that academic study of the Bible age would be poorer without them. Where be conducted without any faith commit- would we be without the claim that hu- ment would be like studying the psychol- mans are created according to the image ogy of car driving without ever allowing of God (Gen. 1:27)—along with its atten- the researcher to drive a car. It is crucial dant claim that humans maintain a digni- to maintain a critical balance. In some dis- ty that cannot be eradicated even by the ciplines personal experience can support worst of circumstances, however broken a understanding—but only if experience is life might be? The Ten Commandments— framed by a careful methodology, rather whatever one thinks of them—could at than treating gut instinct or blind faith as a least prevent many tears. That we should reliable guide to what should be believed love our neighbours, seek their good and true. prevent any harm coming to them is a Beacuse of this inherent danger in any message worth saving from oblivion. belief system, the study of religions, reli- The value of the Bible as a reservoir of gious texts, and other master narratives has cultural heritage and an interlocutor in to be done critically. Such an approach af- firms that not everything is right, true, and significant forever just because it is written If people no longer know what in a holy book: only a critical engagement Jesus (or the Bible) says, they can can avoid the unfortunate consequences easily be manipulated with pseudo- of fundamentalism and totalitarianism. biblical slogans. However, this need not necessarily mean giving up faith altogether. On the contra- ry: it is precisely when one wants to main- tain the position that the Bible matters as ethical debates casts the current decline the word of God, that it is crucial to reflect of biblical literacy in both the wider pub- on the limits of such a claim within a plu- lic and the church in an unhelpful—per- “ ralistic society. The Bible itself offers in- haps even dangerous—light. If people sights, but does not force them on unwill- no longer know what Jesus (or the Bible) ing readers. Similarly, if biblical thinking is says, they can easily be manipulated with to inspire contemporary public discourse, pseudo-biblical slogans. Stripped of con- it must address a pluralistic environment text, these are often applied to support a appropriately. But at the same time, mil- contemporary socio-political agenda but itant ‘new atheism’ ought to adopt a sim- side-lined when inconvenient to modern page 20 Why the Bible Matters: A Gospel View sensibilities. (Mis-)Using Scripture in this without empowering individuals to live way undermines biblical thinking rather up to their demands. In this respect, per- than supporting it. haps the most important message of the It is worth remembering that biblical Bible concerns sin and forgiveness. De- teaching addresses the individual first: spite its significance, it is frequently over- you must change your own heart before looked. Surely there is something more you set out to teach others. This approach pressing—war and peace? Human rights? easily punctures claims to the moral high Social justice? Overcoming poverty? Gen- ground, as we see in some of Jesus’ famous der and equality? Assisted death? A bib- sayings: thus, ‘do not judge, so that you lical contribution to such debates is occa- may not be judged’ (Matt. 7:1-2), and ‘in sionally sought and considered useful. But everything do to others as you would have sin? Why sin above all else? Because sin them do to you’ (Matt. 7:12), while when is the one thing consistently omitted from Jesus is asked what to do after a woman these discourses, yet so often at the heart was caught in adultery he said, ‘Let any- of them. Here a biblically grounded theo- one among you who is without sin be the logical perspective can add to the debate first to throw a stone at her’ (John 8:7). by bringing a more realistic perspective on human nature. Unfortunately, people are often less than eager to see their flaws IV - “And Forgive Us Our exposed: this is why most ethical debates Sins” about human rights, justice, welfare and human progress, in their present secu- These short, sharp statements—seeming- larized form, are not open to a truly the- ly designed to be tweetable—sit starkly ological perspective. When religious rep- at odds with the clamorous tone of much resentation is invited it is often because contemporary public discourse with its religion is regarded as part of the problem, trite mantras which create moral pressure rather than out of an interest to invite a Roland Deines page 21 genuine theological perspective. The current trend in churches and socie- In the remainder of this article I want to ty, however, goes in the other direction: focus on this necessary existential question change the circumstances and you will of the individual, to demonstrate that the have better people. Despite daily evidence Bible has something important to contrib- to the contrary, this is an appealing notion ute to matters that matter, albeit often on a which might explain its persistent pull: if subconscious level. I want to focus on the individual wrongs can be offloaded onto individual to avoid emphasising the more society they are no longer personal. This easily demonstrable social benefits of shirking of responsibility can already be Christians engaging in education, caring found in the first few pages of the Bible. for the poor, helping the elderly, tending When God confronted the first man with the sick, fighting against intolerance and his transgression, his instant response was for a better society. These are rather apol- to point to the woman and to throw the ogetic and utilitarian ways to demonstrate charge back at God himself: ‘The woman the beneficial influence of Christianity and whom you gave to be with me, she gave the Bible, more acceptable because they me fruit from the tree, and I ate.’ The impact the more immediate concerns of a woman pointed to the snake: ‘The serpent secular culture with little interest in talk- tricked me, and I ate.’ Ultimately the ac- ing about sin or other esoteric (religious) cusation returns to God, because he gave teachings which have no discernable (eco- the commandment in the first place. How- nomic) value. But the Bible begins with ever, this vicious cycle of accusing others the individual and has a vested interest in and rejecting responsibility can be broken. how they influence their family, tribe and In the biblical tradition God takes it upon people; the human heart must be healed himself to deal with sin and forgiveness. before societal benefits can be reaped.7 This is one of the key threads along which The Christian message begins with a the Christian biblical narrative—from Par- call to repent (Mark 1:4, 15; Matt. 3:2, 17). adise in Genesis to the New Jerusalem in page 22 Why the Bible Matters: A Gospel View

Revelation, by way of Golgotha—is strung. inantly ethical discourse is a prayer; in a At its heart stands Jesus’ death for the sins truly biblical perspective, the horizontal of the world. relationships within the human communi- In contemporary discourse, though, Je- ty depend on the vertical dimension of the sus’ ethical teaching regularly takes centre God-human relationship. stage. Jesus as a teacher of love is as true This short prayer has a simple enough as it is cliché. Therefore, it is worth look- structure: an address (v. 9b), three pleas ing at perhaps the best-known part of for God’s intentions to happen (vv. 9c- this teaching, the Sermon on the Mount. 10: ‘hallowed be your name; your king- Found in Matthew 5–7, it is nearly a pro- dom come; your will be done’) and three verbial summary of what many believe pleas addressing human needs (vv. 11- Jesus says about right attitude and behav- 13: ‘Give us this day our daily bread; iour. As part of Matthew’s Gospel, it is the forgive us our debts; do not lead us into first of five major speeches by which the temptation’). In a sermon on this prayer, author structures his work and creates a thematic arc from the ‘mission statement’ of the kingdom of God (the Sermon on the Mount), through the spread of the mes- sage of the kingdom of God (the mission sermon in ch. 10), the description of its ir- The Bible doesn’t resistible growth (the parables in ch. 13) and its result in a community of faith (the just address the ‘big community sermon in ch. 18), to the final tribunal where rewards are handed out questions’ of life and (the end time sermon in chs. 23–25). death, but is relevant Considering the Sermon on the Mount, “ the content can be summed up as an ex- to individual well- planation of what the kingdom of God— the central content of Jesus’ message—is: being. a blessing, a challenge and a decision. The first and last beatitudes (Matt. 5:3, 11) promise entrance into the kingdom, which means the promises between the two (Matt. 5:4–10) should be seen as exemplifications I started with the question, ‘which of the of what the kingdom of God stands for six petitions is the most important one?’ as God’s blessing. Matthew 5:20 and 6:33 Having dropped them one-by-one, I ar- frame the challenges posed by the king- gued for the plea in v. 12: ‘And forgive us dom of God to those who want to belong our debts, as we also have forgiven those to it. Chapter 7 then shows what it means who are indebted to us.’ This is the one to decide to be part of the kingdom. At the part a person cannot achieve alone; if ac- centre of this speech, though, is not a com- cused and guilty, a judge alone can acquit mand but a prayer—the Lord’s Prayer, one from the charge or impose the rightful which Jesus taught the disciples and has penalty to redeem the guilt. united Christians around the world since This is also the only plea which recurs the first century. At the heart of a predom- in Matthew; it is immediately taken up Roland Deines page 23 again, with an explaining comment—‘If the weight of it. It is me who is bent be- you forgive other humans their stumbles neath it. It is me who is worn out by drag- (trespasses, sins), your heavenly Father ging it along; my life which is spoiled by will also forgive you’ (Matt. 6:14-15)—and its nagging, draining presence. In Ger- is also the basis of a later parable (Matt. man, the appropriate phrase is ‘Schuld 18:23-35). nachtragen,’ which represents this meta- Leaving aside the theological complex- phoric expression even more graphically. ities raised by Jesus’ imposition of a con- ‘Schuld’ translates as guilt, and ‘nachtra- dition on God’s forgiving grace, there gen’ as to carry or take something after is a universally meaningful ethical and somebody. But it is the wronged one who psychological aspect to this plea. The sit- has to carry the load. Aside from any the- uation presupposed is simple. Somebody ological claim, the ethical admonition and has wronged me and therefore owes me psychological wisdom of Jesus’ saying is something. Although Matthew’s language that as long as I am not willing or able to is financial, the context makes clear that it let go of my resentment against others— is metaphorical: it is about the resentments as long as I am unable to let loose what someone bears somebody else; wrongdo- bears me down—no peace of mind is pos- ings remembered and neither forgiven nor sible. resolved. (It may well still be good financial At first blush forgiveness may seem a advice, however.) Jesus’ saying is about very personal matter without many polit- healing interpersonal relationships—a top- ical corollaries, but it often has a deep im- ic one can see throughout the Sermon on pact. A well-known example is South Afri- the Mount and, actually, throughout the ca’s first black president, Nelson Mandela, Bible. The Bible doesn’t just address the who led his home country from apartheid ‘big questions’ of life and death, but is rele- to racial equality. Despite being impris- vant to individual well-being. The plea for oned for 18 years, he forgave his captors forgiveness, embedded in a promise to for- and, through his example, was able to initi- give others, illustrates this in a remarkable ate a process for peace and reconciliation.8 way. Reconciliation between the accuser The willingness to forgive is not only a the- and the accused is a vital precondition for ological necessity and a means to spiritual approaching God (Matt. 5:21-26). But the and emotional wellbeing but also affects emphasis is not only on the religious ques- the world around us. It can be practised tion, or of what I can do for my neighbour, by everyone; one need not be Christian.9 as important as this is. Rather, it is even Unredeemed human relationships are a more strongly on what I can do for myself. challenge that affects individuals and so- Healing begins with oneself before it can cieties; biblically inspired thinking is able affect others. to contribute to their solutions. It would be When we say ‘I bear a grudge against a worthwhile endeavour to write a world someone,’ we make two statements. history considering the impact of unfor- Firstly, someone has burdened me with given guilt between individuals or lasting something which I now have to bear. The resentments between nations, to reveal insult or injustice is like a heavy back- how much ill results from unforgiving at- pack strapped to my shoulders. As long titudes.10 as I bear a grudge against someone, I am For those who read it as God’s word and loaded with the burden. It is me who feels promise, the Bible matters on an even deep- page 24 Why the Bible Matters: A Gospel View er level. Matthew’s Gospel subtly builds to a climax in Jesus’ words at the last supper with his disciples. Taking the cup, he pro- claimed the wine in it his blood, ‘poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins’ (Matt. 26:28). By doing this he fulfilled the promise which was given to his father Jo- seph before his birth, that ‘he will save his people from their sins’ (Matt. 1:21). The message of the kingdom of God is laid out between these two thematic statements, indicating the importance of forgiveness for a biblically inspired theology. God in Greek is theos. A rational dis- course about something is called a logos in Greek. Together, these form theologia—a reasoned account of God in words or, as the standard Greek dictionary translates it, ‘science of things divine’. Christian theolo- gy as a scholarly discipline is based on the conviction that God made himself accessi- ble through revelation and that the deposit of this revelation can be found in the Bible. Reflection about divine matters is a core dimension of human existence from its very beginning—as are different forms of prayer and a belief in divine guidance. The presence of theology in the name of a uni- versity department or centre like the Cen- tre for Bible, Ethics and Theology makes it possible to join this age-old tradition; it compels reflection about reality under the assumption that God exists.

1. Some church traditions include a number of other books as Bloomsbury Academic, 2014). part of their Bibles. These additional books are labelled as 4. For a plea for a more informed usage of the Bible in politics, ‘apocryphal’ or ‘deuterocanonical’ books to indicate that their see Richard Bauckham, The Bible in Politics: How to Read the status within the various church traditions is somehow differ- Bible Politically (London: SPCK, 2010). ent from the generally accepted 66 books. 5. The death of William Tyndale for printing and distributing Bi- 2. George Orwell, for example, favourably compares the lan- bles is the most prominent British example; see David Daniell, guage of Ecclesiastes with modern academic writing (Politics William Tyndale: A Biography (New Haven, CT: Yale University and the English Language and Other Essays [Oxford: Oxford Press, 2001). City Press, 2009], 13f.). 6. My own attempt at this can be found in ‘Revelatory Experi- 3. Luke Timothy Johnson introduces the danger of scandal-driv- ences as the Beginning of Scripture: Paul’s Letters and the en, media-oriented Jesus scholarship in very accessible and Prophets in the Hebrew Bible’, in From Author to Copyist: Essays entertaining language in The Real Jesus: The Misguided Quest on the Composition, Redaction, and Transmission of the Hebrew for the Historical Jesus and the Truth of the Traditional Gospels Bible in Honor of Zipi Talshir, ed. Cana Werman (Winona Lake, (New York: HarperCollins, 1996). Maurice Casey, late Professor IN: Eisenbrauns, 2015), 303-35. for New Testament Studies here in Nottingham, has also taken 7. The biblical ‘heart’ designates the true inner self of a person, to task some of the recent pseudo-scholarly nonsense online, where decisions are made (and felt), between our deliberative in Jesus: Evidence and Argument or Mythicist Myths? (London: and emotive faculties. Roland Deines page 25

The traditional location where Jesus delivered the Sermon on the Mount, with the Sea of Galilee in the background.

8. An internet search using “Nelson Mandela forgiveness” Cambridge University Press, 2010). For theological discussions provides a plethora of quotes and appreciations for Mandela see Anthony Bash, Forgiveness: A Theology, Cascade Compan- the “icon of reconciliation and forgiveness” as Channel 4 ions (Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2015). described him in their obituary for him. 9. Perhaps the best known example is Mohandas Ghandi, who repeatedly stressed how deeply the Sermon on the Mount in- fluenced him in his non-violent fight for freedom. See Jeremy Further Reading Holtom, ‘Gandhi’s Interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount’, in The Oxford Handbook of the Reception History of the Bible, ed. • Cherry, Stephen. Healing Agony: Re-Imagining Forgiveness. Michael Lieb, Emma Mason, and Jonathan Roberts (Oxford: London: Continuum International, 2012. Oxford University Press, 2011), 542-56. • Daniell, David. The Bible in English: Its History and Influence. 10. The last decade has seen a growing interest in the topic of for- New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003. giveness not only in theology but also in contemporary phi- • Deines, Roland. Acts of God in History: Studies Towards Recover- losophy and intellectual history. Much discussed are Charles ing a Theological Historiography. Edited by Christoph Ochs and L. Griswold, Forgiveness: A Philosophical Exploration (Cam- Peter Watts. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2013. bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007) and David Konstan, • Volf, Miroslav. Free of Charge: Giving and Forgiving in a Culture Before Forgiveness: The Origins of a Moral Idea (Cambridge: Stripped of Grace. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005. Why The Bible Matters: A Pauline View

A Condemning and a Life-giving Word

‘Don’t go—don’t go!’ he implored. ‘This is my last time! I thought it would be less intrusive than to enter your house. And I shall never come again. Don’t be unmerciful. Sue, Sue! we are acting by the letter; and “the letter killeth”!’ Thus speaks Jude Fawley to Sue Bridehead, his former lover, in a key scene towards the end of Thomas Hardy’s last completed novel, Jude the Obscure.1 Jude quotes from Paul’s second letter to the Corinthians: ‘the letter killeth’ (2 Cor. 3:6). It is a central text for the novel and, in fact, is quoted on the title page of the book.

begin with this text within a text for nai. In the book of Exodus, not only did two reasons. First, it illustrates how God speak these words to Moses but they I important a knowledge of Paul can were written by God himself on the two be for understanding English literature; tablets of stone (Exod. 34:1; cf. Deut. 10:4). and one can extend this point to Paul’s im- So it is this letter, the Ten Command- portance in German, French, Italian, and ments, ‘which killeth’. Paul explains in Russian literature—and beyond.2 Second- 2 Corinthians 3 that the issuing of these ly, this text of Paul is, I believe, frequent- commandments was a ‘ministry of con- ly misunderstood—and I have to include demnation’ (2 Cor. 3:9). According to Hardy here. For when Paul writes ‘The let- Paul’s reading of Exodus 34, this law ter killeth,’ I do not think he is criticizing given to Moses came with glory—a glo- legalistic Christianity or, as Hardy applies ry which was manifest in Moses’ face it, criticizing a ‘by-the-book adherence to which shone (Exod. 34:29-30). But for [the] legal contract of “love”’. Rather the Paul this glory, associated with the giv- ‘letter’ refers to the ‘thing which is writ- ing of the law, is a glory which kills. ten’ (in Greek, to gramma) and, reading a This ‘killing’ function of the law is not little further in 2 Corinthians 3, it is clear explicitly mentioned in Exodus 20 or 34, that the thing which is written is what though it is made clear that failure to keep we now call the Ten Commandments, the law will end in condemnation (e.g., found in Exodus 20:2-17. It was that cen- Deut. 27:11-26). These Old Testament tral part of the law given to Moses on Si- texts assume that it is possible to keep

page 26 Why the Bible Matters: A Pauline View Why The Bible Matters: A Pauline View Richard H. Bell

the law. Paul, however, negative reason for why had a somewhat different the Bible matters. But for MEET THE AUTHOR view: human beings are Paul it is an essential pre- simply unable to keep the cursor to his good news. law. Paul had a pessimistic The good news of the gos- view of the human person, pel of Jesus Christ can only believing that human be- be understood against this ings are under the power dark backdrop of God’s of sin (e.g. Rom. 3:9). They condemning word, which are ‘in Adam’ (a reference demonstrates that human to the idea that Adam was beings are in need of re- the first sinner) and, since demption. So in Romans Adam came before Moses, 1:18-3:20, Paul sets out when the law comes it will this human problem and inevitably lead to condem- concludes that no one will nation. Hence for Paul the be saved by doing good Richard Bell studied Physics and law can only kill and func- works: ‘For “no human be- tion as a ‘ministry of con- ing will be justified in his Chemistry at University College demnation’. But he empha- sight” by deeds prescribed London and Theology at Oxford sizes that the fault does not by the law, for through and Tübingen. He has published on lie with the law; God’s law the law comes the knowl- the New Testament, Science and is holy and came with glo- edge of sin’ (Rom. 3:20). Theology, and Richard Wagner, his ry. Rather the fault lies with If salvation cannot come latest book being Wagner’s Parsifal: the sinful human being. through the law, how can An Appreciation in the Light of His The only Bible Paul one be redeemed? For Theological Journey. knew was what Christians Paul it was only possi- call the Old Testament. ble through faith in Jesus the power of God for salva- From his perspective, one Christ; this faith can only tion to everyone who has reason this Bible mattered come about by hearing faith, to the Jew first and is because in it we find the gospel. In Rom. 1:16- also to the Greek [that is the the law, God’s condemn- 17 he writes, ‘For I am not Gentile]. For in it [that is in ing word. This is clearly a ashamed of the gospel: it is the gospel] the righteous-

Richard H. Bell page 27 page 28 Why the Bible Matters: A Pauline View ness of God is revealed the hearers (cf. 2 Cor. 4:6). here iustitia dei, ‘justice of through faith for faith; as Faith in Christ is a ‘creation God’.) The righteousness it is written “The one who out of nothing’. Therefore of which Paul writes is a is righteous through faith the gospel is indeed the saving righteousness. In shall live”’. The gospel of power of God for salvation. fact, the word ‘righteous- which Paul writes is God’s Paul writes that in the ness’ could be even trans- life-giving word. Whereas gospel the ‘righteousness lated as ‘salvation’, pro- the law condemns, the gos- of God’ is revealed. As Lu- vided one bears in mind pel gives life. And those ther and many others have that Paul is pointing to the who hear the gospel can rightly seen, this right- forensic aspect of salva- become believers through eousness of God which tion. That is, he is using an the gospel. Just as on that is revealed is not a con- image from a Jewish law- first day of creation God demning word; Paul is not court (these were civil cas- created through his word saying the ‘justice of God’ es) where the judge would when he declared ‘Let in condemning sinners is ‘justify’ (i.e., acquit) one there be light’ (Gen. 1:3) so, revealed. (This was some- party and condemn the as the gospel is preached, thing implied by the Lat- other (see Deut. 25:1). In faith comes into being in in Vulgate, which offers Paul’s use of the metaphor Second year theologians at UoN learning to love their Greek New Testaments. The text for this class was Philippians 3:1-11, though most of the class was spent focussing on some key words. Richard H. Bell page 29 the judge is God, who can Rom. 1:1, 9, 16). Many have readers being alarmed by either condemn the hu- assumed that the gospel is my suggestion that the man being or justify him. to be equated with the ap- Scriptures or the apostolic So in the forensic aspect ostolic preaching. I would preaching are ‘imperfect of salvation God acquits rather take the line that the channels’. (I hope my sug- the sinner. He declares this apostolic preaching wit- gestion that the sermons sinner to be ‘not guilty’. nesses to the gospel and that we hear today are imper- It should be clear now that, in using the law court The remarkable thing about Paul’s theology is imagery, Paul is trans- forming the way the court the way he brings together Christ’s sacrificial functions in a fundamen- death and the reconciling word which conveys tal way. In a human law to us this act and enables them to cohere. court the judge hears the evidence and, if he is com- petent, analyses this ev- the gospel for Paul is some- fect channels can be read- idence and makes what thing much more funda- ily accepted!) Although one can call an analytical mental: it is to be equated God can speak through verdict. But if God were to with the ‘word of God’ in the Scriptures, these writ- “ issue an analytical verdict, its life-giving form (as op- ings are the result of hu- simply looking upon the posed to the ‘law’, which man work and are part of moral quality of human is God’s word in its con- the created order. As Lu- lives, no one would be demning form; see, for ex- ther wrote in On the Bond- saved. But God’s verdict ample, 1 Cor. 14:36; 2 Cor. age of the Will, ‘God and to the sinner who believes 2:17; 4:2; 1 Thess. 2:13). The the Scripture of God are in Christ is ‘not guilty’— gospel is to be understood two things, no less than this is a ‘creative verdict’, as the word which issues the Creator and the crea- in the sense that God de- from God’s mouth. So the ture are two things’.3 Very claring a person not guilty ‘word of God,’ the ‘gospel’, few Christians hold to the makes them not guilty. In is God’s own word, which view that God ‘dictated’ the gospel a word comes issues from him and hence the Scriptures, such a view forth which has the capaci- has the power to trans- being qu’ranic rather than ty to transform the human form the human being. conventionally biblical.4 being; it is a creative word. Apostolic preaching, the Usually, Christians have But what is the nature of Scriptures, or any sermon viewed God’s part in the this ‘gospel’? Many, when we may hear today can writing of Scripture as ‘in- they hear the word gospel, witness to this fundamen- spiration’, the classic text think immediately of the tal word. (Some of it more here being 2 Timothy5 3:16: Gospels in the New Tes- successfully than others!) ‘All Scripture is inspired tament: Matthew, Mark, God’s word comes via by God’. The writer here is Luke and John. But the these imperfect channels. referring to the Greek ver- earliest texts in the New This immediately rais- sion of the Old Testament, Testament which speak of es the question as to the the Septuagint. Paul in his the Christian gospel are authority of Scripture; I letter to the Romans cer- Paul’s letters (for example, can imagine a number of tainly believes that what page 30 Why the Bible Matters: A Pauline View

Christians call the Old Testament wit- the implications of Paul’s view of Scrip- nesses to the gospel, the ‘word of God’; in ture for twenty-first century Christians. I Romans 3:21 he writes that the ‘law and have mentioned the transformative nature of the gospel, the word of God. One per- son who realized the radical nature of this Paul shows that, by means of his transforming word was Martin Luther. In critical study of the Bible, he is able to his Galatians commentary he writes, ‘our disclose the truth of the gospel and the theology is sure because he [God] brings saving righteousness of God. us to rest outside ourselves’. Luther was reflecting the view of Paul that when God’s the prophets’ witness to the ‘righteous- word comes to us we are taken out of our- ness of God’, by which he means that they selves. One way of looking at this is that, witness to the salvation which is found in encountering this word, we undergo an “in Jesus Christ.6 Also, in Romans 1:17 he existential displacement. It is the exact op- quotes from the prophet Habbakuk 2:4: posite of Descartes’ famous ‘I think there- ‘The one who is righteous through faith fore I am’ (cogito ergo sum). My existence shall live’.7 Paul’s letter to the Romans is is not centred on the fact that I think; it is in fact filled with quotations from, and centred on the fact that something outside allusions to, the Old Testament—high- of me is thinking and acting on me (cogitor lighting the fact that, to understand Paul, ergo sum). And in Luther’s understanding, 9 you have to know the Old Testament! this is precisely why ‘our theology is sure’. Just as the Old Testament witnesses to Luther’s ideas of existential displace- this righteousness of God, and hence wit- ment are profound, wide ranging and find nesses to the ‘gospel’, so does the New their origin in Paul. And if Paul and Luther are right, it raises questions about the val- Testament. Usually someone comes to ue of apologetics—which run according to faith by encountering God’s word through a Cartesian paradigm. Nevertheless, apol- the imperfect forms of Scripture, preach- ogetics does have its place—provided it is ing, or perhaps a book or a musical set- seen as clearing the way for what is the es- ting of Christian sentiments. I say usually sential thing: the presentation of the gospel. because there have been exceptional in- So far my discussion has centred on stances where people have come to faith questions of the ‘word’: God’s condemning by other means. One such instance is Paul word in the law and his life-giving word in himself, who came to faith by receiving the gospel. But—you may well ask—what the gospel directly from Jesus Christ (see about the act of God in Jesus Christ? What 2 Cor. 4:6; Gal. 1:15-16). Paul also believed about the cross of Christ? Are we not get- that Israel will come to Christian faith ting removed from the realm of history and by receiving the gospel directly, from that crucial death which atones for sins? the coming Christ at his second coming.8 One of the striking things about Paul’s letters is that he does not dwell on the de- Reconciling Word and tails of Jesus’ death—nor does he dwell on details of Jesus’ life, for that matter. In fact, Reconciling Act there are few references in his letters to the life or teaching of Jesus. But the fact and For the rest of this article I want to explore significance of Christ’s death is clearly cen- Richard H. Bell page 31

CBET Photo Competition 2015 entry by Philip Whitehead: “This photo features Martin Luther in Playmobil form. I appreciate Luther’s theology and approach a great deal, but most of all his encouragement that everybody should read and interpret the Bible for themselves.” tral to Paul’s thought. The cial death and the reconcil- Christ. Thus Paul writes of question then arises: How ing word, which conveys being crucified with Christ does Paul relate the gos- to us this act. The remarka- (Rom. 6:6; Gal. 2:20) and pel—the word of God, this ble thing about Paul’s the- being buried with Christ reconciling word—to the ology is the way he brings (Roman 6:4). Further, the reconciling act of Christ on together this reconciling author of Colossians11 Calvary? Georg Eichholz act and word, and enables writes that we are raised puts it nicely: ‘according to them to cohere. For, as we with Christ (Col. 3:1) and 2 Corinthians 5 the Christ have seen, in terms of word, that our life is hidden with event and the witness to the gospel comes to us and Christ in God (Col. 3:3). this event must be seen as transforms us. We are tak- But now the fundamen- a dual but integrated ac- en out of ourselves and tal question arises as to how tivity of God’.10 In 2 Cor- taken into a new reality— on earth we can participate inthians 5:18-21 we see the the reality of Jesus Christ. in Christ. Some speak in interweaving of the recon- But in terms of act, we terms of Paul using a fig- ciling act, Christ’s sacrifi- participate in the death of ure of speech. For me this page 32 Why the Bible Matters: A Pauline View

St. Paul writing his Epistles—ascribed to Valentin de Boulogne, famed for his Caravaggio influenced tenebrist style. is inadequate. Paul seems to be speaking he died in Jerusalem around the year 30 of the believer being there, with Christ, on ce. Nevertheless, the idea of Christ’s sac- Calvary. The answer to this conundrum is rifice has many mythical elements. Myth, found in one of the most important pillars if received positively, has the capacity to of Paul’s theology: the ‘myth’ and ‘ritu- change our existential situation; indeed it al’ of the sacrifice of Christ. I use quota- can facilitate the very existential displace- tion marks because, though the sacrifice ment I was referring to earlier. If a myth of Christ can be seen in ritual terms and is received positively, we can find our- though it has mythical elements, it also selves embedded in a different reality—in transcends these categories: a ritual is usu- our case, this being the reality of Christ. ally something repeated; the sin offerings described and instructed in the Old Testa- Paul’s Use of the ment were a repeated ritual, for example. However, Christ’s death, as a sin offering Bible and Ours (Rom. 8:3) was ‘once for all’ (Rom. 6:10). And, as far as myth in concerned, although I hope I have given reasons why the Bible one is usually concerned with something matters from this Pauline perspective. Paul which is not rooted in history, Christ’s speaks of the righteousness of God which is death was localized in both space and time: witnessed to by the Old Testament. He pre- Richard H. Bell page 33 sents his understanding of the interrelation 1. Thomas Hardy, Jude the Obscure (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1978), 468. between the reconciling word and reconcil- 2. One could give many examples of New (and Old) Testament ing act. A case can be made that, of all the influence on such literature. In Goethe’s Faust, for example, biblical witnesses, he is the most profound; there are allusions to a vast array of biblical texts, including allusions to 2 Cor. 3:6 in Faust I 1228, 1236 (Faust’s translat- many have also made a case that he is the ing of John 1:1) and 1716-1733 (Mephistopheles’s requiring most reactionary. I have no space or inten- Faust’s signature for the ‘contract’), as well as wider use of the tion here to delve into issues of gender and polarity of the letter and the spirit (see Osman Durrani, Faust and the Bible: A Study of Goethe’s Use of Scriptural Allusions and sexuality, which have recently so exercised Christian Religious Motifs in Faust I and II [Frankfurt am Main: the church, though it is the writings in the Peter Lang, 1977], 61, 72, 194). Pauline corpus which have caused so many 3. E. Gordon Rupp and Philip Watson, eds., Luther and Erasmus: Free Will and Salvation, LCC 17 (London: SCM, 1969), 110. of the controversies. But it is worth remind- 4. Even a conservative theologian such as R.A. Finlayson, for ex- ing ourselves that despite his ‘conservative’ ample, rejected ‘dictation’ or ‘mechanical writing’ (‘Contempo- rary Ideas of Inspiration’, in Revelation and the Bible: Contempo- views, Paul is by no means a fundamental- rary Evangelical Thought, ed. Carl F.H. Henry [London: Tyndale, ist in the sense that he held to the infalli- 1969], 223). bility or inerrancy of Scripture. Although 5. The overwhelming majority of scholars consider that this let- ter (along with 1 Timothy and Titus) was not written by Paul. I he believed that the Scriptures (i.e., the share such a view, though for the purposes of this article the Old Testament) witness to the gospel, he question may be left open. was also highly selective in the use of these 6. Strictly speaking the ‘law’ here refers to the Pentateuch, the five books of Moses (Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Leviticus and Scriptures—and was prepared to go well Deuteronomy). This was the first and most important division beyond and against the original meaning. of the canon of the Jewish Scriptures. The second division Deuteronomy 30:12-14, for example, speaks was the ‘prophets’, which comprises the ‘former prophets’ (Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel and 1 and 2 Kings) and the of a word which is near; in the original set- ‘latter prophets’ (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the Book of ting this word was the law, while for Paul it the Twelve, also known as the Minor Prophets). There is a debate as to whether the third division, the ‘writings’, was has to point to the gospel (Rom. 10:8). Paul closed when Paul was writing his letters (this division includes certainly shows that the Bible matters; but Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Lam- at the same time he demonstrates that the entations, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah and 1 and 2 Chroni- cles). The fact that Paul quotes from the writings (Psalms, Job Bible has to be studied ‘critically’. I use quo- and Proverbs) suggests he uses ‘law and prophets’ to refer to tation marks because the adverb ‘critically’ the Old Testament as a whole. One should also bear in mind is often taken to mean ‘destructively’. How- that Paul alludes to texts from what Protestants call the ‘apoc- rypha’, such as his use of the book of Wisdom (13:1-9) in Rom. ever, Paul shows that, by means of his crit- 1:18-32. ical study of the Bible, he is able to disclose 7. In fact, Paul has changed the sense of both the Hebrew and the truth of the gospel and the saving right- Greek texts here. The Hebrew says, ‘The righteous shall live by his faithfulness’—that is, ‘the righteous shall be preserved eousness of God. Therefore Paul not only alive because of his faithfulness’ (as paraphrased by C.E.B. shows why the Bible matters, but sets an Cranfield, The Epistle to the Romans I [Edinburgh: T&T Clark, example as to how to work with the Bible. 1977], 100). The Greek has the sense that the righteous man will live because of God’s faithfulness (or possible because of his faith in God). Paul applies this text to mean that the one Further Reading who is righteous through faith in Christ ‘will live’. The text of Hab. 2:4b has been changed in the light of the gospel. • Bell, Richard H. No one seeks for God: An Exegetical and Theolog- 8. Richard H. Bell, Provoked to Jealousy: The Origin and Purpose of ical Study of Romans 1.18-3.20. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1998. the Jealousy Motif in Romans 9–11 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, • Bell, Richard H. Deliver Us from Evil: Interpreting the Redemption 1994), 128-45. from the Power of Satan in New Testament Theology. Tübingen: 9. Luther, WA 40.1:589: theologia nostra certa est, quia nos ponit Mohr Siebeck, 2007 (23-65, 230-91). extra nos. • Jeffrey, David L., ed. A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English 10. Georg Eichholz, Die Theologie des Paulus im Umriß (Neukirch- Literature. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1992 (445-47, 588-93, 742-46). en-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1985), 200. • Sanders, James A. “Hababbuk in Qumran, Paul and the Old 11. Just as there is a debate about the authorship of the pastoral Testament”. Pages 98-117 in Paul and the Scriptures of Israel. epistles (see above), so there is about Colossians, although Edited by Craig A. Evans and James A. Sanders. JSNTSup 83. much stronger arguments can be put forward for Paul’s Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1993. authorship of the latter. The Bible And Biblical Hermeneutics

rom the perspective of bib- munities of the people of God. lical hermeneutics, there Second, reference must also be CBET 2015 Photo are six key issues involved made to history. Before the seven- Competiton Entry by F Jonny Rowlands. in the question of why the Bible teenth century, Christians simply matters. presupposed the importance and First, it is impossible adequate- authority of the Bible, both for ly to answer the question of why doctrine and for daily life. This the Bible matters without at least consensus was initially weakened minimal reference to theology. by deists, who conceived God In Christianity, Judaism, and Is- as more remote than the biblical lam—that is, in all the Abrahamic texts describe, and by the effects faiths—the reason why a reading of the Enlightenment, together and understanding of the sacred with the early rise of biblical criti- writings is important is because cism. We shall note, however, that God has made himself known the effects of this period in the through revelation. Revelation eighteenth and nineteenth centu- is entirely different from human ries were of limited duration; to- discovery. All three of these tra- day almost all parts of the church ditions trace the origins of God’s stand together on the importance speaking to humanity to what is of Christian Scripture based on recounted in Genesis 12:1: ‘The the revelation of God and care- Lord said to Abraham, “Go from ful exegesis in the light of histor- your country and your kindred ical context. This is true whether and your father’s house to the they stand in the Roman Catholic, land which I will show you. I will Eastern Orthodox, or Protestant make of you a great nation and tradition. Indeed, the Pontifical I will bless you, and make your Biblical Institute in Rome has en- name great, so that you will be dorsed the use of the full range of a blessing. I will bless those who approaches used in critical studies bless you”’. The Bible, then, is an of the Bible.1 Third, confidence in account of how God has spoken to the importance of the Bible de- his people, since the time of Abra- pends on understanding that God ham through contemporary com- speaks and works through human

page 34 The Bible and Biblical Hermeneutics The Bible And Biblical Hermeneutics Anthony C. Thiselton

Anthony C. Thiselton page 35 page 36 The Bible and Biblical Hermeneutics

ly divine but human only as a whole. Admittedly the MEET THE AUTHOR in outward appearance) comment is useful, for it re- or to Arianism (the notion minds us that God genuine- that Jesus was only a creat- ly speaks his word through ed human being). As in the human agents, but it is not paradigmatic case of the in- a knock-down proof that carnation, we must regard the Bible is ‘God’s word’, the status of the Bible as without further qualifica- genuinely embodying the tion. The same can be said voice of God, while simul- of the oft-cited verses in 2 taneously being spoken Timothy 2:16 and 2 Peter and written through hu- 1:21. To be sure, the Scrip- man agents, with all their tures are ‘God-breathed’ human characteristics and and spoken through the place in history. Holy Spirit, but simply re- Fourth, there is one par- ferring to these verses may Anthony C. Thiselton was Professor ticular approach to demon- not convince the insistent of Christian Theology and Head strating the divine charac- objector. of Department at the University ter of the Bible whose value Fifth, a more important of Nottingham from 1992 to 2002. is severely limited. This can issue is the transformative be seen, for example, in the power of the Bible. It is not He has also taught in Durham and work of Charles Hodge. A just that we scrutinize the Sheffield, and numerous seminaries nineteenth century Amer- Bible as an object before and universities overseas. He holds ican Presbyterian system- us; rather it addresses us, the PhD., D.Theol., and D.D., and is a atic theologian, his ideas making God and the Bi- Fellow of the British Academy. on biblical authority have ble subject and the hearer a lasting impact on evan- or reader, so to speak, its agents, and not in spite of gelical forms of Christi- object. As James M. Robin- them. The Roman Catho- anity. He produced what son declared, ‘[t]he flow of lic writer James Burtchaell many regard as a circular the traditional relation be- observes that ‘[t]he real is- argument, by citing several tween subject and object in sue here is what confounds biblical passages which ap- which the subject interro- scholars in so many areas: pear to confirm the author- gates the object... has been the manner in which indi- ity and importance of the significantly reversed. For vidual human events are Bible.3 He cites, for exam- it is now the object... the jointly caused by God and ple, the apostle Paul’s first subject-matter [of the Bi- man’.2 He responds to this letter to the newly found- ble] that puts the [human] issue by pointing out that ed church in Thessalonica: subject in question’.4 Fa- the root problem is that of ‘You accepted it not as a hu- mous hermeneutical the- the incarnation: how can man word, but what it real- orist Hans-Georg Gadam- God appear as truly man? ly is, God’s word’ (1 Thess. er declares that what the Since the foundation of the 2:13). In context, this refers reader first has to use to church many have reverted to Paul’s early preaching understand a text is not the back either to docetism (the (that is, the ‘gospel of God’, eye, but the ear. notion that Jesus was whol- as in v. 9)—not to the Bible As evidence of this we Anthony C. Thiselton page 37 may consider as our sixth and final point: practice many such methods abound. In- that the notion of the Bible—or language deed, to use the singular ‘method’ is mis- in general—as a transforming agent be- leading, as our brief historical survey will comes very clear in the light of speech-act make clear. There is no such thing as ‘the’ theory. This subject is complex in its own historical-critical method. Initially the term right. It rests on the observation that lan- usually denoted an approach through his- guage may do things, or perform acts, not torical reconstruction alone—together with merely say things. Long before speech-act what many regarded as the ‘assured re- theory emerged in the second half of the sults’ of biblical criticism. The initial meth- twentieth century, the Reformer and Bible od carried with it strongly ‘anti-ecclesial’ translator William Tyndale, anticipated intentions (as if theology came only from an elementary form of it. In his treatise A church tradition). Pathway into the Holy Scripture, Tyndale ex- It is also misleading to speak of these pounds his central thesis that Scripture is methods as a modern phenomenon. His- above all else promise: ‘it conveys promis- torical-critical approaches emerged in the es of God’; it ‘maketh a man’s heart glad’; seventeenth century—and some would it ‘proclaims joyful tidings’; it ‘nameth to claim to find anticipatory traces in Ori- be his heirs’.5 Indeed, within a dozen pag- gen, Luther and other figures. In practice, es Tyndale specifies no less than seventeen the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as or eighteen distinct speech acts: Scripture a whole (though with strong exceptions) promises, names, appoints, declares, gives, were indebted to a mentality which saw condemns, curses, binds, kills, drives to ‘history’ and historical research as an ex- despair, delivers, forbids, ministers to life, clusive alternative to theology. Approach- wounds, blesses, cures, and wakes.6 In es from after the second half of the twenti- each case, the words of Scripture perform eth century—and still more so today—are actions—many of which have lasting con- less dominated by this unfortunate dual- sequences in life. This is still the case today; ism. We must therefore outline briefly how through the researches of scholars such as historical-critical methods have developed J.L. Austin and John Searle, the usefulness and been modified over the years. of speech-act theory for understanding the Some trace proto-critical methods back Bible has become even clearer. I have tried to Benedict Spinoza (a seventeenth centu- to illustrate this in my own work and it has ry Jewish philosopher), to Richard Simon become a popular topic for research more (a seventeenth century Catholic Jesuit), broadly. to Jean Astruc (first half of the eighteenth century) and to the deists. But these were A Review of Historical- only partial anticipations of a more serious critical approach. Spinoza identified and Critical Methods criticised biblical ‘contradictions’; Simon challenged the assumption that Moses We have not space to consider in detail wrote the Pentateuch, as part of his quest all six issues outlined above. However, to undermine Protestant appeals to the we shall consider two of them. First we biblical writings; and Astruc postulated select the issue of bible criticism and his- that two sources lay behind Genesis and torical-critical methods. Although so many Exodus, largely on the basis of their use of speak of the historical-critical method, in two different divine names (whereby the page 38 The Bible and Biblical Hermeneutics

proper name for Israel’s god, Yhwh, char- from reliance upon church tradition and acterised the ‘Yahwist’ source and elohim, encouraged them to think for themselves. the more general Hebrew word for God But Reventlow places most of the empha- characterised the ‘Elohist’ source). This sis on the deists, who conceived of God as broadly anticipated the work of nineteenth remote. While, in theory, they acknowl- edged the place of revelation, in practice this rendered revelation unnecessary. Put Put most negatively, an inadequate most negatively, an inadequate view of view of God accounted for the more God accounted for the more extreme ver- extreme versions of biblical criticism. sions of biblical criticism. During the eighteenth century this ap- proach became institutionalised, through century biblical scholar Julius Wellhausen, the work of biblical scholars like J.D. long before he popularised the argument Michaelis, J.J. Griesbach and W.M.L. de that the Pentateuch was constructed from Wette, as well as writer and dramatist G.E. “four sources (the Yahwist, Elohist, Deuter- Lessing. De Wette, for example, stressed onomic and Priestly sources). This would different outlooks in Kings and Chronicles, become the standard theory regarding the arguing that Chronicles was secondary as formation of the Pentateuch for most of the a historical source, and Lessing proposed twentieth century (sometimes referred to a theory on the development of the gos- by an acronym, ‘JEDP’). pel tradition from an ‘Ur-gospel’ to Mark, A more systematic approach came with Matthew and Luke—an idea which re- the work of the eighteenth century German mains influential today. In the nineteenth enlightenment theologian Johann Salomo century David Friedrich Strauss extended Semler, whose Treatise on the Free Investi- historical criticism to the Gospels, espe- gation of the Canon argued that reason or cially in declaring the miraculous events rational enquiry should not be ‘hindered’ to be ‘myths’. Ferdinand Christian Baur— by any overly traditionalist appeal to faith equally (in)famous as his onetime pupil or to Christian theology when approach- Strauss—extended this higher criticism to ing biblical texts. The tragic separation be- Paul. He postulated a sharp division be- tween theology and strictly historical ver- tween the Petrine and Pauline traditions, sions of biblical criticism can be traced to which he then applied to the letter to the his originally positive motives for separat- Romans. He regarded the whole epistle as ing rational and historical study from faith expressing Paul’s opposition to Judaism and theology. and his defence of the admission of the In a magisterial book The Authority of the Gentiles to the church. He imagined that Bible and the Rise of the Modern World, Hen- the church in Rome was predominantly ning Graf Reventlow masterfully account- Jewish and regarded Romans 9–11 as an ed for this change of intellectual climate in important part of Paul’s argument about Europe, especially in Germany, that made the Jews. His view of the contrast between this early biblical criticism seem so plausi- Peter and Paul had earlier emerged in his ble.7 Part of the change was due to the influ- lectures on 1 Corinthians, in which he took ence of the eminent philosopher Immanuel literally the so-called party-labels: ‘I be- Kant, as well as the Enlightenment more long to Paul’, ‘I belong to the Cephas” (1 broadly, which sought to release people Cor. 1:12). In a later work, Baur began to Anthony C. Thiselton page 39 draw on Hegel’s theory of thesis, antithesis was dependent on Greek mystery religion and synthesis to suggest that Paul opposed in his depiction of salvation as a way from Peter’s more ‘Judaistic’ gospel (thesis), es- death to life (as both Bousset and Reitzen- pecially in Galatians and Romans, by fo- stein proposed), scholars like Günther cussing on the ‘law-free’ gospel for the gen- Wagner published helpful critiques.8 He tiles (antithesis). A synthesising, ‘catholic’ carefully examined Paul’s view, not least in phase supposedly emerged in Acts and in Romans 6:1-11, and compared it with the some of the later New Testament writings. myths or ‘mysteries’ of Attis, Isis, Mithras His influence is still strongly felt in New and other ancient deities. First, he argued, Testament scholarship. if there is any parallel with Paul this does During the same period—the early years not at all mean that Paul derived or bor- of the twentieth century—an approach re- rowed from them. Second, the dating of ferred to as the History of Religions School such sources indicates that they often post- (Religionsgeschichtliche Schule) was on the date Paul, so could not have influenced rise in the study of the New Testament. him. Third, the supposed parallels do not Paul Wendland and Rudolf Bultmann, turn out to be parallels at all—hence he for example, proposed analogies between places ‘parallels’ in inverted commas in his Greek literature and Paul. Wilhelm Bous- set’s Kyrios Christos—in which he claims sub-title. that the faith of Jesus’ followers and their Our second example comes from Danish resurrection appearances turned Jesus into New Testament scholar Johannes Munck, a divine messianic figure after his death, whose Paul and the Salvation of Mankind whereas Jesus himself thought of himself critically engaged Baur and the nineteenth 9 neither as Messiah nor as divine—became century ‘Tübingen School’. Baur is accused particularly important. Like Adolf von of having his critical theory ready before it Harnack—the representative of classical was even applied to Paul; things are thus liberal Protestantism—Bousset contrasted the simple and basic ethical demands of Je- sus with Paul’s supposedly more complex Like Adolf von Harnack, Bousset theology, which allegedly drew on Hel- contrasted the simple and basic lenistic mystery religions. Also part of this ethical demands of Jesus with Paul’s scholarly movement was Richard Reitzen- supposedly more complex theology, stein, primarily a classical philologist who which allegedly drew on Hellenistic argued that Paul derived some aspects of mystery religions. his thought from the so-called Gnostic re- deemer myth, about a saviour figure who came down from heaven to rescue spirits made to stand on their heads. The so-called imprisoned on the earth. In the meantime, ‘parties’ in Corinth were not parties at all, “ scholarship came to the conclusion that but ‘splits’ (schismata) motivated by pow- such a myth never existed in such a form er-claims, not by adherence to contrasting in the first century. doctrines. In fact, he argues, Corinth is a The startling range of historical-critical ‘church without factions’ in any doctrinal methods can be illustrated by selecting re- sense. What Bousset, Reitzenstein and Baur actions to the theories of both Reitzenstein suggested was far from being ‘the assured and Baur. Against the suggestion that Paul results of biblical criticism, but were a flim- page 40 The Bible and Biblical Hermeneutics sy tissue of hypotheses.’10 Rabbinic Judaism, in which he argued that Progress within historical-critical studies Paul’s thought is best understood against sometimes comes slowly, but it happens. the background of Palestinian Judaism and Influences from the cultural and social con- the Jewish expectation of a new exodus. text of the participants often functioned as With this work Davies rescued Paul from a catalyst. Thus, after World War II and the a one-sided emphasis on the Greek back- Holocaust, historical-critical studies began ground of his thought and illustrated his to demand a deeper understanding of Ju- affinities with, rather than opposition to, daism. One of the first voices in the post- early Jewish thinking. war era was the Welsh scholar William D. Another strong influence toward a more Davies, who had studied under the famous Jewish approach to Paul was the Swedish Cambridge scholars C.H. Dodd and Da- Harvard professor and (then) Bishop of vid Daube. In 1948 he produced Paul and Stockholm, Krister Stendahl. Together with Anthony C. Thiselton page 41 the German Werner Georg introspection was emphat- ed a means of atonement Kümmel, he utterly reject- ically not Pauline.) Paul, for every transgression, ex- ed the notion that Romans Stendahl argued, did not cept to reject God and his 7 could have anything to emphasize personal, indi- covenant.’14 Salvation is by do with autobiographical vidual guilt, but the cor- remaining within the cove- reflections. The ‘I’ of Ro- porate sin of humankind.11 nant. Rabbinic religion was mans 7:7-25 is not Paul’s Indeed the apostle even thus corporate and collec- autobiographical ‘I’. (As a asserts, ‘I know nothing tive as well as personal and Lutheran pastor, Stendahl against myself’ (1 Cor. 4:4) individual. In reaching this had witnessed the agonies and ‘as to righteousness of conclusion, Sanders ques- of conscience among some the law [I am] blameless’ tioned the traditional un- Lutheran students and was (Phil. 3:6). Stendahl con- derstanding of the Pauline eager to show that such cludes that Paul had a ‘ro- doctrine of justification; the bust’ conscience, even if he challenges he posed still took sin very seriously as a dominate Pauline scholar- universal phenomenon. ship. Subsequently E.P. Sand- Sanders’ work has come ers published his monu- to be known as the ‘New mental book Paul and Pales- Perspective’ on Paul. In tinian Judaism.12 He aimed broad terms it has been de- to draw a more careful fended, with modifications, comparison between Paul by James D.G. Dunn and, and Judaism than had yet with more radical modi- appeared, rejecting a sim- fications, by N.T. Wright. ple relationship of con- However, a significant mi- trast between the two: Paul nority—including C.E.B. did not simply ‘convert’ Cranfield, Joseph Fitzmyer, to Christianity and begin Seyoon Kim, Mark Seifried ‘attacking’ Pharisaic-rab- and Nottingham’s own binic Judaism. Although Richard Bell—express very in many ways Sanders fol- strong reservations and the lowed the work of Davies, jury is still out. he argued that Davies From all this it is clear tended to compare back- that ‘the’ historical-critical grounds—not ‘what is es- method is no single ap- sential’ in both ‘religions’. proach but embraces many Sanders especially exam- methods, and is no longer ined the role of obedience driven by the ‘history ver- in rabbinic theology and sus theology’ slogan which concluded that ‘[a]ll Isra- first began the movement. elites have a share in the Its more positive attitude world to come unless they to theology can be seen renounce it by renouncing from the manner in which God and his covenant.’13 many exponents of histor- He adds, ‘God has appoint- ical-critical methods today page 42 The Bible and Biblical Hermeneutics write. Critical scholarly work and being numerous examples of performative (or il- deeply embedded in the various Christian locutionary) utterances, such as ‘I do take traditions is no contradiction, as the lives this woman as my lawful wedded wife’ in a of many prominent New Testament schol- marriage; ‘I name this ship the Queen Eliz- ars demonstrate. abeth’, uttered by the appropriate person We have also seen that many critical the- while smashing a bottle against the stern; ‘I ories were later exposed as false or, at best, give and bequeath my watch to my broth- speculative. The best critical scholarship er’ in a duly valid will; or ‘I bet you...’19 not only examines historical sources criti- Each of these utterances does something: cally, but also holds its own results lightly, they make someone a married person; give as constantly under scrutiny. A beginning a name to a ship; transfer property; convey student must often hold his or her nerve money. After this explanation of performa- and suspend judgment until issues become tives, Austin sets out conditions for a ‘hap- clearer. py’ (that is, effective) performative utter- ance. Not just any individual could ‘name’ The Transformative Role a ship, simply by smashing a ginger beer bottle against it. Therefore Austin adds the of the Bible in the Light of qualification: ‘For a certain performative Speech-Act Theory utterance to be happy, certain statements have to be true’.20 I cannot bequeath a Speech-act theory owes its origin in the watch which is not mine; or marry a bride modern era to Oxford philosopher John if I am already married. L. Austin, whose William James Lectures Of special significance for theology is the at Harvard were published as How to Do example of promising. Austin asks us to Things with Words.15 He recognized the imagine a boy who sends his cricket ball ability of language to do more than simply through next door’s greenhouse. It is not describe reality. To highlight this capacity, effective if his mother calls on the neigh- Austin differentiates between ‘the perfor- bour and says, ‘He promises he won’t do mance of an act in saying something, as it again, don’t you Willie?’ It is effective opposed to performance of an act of say- only if Willie make the promise himself, as ing something’.16 Only the former is strict- a commitment. To differentiate the differ- ly speaking a speech-act, constituted by ent performative utterances Austin classi- an illocutionary utterance. The idea of this fies them as ‘behabitives’, which relate to term is that in such utterances the effect of behaviour—such as ‘I apologize’ or ‘I am the words is the intended outcome, as op- sorry’; ‘verdictives’, which express ver- posed to their plain meaning (locutio is Lat- dicts—such as ‘I acquit’ or ‘I pronounce’— in and means ‘speech’, with the il- prefix and which relate to justification by grace; indicating negation). An act of speaking is ‘exercitives’, which exercise power—such a ‘locutionary’ act; the performance of an as promising—and ‘commit you to doing act by saying something is a ‘perlocution- something’.21 In theology, we argue, if God ary’ act, or ‘perlocution’.17 After Austin, the makes a promise, it commits him to a cer- philosopher of language who most influ- tain course of action and makes some alter- entially developed speech-act theory was natives impossible. Promises voluntarily the American John R. Searle.18 tie our hands. All this underlines the point In the first of his lectures Austin gave that performative utterances depend on in- Anthony C. Thiselton page 43 stitutions, not causal force. In biblical the- practical and transformative consequences ology the institutional framework is pro- are endless. In this light, the question ‘Why vided in the covenants God made with this does the Bible matter?’ answers itself! world, with the people of Israel and with the church. It is decisive that God bound Further Reading himself to them through his promises. Phi- • Baird, William. History of New Testament Research, 3 vols. Min- losophy can help us to fully appreciate the neapolis, MN: Fortress, 1992–2013. • Briggs, Richard S. Words in Action: Speech-Act Theory and Bibli- range and meaning of these promises—or, cal Interpretation. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2001. as we may say now, these performative ut- • Reventlow, Henning. History of Biblical Interpretation. 4 vols. Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature, 2009-2010. terances. • Sæbø, Magne, ed. Hebrew Bible/Old Testament: The History of In place of Austin’s word ‘exercitive’ Its Interpretation. 3 vols.. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1996-2015. Searle proposes the word ‘directive’. In • Thiselton, Anthony C. Hermeneutics: An Introduction. Grand theological terms, ‘the Word of the Lord’ Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009. • Thiselton, Anthony C. New Horizons in Hermeneutics: The has power to appoint, to direct, to author- Theory and Practice of Transforming Biblical Reading. London: ize and to command. All this presupposes HarperCollins, 1992. • Thiselton, Anthony C. The Thiselton Companion to Christian the relationship established between God Theology. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015. and Israel or the church. The purpose of this becomes clear in Searle’s exposition of 1. Joseph Fitzmyer, S.J., ed., The Biblical Commission’s Document ‘the direction of fit’ between words and the “The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church”: Text and Com- mentary (Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1995). world. The purpose of most simple descrip- 2. James Burtchaell, Catholic Theories of Inspiration since 1810 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), 279. tions or propositions is ‘to get the words 3. Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, (more strictly their propositional content) 1946 [1871]), 157-58 (and more broadly 151-88). 4. James M. Robinson, ‘Hermeneutics since Barth,’ in New Frontiers to match the world’. This is one ‘direction in Theology: 2, The New Hermeneutic, ed. James M. Robinson of fit’—but in the case of commands, prom- and John B. Cobb (New York: Harper & Row, 1964), 23-4. 5. William Tyndale, A Pathway into the Holy Scripture, included in his ises and most directives, the purpose is ‘to Doctrinal Treatises and Introductions to Different Portions of Holy get the world to match the words. Asser- Scripture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1848), 7-29. 6. Tyndale, Pathway, 8-12, 15, 17, 18-23. tions are in the former category; promises 7. Henning Graf Reventlow, The Authority of the Bible and the Rise and requests are in the latter.’22 of the Modern World (London: SCM, 1984). 8. Günther Wagner, Pauline Baptism and The Pagan Mysteries: The All this provides just one illustration of Problem of the Pauline Doctrine of Baptism in Romans 6:1-11, how biblical words—when their ‘illocu- in the Light of Religio-Historical ‘Parallels’ (Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1967). tionary force’ is properly grasped—change 9. Johannes Munck, Paul and the Salvation of Mankind (London: the reality of our world and of our lives. SCM, 1959), 83. 10. Munck, Paul, 135-67. When Jesus says ‘Your sins are forgiven’, 11. Krister Stendahl, ‘The Apostle Paul and the Introspective this is a life-changing pronouncement be- Conscience of the West’, Harvard Theological Review 56 (1963): 199-215 (reprinted in Krister Stendahl, Paul Among the Jews cause he has authority to do this. In the and Gentiles [London: SCM, 1976]). case of Jesus, the ‘verdictive’ fits and is 12. E.P. Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism (London: SCM, 1977), 10-11. therefore effective. When God pronounc- 13. Sanders, Paul, 147. es that the Christian believer has been put 14. Sanders, Paul, 157. 15. John L. Austin, How to Do Things with Words (Oxford: Claren- right with God, or ‘justified’, this confers don Press, 1962). us freedom and joy. When God declares us 16. Austin, How to Do Things, 99. 17. Austin, How to Do Things, 101. his servants or his messengers, this gives 18. John Searle, Speech Acts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969) and Expression and Meaning (Cambridge: Cam- us a new purpose in life and a mission to bridge University Press, 1979). perform. Most precious of all, when God 19. Austin, How to Do Things, 45. 20. Austin, How to Do Things, 63. makes promises through his word, he has 21. Austin, How to Do Things, 89 and 150-1. committed himself to perform them. The 22. Searle, Expression and Meaning, 3. The Bible And Eastern Christianity

rthodox Christian prayer, liturgy and doctrine are built on the foundations of the canonical Bible. By ‘Bible’, we mean the Old and New Testaments, a body of texts O that was held to be divinely inspired from about the late second century onward.1 We are using the term ‘Old Testament’ (with respect to the Jewish writings that preceded the incarnation of Jesus Christ) advisedly here: Greek-speaking Christians in the earliest period were more familiar with a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible which had, ac- cording to legend, been compiled in the third century bce and was known as the Septua- gint. The Old and New Testaments represented Christian Scripture for early Christians; then, as now in Orthodox Christian tradition, the two halves of the Bible were regarded as a unity. Both bear witness to the central mystery of Christian faith, namely, the incarna- tion, passion and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Whereas this truth is revealed obliquely in the Old Testament, with the help of ‘types’ (prefigurations or symbols of Christ, as in the figures of Isaac, Moses and Jonah) or prophetic utterances, it becomes a historical (but also highly theological) narrative in the writings of the New Testament.

t is worth saying something briefly rather than in Hebrew. Protestant Bibles about the canon of Scripture in Ortho- later rejected the deuterocanonical books of Idox Christian tradition. As we stated the Old Testament, but the Roman Catho- above, Greek-speaking Christians (and the lic and Orthodox Christian Churches still Orthodox Churches that use translations adhere to the wider Old Testament canon. based on the Greek Christian tradition) Another group of texts, which has never have always employed the Septuagint ver- been accepted into the Orthodox Christian sion of the Old Testament. This means that canon but which has nevertheless played a number of books that were eventually an important part in church tradition, in- excluded from the Hebrew Bible (probably cludes the so-called ‘apocryphal’ texts of around the end of the first century ce) are the New Testament.2 Such texts represent included in the Orthodox Christian canon. only a remnant of the numerous compo- They include ‘apocryphal’ or deuteroca- sitions that were circulating among Jews, nonical books such as the Wisdom of Sol- Christians and gnostic groups from about omon, Tobit, Judith, and others, some of the end of the first century onward. Many which were originally composed in Greek such texts adopted literary forms that had

page 44 The Bible and Eastern Christianity The Bible And Eastern Christianity Mary B. Cunningham

become familiar in the early church, in- belonged to an orthodox owner (such as a cluding the letter, gospel or visionary trea- monastery) in Upper Egypt; it may have tise. All appear to have undergone scruti- been hidden in order to evade scrutiny by ny by the early leaders of the church, with hierarchs of the church in the course of the those that preached an ‘orthodox’ message fourth century.4 being valued and those that were deemed Those texts that did achieve recogni- ‘heretical’ attracting condemnation. How- tion—to the extent that they circulated ever, it is easy to oversimplify this pro- widely and influenced liturgical, literary cess—and its effectiveness—by which such and iconographical developments in the literary matter was received by early Chris- church—include, for example, the Protevan- tians. Some scholars suggest that even gelium of James (written in the course of the mainstream Christians read and valued second century) and later accounts of the texts that have come to be viewed as ‘gnos- death and assumption of the Virgin Mary tic’ or otherwise heterodox.3 The cache of into heaven.5 The acceptance of these texts manuscripts that was discovered at Nag reflects the dearth of information that is Hammadi in 1945, for example, may have provided about Mary in the canonical New

MEET THE AUTHOR Mary B. Cunningham is Honorary Associate Professor of Historical Theology at the University of Nottingham, also holding a Fellowship at Dumbarton Oaks Research Library in Washington, D.C. (2015-16). She has published books and articles in the fields of Byzantine and Orthodox Christian theology and church history.

Mary B. Cunningham page 45 page 46 The Bible and Eastern Christianity

Testament as well as a growing need for a can lead to heresy as well as to truth. We narrative about her conception, birth, child- should therefore look at what these meth- hood and final days. Although patristic and ods are and whether they have changed in liturgical writers by and large did not re- the course of the Christian centuries. fer to such apocryphal texts by name, they did accept the information about the Virgin The Patristic and Orthodox Mary that they provide. A whole narrative involving Mary’s saintly parents, Joachim Christian Reading and Anna, her infancy in the temple, her be- of Scripture trothal to Joseph and subsequent activities, thus entered Christian consciousness from Modern Orthodox Christian biblical inter- a fairly early date. Such interest in Mary re- pretation, as taught both at parish level and flects the growing emphasis on Christ’s hu- in seminaries, is indebted to Greek Patris- manity and divinity; this was based on faith tic hermeneutical methods. This tendency, in his birth from a virgin and, in turn, the although already enshrined in Orthodox worthiness of that virgin to become ‘Birth- tradition, grew stronger in the first half of giver of God’ (‘Theotokos’). the twentieth century due to a movement of Thus canonical scriptural texts, supple- ressourcement (‘return to the sources’) that mented by a few less authentic—but also was initiated both by French theologians of valuable—ones, support the Eastern Or- the school known as ‘Nouvelle Théologie’ thodox Christian theological tradition. and by Russian scholars including Georges This branch of Christianity regards the Bi- Florovsky and Vladimir Lossky.6 Theodore ble as a unified group of texts that convey Stylianopoulos acknowledges in a recent divine revelation, even if human authors study the importance of patristic thinkers were involved in their production. There is in establishing methods of reading and in- recognition in this tradition of the potential terpreting Scripture in the early church.7 dangers of reading Scripture in an undis- The early Greek Fathers, beginning with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus of Lyons in the second century, recognised the fact that biblical writings need to be read in the con- The early Greek Fathers recognised text of a church community. They exist in the fact that biblical writings need an accepted—and to some extent mysteri- to be read in the context of a church ous—frame of reference that is understood community. They exist in an accepted— only by those who have faith in the risen and to some extent mysterious—frame Lord, Jesus Christ. Later Fathers, including of reference understood only by those Athanasius, the Cappadocians and John who have faith in the risen Lord. Chrysostom (all of whom lived during the fourth century ce), also emphasised the hu- “ man element that lies behind Scripture. Its cerning way, as we shall see in the follow- authors, who lived at various points in his- ing section. The early Fathers realised that tory, may sometimes have been framing a a method, or methods, of interpretation narrative that had topical relevance only for is needed if the Bible is to be understood their contemporaries but which contained correctly. Then, as now, the church recog- a deeper (moral or allegorical) message for nised the fact that the reading of Scripture posterity. Mary B. Cunningham page 47

The need to develop different levels of by the historical-critical method that has interpretation in order to make sense of become so dominant in Western biblical passages that may at first sight seem puz- scholarship and more by the belief that the zling had been perceived about a century various books in the Bible present a unified earlier by the important Alexandrian the- ologian, Origen. In Book IV of his great work, On First Principles, Origen suggested The Eastern approach is governed three methods for interpreting Scripture: less by the historical-critical method the literal, the moral and the allegorical (or and more by the belief that the spiritual).8 This exegetical method, which various books in the Bible present a was also adopted (and expanded into four) unified message. in the medieval West, provided a basis for patristic and later interpretation of the Old and New Testaments. Greek patristic in- message that is above all concerned with terpretation of Scripture was thus based the incarnation and resurrection of Christ. Individual New Testament writers may “ on the assumption that different levels of meaning may coexist in any given passage. tell this story in different ways, but the The Fathers varied in their preferences for underlying sense of Scripture remains the literal or moral, as opposed to allegorical same. The Fathers of the church regarded (or vice versa) methods of interpretation; the Bible (including both the Old and the their choices sometimes reflected the di- New Testaments) as the main source of dactic or liturgical circumstances in which revelation about God, although such rev- they were working and sometimes their in- elation continues to be offered to humani- dividual theological outlooks. ty through the incarnate presence of Jesus Reading the Greek Fathers on Scripture is Christ and the grace of the Holy Spirit. thus encouraged in the Orthodox Church. Many good—and often quite inexpen- Liturgy and Scripture sive—translations of their works now exist both in print and online.9 The Fathers, who Another important way in which Scrip- were mostly bishops in the early church, ture is mediated to Orthodox Christians is interpreted the Bible in various contexts. through liturgical celebration. The services These include sermons, delivered either in of the church, which include daily or festal morning or evening offices or during the offices and eucharistic liturgies, are made Divine Liturgy (or Eucharistic Mass) on up not only of hymns and prayers that Sundays or feast-days, treatises or mystical draw inspiration (and even many passag- writings such as Gregory of Nyssa’s Com- es or words) from biblical texts, but also mentary on the Song of Songs, and biblical of direct readings from the Old and New commentaries. The biblical hermeneutic Testaments. Such readings are chosen care- that developed during the first millenni- fully to reflect the particular themes or pre- um of Eastern Christian history remains occupations that belong to different parts formative for the Orthodox Christian un- of the liturgical year. This arrangement of derstanding of Scripture. The witness of lections, which is set out in liturgical books the early Christian and Byzantine Fathers that dictate the order of the services, is in continues to guide modern Orthodox the- fact quite ancient: it probably developed ologians. This approach is governed less sometime between the fourth and tenth page 48 The Bible and Eastern Christianity centuries in Constantinople, with influ- If we look at the hermeneutical method of ence from the Jerusalem patriarchate, and such material, it is safe to say that much of Palestinian monasteries, such as St Sabas. it is typological in nature. By this we mean The material that was composed specifical- that places, personalities or events in the ly for the Constantinopolitan liturgy, made Old Testament evoke the Christological up mostly of hymns and prayers, is also in- meaning of the New. Here is an example to spired by Scripture—especially the Psalms. illustrate what this means:

Be glad, O Bethlehem, for you are Queen among the princes of Judah [Mic. 5:2; Matt. 2:6]; for from you comes forth, before the sight of all, the Shepherd who tends Israel, He that is seated upon the cherubim [Ps. 79:1], even Christ. He has raised up our horn and reigns over all.10

This short passage, which is typical of Or- taments, hymnographers and compilers of thodox Christian hymnography, displays the Byzantine liturgy sought to perpetuate such a typological approach. The hymnog- this tradition. For them, however, it is the rapher says first that Bethlehem, the village Christological mystery that provides mean- where Christ was born, was prophesied by ing to the whole of Scripture and which is Micah. But other Old Testament passages, being celebrated in the daily, weekly, or an- such as Psalm 79:1, also prefigure Christ’s nual celebrations of the church. divine and human natures. He is King, Shepherd and Son of God; passages drawn from the Septuagint and newly woven to- Doctrine and Scripture gether in liturgical song reveal this central Christian mystery. In the liturgical context, Scripture also formed the basis of all doctri- Scripture thus provides the foundation, nal debate in the early church, so its correct but also the method, for teaching theolo- interpretation was of fundamental impor- gy. Inspired by biblical sources that were tance for the Fathers. St Basil of Caesarea themselves inter-textual, or woven together wrote about the weight of biblical testimo- from many strands of the Old and New Tes- ny in this respect in the following passage:

Therefore let God-inspired Scripture decide between us; and on whichever side be found doctrines in harmony with the word of God, in favour of that side will be cast the vote of truth.11 The problem that the Fathers, like their He was in the beginning with God’ (John modern counterparts, faced, however, is 1:1-2) and ‘I am going to the Father, for that the Bible can often be ambiguous—or my Father is greater than I’ (John 14:28)? worse, contradictory—in its statements Different passages, even within the same about Jesus Christ. How does the inter- Gospel, sometimes appear to be saying the preter make sense, for example, of the opposite thing. How are Christians, who evangelist John’s two statements, ‘In the depend for their salvation on a correct un- beginning was the Word, and the Word derstanding of the person of Christ, to rec- was with God, and the Word was God. oncile such statements? Mary B. Cunningham page 49

To summarise a complex issue, the solution found by the early Fathers of the Eastern Churches and followed in Orthodox Christian tradition to this day involves an emphasis on the sense, rather than the letter, of biblical texts including the Bible. There is a belief that interpret- ers who read Scripture with an eye of faith—that is, with an understanding of the mystery that they have experienced in a life of prayer and absorption of church tradition (which in- cludes both doctri- nal and liturgical texts)—will know that the evangelists and other biblical writers say different things at different times. In fact, this should be expected when one meditates on the paradox that lies at the heart of Christian faith. Jesus Christ was both God and man; it is thus understandable—in- deed, to be expect- ed—that the evange- lists describe him in both ways at different points in their narra- tives. Such a method of interpretation is not to be viewed as naïve or simplistic; what we can say about the patristic exegesis of Scripture for doctrinal reasons is that this was usually undertak- CBET Photo Competition 2015 joint third-place entry by Ellena Hill: “Comparing the New Testament Scriptures fulfilling those of the Old Testament is a favourite of mine. Here, the Gospel of Matthew uses Isaiah 7:14 and it is satisfying to compare as one sees the differences between the NT, Hebrew, and Sepuagint versions of ’virgin’.” page 50 The Bible and Eastern Christianity en against a background of sophisticated followed by a sermon in which the bishop philosophical and rhetorical understand- or priest explains the meaning of the Gos- ing. There was also recognition that the pel reading in a way that (ideally) enables human interpretation of biblical revelation the laity to put its teaching into practice. can go only so far; God speaks, especial- Orthodox Christians recognise that Jesus ly in the Old Testament, obscurely and in says different things to different people in riddles. He expects his chosen people to the Gospels, according to their particular understand this message only slowly and circumstances and needs; passages such as in the course of a history that is still in pro- the injunction to give up everything and gress before the Final Day. follow him (Matt. 19:21) should thus not be understood literally by everyone. Nev- ertheless, the Orthodox Christian tradition Scripture as a Model for as a whole has always valued the radical the Christian Life nature of the gospel message. Reverence for those individuals who do abandon Orthodox Christians, like all other Chris- ‘worldly’ concerns, sell their possessions tians, see the Bible as the main source of and either serve the poor or devote their teaching about how to live in accordance lives to prayer is witnessed in the canon- with God’s will and loving example. ization of the saints who embody these While following the Pauline directive to ideals. It could be argued that this under- emphasise the grace of the New Testament mines the ethical position of wealthy—or over the letter and law of the Old, Ortho- even moderately comfortable—Christians dox Christian tradition nevertheless does with regard to New Testament teachings. not reject the lessons of the Septuagint. However, such a criticism could be lev- The Ten Commandments, the teachings elled at all Christians, not just Eastern Or- and moral conduct of the prophets and thodox ones. The radical teaching of some the wisdom contained in books such as biblical passages can be tempered with Job and Proverbs are all seen as guides for others, such as Jesus’s own instruction to Christian behaviour. Above all, however, obey the Roman emperor and pay taxes in the Old Testament bears witness by means accordance with civil laws that may have of typological signs to the fulfilment of this little to do with the ethical ideals of Chris- history in the person of Jesus Christ. He, as tianity (Matt. 22:21). the incarnate Word and Son of God, rep- resents the preeminent model of Christian The Old and New Testaments behaviour. Orthodox Christians absorb Jesus’s as Sources of Orthodox teachings, which express above all God’s Christian Monasticism intention that human beings should love one another, through liturgical and private The ascetic, or monastic, way of Christian reading of the Gospels. In the case of the living has found a place in Eastern Or- former, which takes place in certain offices thodox tradition since at least as early as but above all in the first half of the eucha- the third century ce. Some scholars argue ristic Divine Liturgy, the reading of pas- that such a life-style, which sometimes in- sages describing Jesus Christ’s miracles, volved retreat into the Egyptian desert and parables or historical life and passion is rigorous training of physical appetites and Mary B. Cunningham page 51

‘passions’, took the place of martyrdom— demons, is more difficult to relate to the as the most extreme form of Christian teachings or example of Jesus and his witness—as the period of persecution disciples. However, such behaviour can be came to an end in the later Roman em- associated with the forty days that Jesus pire.12 It may also have been influenced by spent in the wilderness immediately after his pagan philosophies such as Cynicism and baptism (Matt. 4:1-10), especially if viewed Stoicism or by earlier ascetic communities, in the context of Antony’s subsequent life, such as the Essenes, within Judaism.13 in which he emerges from his deserted In any case, it is clear shelter and begins to lead on the basis of the and teach a circle of hagiographical disciples. texts that Nevertheless, many began to be Prayer, which Christians (especial- composed ly from the Prot- in honour involves both estant churches) may find the monastic ideal conversation and that is upheld in Orthodox intercession with Christian tradition dif- God,“ serves the world ficult to un- derstand. In even when it is taking what way, they might ask, does retreat from the place in a remote rest of the world, whether for a sol- community. itary or communal monastic life, have any- thing to do with the teach- of early ascetic saints that such ings or example of Jesus and his individuals understood their way of life disciples? The latter spent their short lives to be in direct imitation of the teachings of in the midst of ordinary people—teaching, the New Testament. healing and performing miracles—with The fourth-century Father, Athanasius of periods of withdrawal or prayerful reflec- Alexandria, who composed an important tion being strictly limited in the context of Life of St Antony, for example, tells us that such missionary activity. This question is the latter decided to sell his possessions difficult to answer, since in some ways the and devote his life to prayer after hearing monastic way of life owes as much to Grae- Jesus Christ’s advice to the wealthy young co-Roman philosophical antecedents as it man (Matt. 19:21) read out in church.14 The does to biblical witness; however, it should narrative that follows, involving Antony’s be emphasised that the monastic life is un- withdrawal into ever more remote parts derstood in Orthodox Christian tradition of the Egyptian desert and battles with to represent service both to God and to the page 52 The Bible and Eastern Christianity rest of humanity. Prayer, which involves • Stylianopoulos, T.G. The New Testament: An Orthodox Perspec- tive. Vol. 1: Scripture, Tradition, Hermeneutics. Brookline, MA: both conversation and intercession with Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 2002. God, serves the rest of the world even when • Stylianopoulos, T.G., ed. Sacred Text and Interpretation. Perspec- tives in Orthodox Biblical Studies. Brookline, MA: Holy Cross it is taking place in a remote hermitage or Orthodox Press, 2006. community. Those who uphold the impor- tance of monasticism would also cite the 1. This body of texts was given formal definition, as a ‘canon’ of Scripture, at the council of Rome in 382 ce. examples of Old Testament prophets such 2. For an accessible and scholarly translation of many of these as Elijah, as well as Jesus Christ and his dis- texts, see J.K. Elliott, ed., The Apocryphal New Testament. A Collection of Apocryphal Christian Literature in an English Trans- ciples, as practitioners of physical austerity lation (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993). and a prayerful relationship with God. 3. For example, C. Markshies, Gnosis: An Introduction (London and New York: T&T Clark, 2003), 49-50. 4. These texts have now been translated into English and are easily accessible online at: http://gnosis.org/naghamm/nhl. Conclusion html. For printed versions, see M. Meyer, ed., The Nag Ham- madi Scriptures: The International Edition (New York: Harper- Collins, 2007); J.M. Robinson, ed., The Nag Hammadi Library in As Theodore Stylianopoulos points out, English, 4th ed. (Leiden: Brill, 1996). 5. For the former text, see Elliott, ed., The Apocryphal New Tes- the Orthodox Church, following the prec- tament, 48-67; for the latter, see S.J. Shoemaker, Ancient Tra- edent set by the Greek Fathers, assumes ‘a ditions of the Virgin Mary’s Dormition and Assumption (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) for orientation and discussion. dynamic view of inspiration that allows for 6. For background, see A. Louth, ‘The Patristic Revival and its the contingency of human understanding’ Protagonists’, in M.B. Cunningham and E. Theokritoff, eds., 15 The Cambridge Companion to Orthodox Christian Theology in interpreting the Bible. Scripture was (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 188-202. written against the background of abe- 7. See T. Stylianopoulos, ‘Scripture and Tradition in the Church’, in Cunningham and Theokritoff, eds., The Cambridge Compan- lieving community and it should be read ion to Orthodox Christian Theology, 21-34. in the same context. Or to put this in an- 8. Origen, De principiis, Book IV, available in translation online at: http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf04.vi.v.v.i.html. For other way, the church, guided by patristic discussion of Origen’s system, see A. Louth, Discerning the contributions to this field, shows Christians Mystery. An Essay on the Nature of Theology (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), 115-17. how to read and interpret a biblical tradi- 9. See, for example, the ‘Popular Patristics’ series produced by St tion whose sense is not always immediately Vladimir’s Seminary Press in Crestwood, NY. Patristic texts may also be accessed online at web-sites such as www.ccel.org visible. Such a position differs considerably and www.earlychristianwritings.com. from the Protestant assumption that Chris- 10. Feast of the Nativity of Christ, Mattins, Kanon 1, Canticle 3, trans. Mother Mary and Archimandrite Kallistos Ware, The tians may interact directly with the Bible Festal Menaion (London: Faber and Faber, 1969), 271. and thereby gain access to God. Orthodox 11. Basil of Caesarea, Letter 189 to Eustathius the Physician, chap. 3, in St Basil: Letters and Select Works, ed. P. Schaff and H. Wace, A Christian tradition suggests, on the contra- Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Chris- ry, that Christians need guidance from the tian Church [second series] 8 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1955), 229 (online at http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.ix.cxc. church (i.e. from the Fathers, the liturgy, html). 12. D. Chitty, The Desert a City: An Introduction to the Study of and preaching in church) to reach an un- Egyptian and Palestinian Monasticism under the Christian Em- derstanding of the Bible’s deeper meaning. pire (Crestwood, NY: St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1995), 6-7; D. Brakke, Athanasius and Asceticism (London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 223-4. Further Reading: 13. R.D. Finn, Asceticism in the Graeco-Roman World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), especially chaps. 1-2. • Breck, John. Scripture and Tradition: The Bible and Its Interpre- 14. C. White, trans., Early Christian Lives (London: Penguin Books, tation in the Orthodox Church. Crestwood, NY: St Vladimir’s 1998), 9. Seminary Press, 2001. 15. Stylianopoulos, ‘Scripture and Tradition in the Church’, 23. • Dines, J.M. The Septuagint. London and New York: T&T Clark, Stylianopoulos, T.G., ed. Sacred Text and Interpretation. Perspec- 2004. tives in Orthodox Biblical Studies. (Brookline, MA: Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 2006). • Kimbrough, Jr, S.T., ed. Orthodox and Wesleyan Scriptural Understanding and Practice. Crestwood, NY: St Vladimir’s Sem- inary Press, 2005. [See especially the articles by J.A. McGuckin, The image opposite shows detail from Codex Bruchsal T.G. Stylianopoulos, and E. Theokritoff]. • Pentiuc, E.J. The Old Testament in Eastern Orthodox Tradition. of Christ in majesty surrounded by the symbols of the Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. four evangelists. Mary B. Cunningham page 53 The Bible And Western Christianity

efore attempting to answer why through which they came to a deeper the Bible matters—and this is a real knowledge of Jesus whom they acclaimed Bquestion for me as a Christian—we as ‘the Christ’—an attitude summed up in should note just how recent this issue is a phrase from the late-fourth century: ‘ig- for believers. Jesus was remembered by norance of the Scriptures is ignorance of his first followers as reading the Scriptures the Christ.’ (look at Luke 4:16-20) and his followers not The exact reasons why the Scriptures only continued to read those Scriptures were used and valued also varied with (i.e., those texts widely accepted as ‘the times and cultures and there is hardly a Scriptures’ within Judaism in the decades Christian thinker writing on the topic who before the destruction of the temple in Je- does not give us a different slant, but there rusalem in 70 ce) but—through their repe- are a few common elements. First, encoun- tition of their memories of Jesus—generat- tering the Bible was seen as a religious ed another body of ‘Scripture’ which was event: to encounter these writings was to valued and read. These new Scriptures encounter Truth with a capital ‘T’; it was eventually embraced 27 texts from the first somehow to enter into the divine pres- and second centuries: we call them ‘the ence. This sense is already captured in the New Testament.’ late first century in the statement ‘where the things of the Lord are talked of, there the Lord is present’ (Didache 4:1). What the New Problems and Old Didache intended as a proverb for disciples came to be seen as applying, first and fore- The reasons why they continued to hear most, to the Scriptures. these texts—the ‘old’ and the ‘new’ Scrip- Second, the Scriptures were seen as tures—varied, but what was not ques- belonging to the everyday life of Chris- tioned was that it was a valuable activity. tians—not in the way we might imagine For some it was the case that these texts today, when everyone can own and read provided human beings with God’s law; a Bible, but in that there was no religious for others they were texts that revealed gathering at which there was not a read- the mind of God and the mysteries of the ing (long or short, and very often many universe; for others they were the means of them) from these two collections. Our

page 54 The Bible and Western Christianity The Bible And Western Christianity Thomas O’Loughlin

earliest detailed description of a Sunday swearing an oath (despite what one could gathering (from around 150 ce) assumes read about oaths in the very book one is that there are readings from ‘the law and touching, in Matt. 5:33-7!). the prophets’ and from the Gospels. One Fourth, communities put a great deal could not meet with Christians without of energy into their relationship with the knowing that they placed a high value Scriptures: there were those took care of the on books and reading from books, did it books, those who could turn marks on pa- whenever the met, and put enormous re- pyrus or skin into sounds (readers); those sources into having copies of those books. who could sing psalms (an element in vir- Third, they placed a sacred value on tually every gathering); those who could those books in that they sought to preserve teach from and explain the Scriptures; and them in times of persecution, expended then the people in the background who time and effort on decoration, and used could teach the teachers and write the com- these books as religious objects—the lega- mentaries. On the basis that ‘where your cy of this view of the book, the Bible, as in- treasure is, there also will be your heart’ trinsically sacred can be seen in our prac- (Matt. 6:21), Christian churches have always tice of placing one hand on a Bible when set enormous store on the Bible. Moreover,

MEET THE AUTHOR Thomas O’Loughlin is an historical theologian from Dublin. Much of his work has focused on how followers of Jesus received ‘the Scriptures’ (so they became the Old Testament) and raised some of their own literary productions to the status of ‘Scripture’ (as their New Testament)—and then continued (and continue still) to evolve the significance of those anthologies.

Thomas O’Loughlin page 55 page 56 The Bible and Western Christianity

CBET Photo Competition 2015 entry by Mark Wreford.

given the range of practice through it—nor does it set treat as accounts of his life, and belief that one can find out a consistent plan for an the Gospels, were written over the course of Christian ethical or a happy life—de- just a generation or two lat- history, this set of attitudes spite generations having er—we know that we can- is one of the great common- drawn on it for just such not treat the details simply alities among all the follow- guidance—nor does it con- as ‘facts.’ ers of Jesus, linking them to tain great ‘spiritual’ guid- So, taken as a piece, it one another. ance—yet millions have would appear that this In contrast to this age old made it the basis of their book’s ‘sell-by date’ is trust, many today find this spirituality. Similarly, even now long past. Moreover, collection of texts—with all when it looks like histo- this looks like the fruit of its randomness, its confu- ry, historians need to treat modern critical methods sions, and its sense of be- it with skepticism; those or modern skepticism; cer- ing just irrelevant details parts of it that for centuries tainly those who dismiss of a long past and foreign were looked on as ‘the sto- the Bible are enormously society—just much ado ry of the creation’ and the pleased to see such keen about very little. The Bible early history of humanity awareness of the limita- is not a work of philosophy are now known to be var- tions and inconsistencies answering great human iants on ancient myths. of the Scriptures as a sign questions—though many Even with regard to the life of human maturity. have found their answers of Jesus—where what we However, we should Thomas O’Loughlin page 57 note that these criticisms are by no means er, we open texts and read and absorb the new. In the century or so before Jesus, information. At this point please note that many Greek thinkers dismissed the Gene- you have (probably) not moved your lips sis stories on the basis that they possessed nor made a sound while you have been much better historical records from Egypt reading this. The ideas stored in text— that showed a much longer human history marks made in a distinctive way called than that found in the ‘sacred books of the an alphabet and then arranged to mimic Jews.’ Similarly with the Gospels: in the sounds through a set of spelling conven- early second century Celsus pointed out tions—have moved from paper or screen the discrepancies between the Gospels’ ac- into your head without becoming sounds; counts of the life of Jesus and concluded the words have not been spoken or heard. that they were unworthy of belief—and so Now imagine a second scene: someone he ridiculed the followers of Jesus as fools says to you ‘Let’s read the Bible.’ There are or knaves. We not only have a rebuttal of several options: both of you (or more) open Celsus by Origen (c.185-254), but we have their books and each read silently—this of- attempts to create a ‘backstory’ for Jesus ten happens in a classroom setting. Another that would iron out some of the contra- option is that one reads aloud to the oth- dictions that follow from taking the Gos- er or the group. But very often when this pels at face value as biographies. Then in happens there is an instruction given: ‘I am the later third century we have Porphyry reading from John, chapter 2, beginning at (c.232-303), who made a careful study of verse 12.’ This assumes that the listeners are the Christian Scriptures and found them going to each ‘follow the reading’ (i.e., read so riddled with confusion and nonsense as it for themselves) in their own book. In fact, to be unworthy of thinking people. this second option seems to be just a bit sil- So was it the case that the followers, who ly: if we are all going to follow it in our own continued to read and value the Scriptures, Bibles, it would be better if we all read the were simply unaware of the problems— passage in silence, as this might allow us to and I am sure many were unaware—or study and absorb its message better than did they just pretend that the confusions trying to both read and listen! Moreover, and jumble could be glossed over? I sus- if someone did say, ‘Let’s read the Bible’, pect that the answer lies not in what one and then read aloud while everyone had says about the book as such, so much as a text, many would think this a peculiarly the way the book was used. religious affair: we only see this phenome- non in worship and in Bible study groups. Books and Performance In the rest of life we think of reading as a private affair; when someone reads aloud it Imagine you say to yourself ‘Let’s read is because the audience (literally ‘the hear- the Bible.’ What image does this convey? ers’) do not have a text. Note that the idea Do you think of getting the book, sitting that all can ‘follow a passage in their own down—perhaps at a table or desk, and then books’—an invariable practice in the wor- reading silently to oneself? This is clearly ship of most western Christians—makes an option—you can read or you would not several assumptions: first, that reading is a have got this far in this article—and this is pretty well-nigh universal skill or, at least, the normal pattern of reading for us: we a common one; second, that copies can be have books on our shelves or on a comput- made easily and cheaply, and that these page 58 The Bible and Western Christianity

are virtually identical; and third, that most ferred to have a reader read to him than to readers progress to a stage where they can read himself—having a reader meant one read silently, absorbing words without could concentrate on the meaning, not on making the sounds even to ourselves. the task of reading. This is the exact oppo- All three of these assumptions are more site of our situation. recent than the texts that make up our Bi- It is not insignificant for the history of ble. Look at any ancient copy of the Gos- the Bible that one of the lesser ‘orders’ in pels, on papyrus or skin, and you will see most churches in antiquity was that of something like this: the ‘lector’; without a reader, books were just piles of sheets with marks on them. INTHEBEGINNINGWASTHE Second, while there were special copying WORDANDTHEWORDWASWITH shops in Paris and other university towns GODANDTHEWORDWASGODHE by the thirteenth century, it was only with printing in the late-fifteenth century that WASINTHEBEGINNINGWITHGO copies become plentiful and more or less DALLTHINGSCAMEINTOBE uniform. Universal literacy was still some INGTHROUGHHIMANDWITOUTH way off, but in comparison with the world IMNOTONETHINGCAMEINTOBE of manuscript copies books now were INGWHATHASCOMEINTOBEING common. In a world where every copy was INHIMWASLIFEANDTHELIFEWAS a ‘one off,’ even for those who could read there would never be sufficient copies, nor Word spacing, punctuation, and upper would they be identical! In the past, read- and lower case—what is referred to as ‘the ing had to be a public affair, many shar- grammar of legibility’—came into exist- ing a book through listening. We usually ence precisely to make reading an easier describe such a society as ‘an oral society’, and more diffuse skill among Christians. emphasizing that information was passed Reading in antiquity was a skilled activity: on by word of mouth, but it would be bet- it was the ability to convert marks made ter to describe it as an aural society: it was with ink into sounds that could be heard. by listening, in a group, that information, The reader in the early churches was more ideas, and stories were absorbed. akin to a cassette player converting sig- Lastly, you have not moved your lips nals back into sounds, rather than reading as you read these last sentences—a skill being a personal skill for absorbing infor- known to very few in antiquity and only mation at speed. Indeed, many who could taught from the early-twelfth century. This read (e.g., Pliny the Younger, c.100 ce) pre- was a skill propagated by a Paris theologi- an, Hugh of St Victor (d.1142). The effect of that skill is to make reading an intense- The reader in the early churches ly private and individual affair. I read my was more akin to a cassette player book, I reflect on my reading and much converting signals back into sounds, of my thinking takes place more or less in rather than reading being a personal silence. And, when I read alone, I expect skill for absorbing information at speed. my reading to be ordered, consistent and tailored to serve the specific purpose for This is the opposite of us today. which I have opened the book. The only “ common exception to this purposefulness Thomas O’Loughlin page 59 in reading is when we read whatever is ly- But when we look more closely at these ing around ‘to kill time’, as in a doctor’s narratives, these historical paths that lead waiting room you might glance at mag- to the present, we see that they rely on tell- azine or an article that you would never ing and re-telling: telling one part of the otherwise seek out. story in one situation and telling another These three, relatively modern, assump- part of the story in another. History is nev- tions work against us when it comes to er one big story, nor is it monolithic; there the Bible—it was put together, as were its are sub-groups in every group. The story individual books, when reading/hearing is never frozen; a living story is dynamic was virtually always a community experi- as human life in a group is dynamic. ence and story telling was seen as the great Now consider what it was that made Is- common performance art. rael—the people—distinct: it was the be- lief that they were responding in a special Common Stories way to God. Their history made sense to them when they viewed it in terms of their We humans make sense of our world relationship with God. To this relationship through our stories; our shared stories they gave a special name: ‘the testament’, form, inform, and re-inform our sense or ‘the covenant.’ Faith was not so much of collective identity. With each passing an issue of affirming or denying abstract generation, that set of stories mutates and items of a creed or of ticking boxes about becomes once again the pattern against what they accepted or rejected as it was a which we tell ourselves who we are as so- matter of belonging to stories: if you be- cieties. If you want to understand a socie- longed to this group, then you had these ty, you have to know its common stories. stories as your stories. Stories became not For the most part, we see ourselves as the only the common possession of the group; most recent actors in a long narrative—in these stories gave this group—despite all which we may be the heroes or the vic- the bitter differences between sub-groups tims—but it is our history and it is a histo- such as Judeans, Samaritans, Grecophiles, ry that leads us right down to today. The Pharisees and Essenes (and that is but the narrative explains to us how we got here, tip of the iceberg)—something to hold in in the state—for better or for worse—that common. The telling and re-telling—and we are in. We may like or reject our histo- the willingness of each generation to find ry, but it is still our history, and we need an explanation of itself in these stories— to repeat it and mark ourselves against it. was what formed their ‘social glue.’ It If you want to understand a group, big was the common stories—always heard or small, you need to know its history; it in common settings and which were per- will display that history in its buildings, formed regularly and formally—that its memorials and, above all, its narratives. made them into a people. If you wanted If you want to destroy a group’s identity, to be part of this witness to God from gen- you need to remove its monuments, ban- eration to generation (look at Ps. 79), you ish its history, and replace it with another. had to listen to the narratives and absorb The first thing a totalitarian regime does is them, by ‘reading’ your own life as part of to change the history syllabus and the his- the common story. tory books used in schools. History and a The same process can be seen among the sense of identity are intimately linked. disciples of Jesus. They already shared the page 60 The Bible and Western Christianity common Jewish story and it was against group was held together by sharing sto- that background that they heard the sto- ries of Jesus. These stories were told with- ries of Jesus—hence the constant referenc- in each group and reinforced by teachers es back to their existing Scriptures—and who travelled from group to group giving then it was their own stories of Jesus that performances of the memory of Jesus. they used to make sense of their lives as In the process, this memory evolved as disciples. Again, these were stories they the settings of the groups changed and the heard in common, when they assembled times changed. For example, early groups weekly for their community meal and may have heard stories directly from blessed the Father for his goodness. To those who heard Jesus or from those who ‘believe’ was to belong to one of these new thought that the world’s ending was close communities and to take on, first, its retell- at hand. Then later, after 70 ce, the temple ing of the Jewish story (which now includ- was no longer performing its function of ed making sense of Jesus as ‘the Anointed offering praise to God for all the people, so One’) and, second, a story in which God the stories had to evolve to take account of acted ‘among our ancestors in many and this new reality: how would disciples now various ways by the prophets, but in these offer praise and sacrifice? Later again, ten- last days he has spoken to us by a son’ sions grew between those who were iden- (Heb. 1:1-2) in such a way that it includ- tified as ‘Christians’ and those who, by ed you as an individual. Christianity was distinction, called themselves ‘Jews.’ Sim- a community to which one was commit- ilarly, it was one thing to join the group c. ted—and, as with every community, that 50 ce and meet people who had met Jesus; meant taking on board its common story. it was quite another to belong to a group— It would be several centuries before Chris- such those to whom Luke might have tianity ceased being primarily a communi- preached c.100 ce—who could have had ty (from which a theologian could extract parents or grandparents who were dis- some key ideas to arrange in a ‘creed’) and ciples or who heard these stories as they became a ‘creed’ (with an organization, were passed down. So the stories evolved, call ‘the church,’ tagged on). because in the re-telling they were ex- plaining the new situations in which the A Network of ‘Apostles, audiences found themselves. The focus of the stories was not in the past—what did Prophets and Teachers’ Jesus do in place X at time Y—but on what (Eph. 4:11) he, risen and present when they gath- ered (Matt. 18:20), meant for them as they How should we imagine the early church- heard the story. The story brought them es? Rather than seeing them as a phil- from the long past and God’s promises, osophical party—a group sharing the down to Jesus and his life and preaching, same ideas, theology, or worldview—it and on to the very place where they were is better to see them as groups who were on the very day they were listening to the so convinced that what they saw as the evangelist. And they heard the evangelist promises to Israel were fulfilled in Jesus either in person or when his words were that they now formed ‘a new people’ (see, re-sounded by a lector from a book—the for example, 2 Cor. 6:16). The boundary of book which was the recording of the per- this group was marked by baptism and the formance of the evangelist. The whole Thomas O’Loughlin page 61 encounter with what we tities; we want to belong. call ‘a biblical text’ was a Belonging is a key to the community event; it was way we live our lives the story of a community, and we appreciate that it identified an individu- wrong-belonging—for ex- al with a community, and ample to a cult or a gang— it was experienced in the can be destructive to us midst of a community. As and to others. We cannot believers deny this aspect of our hu- What about Us? we see manity, even when there is ourselves today as a potent myth of individu- If the Bible is approached standing in continuity alism. Likewise, as believ- in the same way that we with the community ers we see ourselves today approach a philosophy of Israel and with as standing in continuity book (as Celsus and Por- the communities with the community of Is- phyry did long ago), or as that gathered around rael and with the commu- a book specially designed “Jesus—some may not nities that gathered around Jesus—some may not like as a ‘spiritual guide’ (there like this historical this historical dimension, are thousands of such dimension, but works, both Christian and but it’s hard to be a ‘Chris- it’s hard to be a tian’ if you are not linked non-Christian), or as a self- ‘Christian’ if you help book, or as a guide to the first groups that are not linked to the to ethics (and many think were called ‘Christians.’ that might be its only val- first groups that were Then again, to be linked to ue), then sooner or later called ‘Christians’. those who claimed Jesus the user is likely to be dis- Then again, to be was ‘the Christ’ promised appointed. All such ap- linked, we need to be by God, we need to be in proaches are designed to in connection with connection with their com- be used by an individual, their community, munity, Israel. as an individual, and all Israel. The Bible is The Bible is the collection the modern ones assume the collection of those of those shared, connective private reading. If the sto- shared, connective stories; it is by inheriting them that we discover our ries of the Scriptures are to stories; it is by own identity. But these be valued, they have to be inheriting them that put pack into their commu- stories only ‘make sense’ we discover our own nity situation. They have when they are viewed to become the stories that, identity. from within a group and being heard in a group, heard within a group. We allow the group to reflect can make detailed studies on who and where they of them as texts, as indi- are and how God might be viduals, in much the same present in their lives. But is way we study other an- ‘belonging’ so important? cient texts, but if they are We are creatures whose to be valued religiously identities are shared iden- then they have to be heard page 62 The Bible and Western Christianity as the stories of a community which sees again when we gather and which can act as itself walking along the Way of Life. When a starting point for how we see God and his they are shared as the basic stories of our Christ (see Acts 3:18 and Rev. 12:10) pres- belonging, they form a common starting ent among us and calling us to disciple- point for our group reflection on God’s ship. When one or other of these locations presence in our lives today. In that com- is denied, either the community’s action or munity reflection they can be re-told and the book’s value is liable to be eclipsed. re-remembered as both ancient and valua- When the Bible’s otherness from our ble for us today. expectations is ignored, then we run very It is these twin locations of the Bible as close to fundamentalism. This is the two- our community inheritance—it is only part belief that, on the one hand, our access ‘mine’ because I belong to the group, the to the Mystery of Mysteries can be bound- Christians, who have brought it through ed by words imagined as frozen in time and history down to me—that make biblical print and, on the other hand, we can read studies both so important and so different the texts as if they belong to our culture— from other studies of ancient texts. The first our world—and on our terms. Not surpris- location is that it is a collection of ancient ingly, many who wish to banish the Bible texts—covering several centuries and sev- from our religious culture tell us this is the eral languages and cultures, with many, only way to use the Bible and imagine that often conflicting, perspectives. The oth- is what we must, or should, be doing when er location is that these are texts we hear we hear it. To cope with these stories’ oth- The late Roman apse mosaic of the Basilica Santa Pudenziana, which dates from the fourth century, depicts Christ in the garb of a Roman Emperor, translating his significance into the visual language of the worshipping community. Thomas O’Loughlin page 63 erness, however, we need to engage with and to Israel, they also form the bedrock them critically and carefully using all the by which my community can come into tools of investigation—they are variants on discussion with every other community of the methods of the detective—that we have disciples—they form our common culture. developed for looking at ancient and for- Here we meet a parallel set of dangers eign cultures. This work we could imagine to those of fundamentalism: those of cult- as being that of carrying a lantern into the ism or sectarianism. These dangers man- complex ways of the past. It needs histori- ifest themselves, first, when a community ans and archaeologists, literary critics and becomes so involved in its own agenda of theologians, and many others; they show the moment that it loses its links to its orig- how complex this collection is, how it was inal identity and, second, when it becomes put together, how and for what it was used so absorbed in itself that it fails to dialogue and what it tells us about communities of with other communities of Christians, see- the past. But if this is the only approach, ing them as simple, mistaken or lost. These then while the Bible—as one of the most twin dangers—and they are endemic dan- complex products of human culture—will gers—are counterbalanced by recognizing remain an object of fascination in the acad- that all communities, in the past and today, emy, its study will be but a variation of share this great body of stories—but that, as those dedicated to the cultures of ancient with all such collections, these stories gen- Egypt, Mesopotamia or the Greco-Roman erate different retellings, different under- world. standings and a plethora of more local his- These stories are the inheritance of com- tories. When we appreciate how the Bible munities who, by sharing them and bring- functions in communities, we realize that it ing them into collision with their other sto- allows Christians to be one with each oth- ries and their personal histories, find in this er while also preserving their differences, act of reflection a springboard to a vision because it forms our common currency. So of life that is at once both intimate to the why bother with the Bible? Because it is our creation and greater than it. This is no mere treasure of stories, the shared stories of our repetition of those ancient stories—as if the common identity, which put us in connec- truth is to be found in the past—but a col- tion both with the past, with one another lective engagement within a community and with all who have been or are follow- on what had brought them together, what ers of The Way when we interact with them holds them together and what sets their in our communities. Then, in thinking and agenda. In any such moment of engage- praying from within that common identity, we glimpse the next steps along The Way. ment there will be many stories at work— some of them biblical, some belonging Further Reading to their own culture (be that medieval or • Bauckham, Richard. The Gospels for All Christians: Rethinking modern, British or African, or whatever), the Gospel Audiences. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998. • Gamble, Harry Y. Books and Readers in the Early Church: A and some which belong to the immediate History of Early Christian Texts. New Haven, CT: Yale University local environment; Jews and Christians in Texts, 1995. • Johnson, William A., and Holt N. Parker, eds. Ancient Literacies: their gatherings were the first groups who The Culture of Reading in Greece and Rome. Oxford: Oxford developed the skill to ‘think global, act lo- University Press, 2009. • O’Loughlin, Thomas. ‘ὑπηρεται… του λογου: does Luke 1:2 cal.’ But if these retellings of ancient stories throw light on to the book practices of the late-first century churches?’ Pages 1-15 in Early Readers, Scholars and Editors of form a link between my community and the New Testament. Ed. H. Houghton. Piscataway, N.J.: Gorgias the first communities of Jesus’s followers Press, 2014. Why Does The Bible Matter For Ethics?

hy does the Bible matter for ethics? This might seem to be a very important ques- tion. Yet only a few centuries ago in Europe this question would have been in- W conceivable: ‘Of course the Bible matters—how can you ask such a question?’ In our modern world, by contrast, matters are by no means so obvious and so we have to pose the question explicitly: Why does the Bible matter?Let us explore how life has changed.

Modern Rationalisation basis for agreement, identity, trust, and cooperation. So matters have changed sig- In centuries past, the Bible offered an un- nificantly—yet why have they changed? derstanding of life—a narrative in which Consideration of ethics in modern life takes on a rather different shape from tra- the world of human life made sense. It ditional discussions. For example, much provided a story of creation, fall, redemp- of contemporary institutional life is gov- tion, expectation, and judgement in rela- erned by the use of numbers: even the tion to which an individual life could take quality of academic research and teaching on meaning. The Bible also offered an ac- is now measured by ‘metrics’, by quanti- count of human responsibilities, as well as tative indicators. The motivation is this: if an account of how people might flourish we can find ways of counting how good and find their ultimate fulfilment. And be- research and teaching are, so that we have cause the Bible was the basis for a shared clear evidence of where the best research culture, it offered a basis for agreement, and teaching is taking place, then one can for trust, and for cooperation. Perhaps in provide funding to the best research and the modern world we have become more teaching. The converse, of course, is also proficient at these tasks—understanding true: we choose what kinds of things are the world, finding practical fulfilment, best to learn, to teach, and to research, be- agreeing, and cooperating—by setting up cause these are the kinds of things that will a division of labour between disciplines. be funded, or lead on to paid employment. Science gives an understanding of the These choices are ethical, and most of what world; laws and institutions help to order we do in modern life is based around such our human responsibilities, while econom- ethical questions: to what should we di- ic activities facilitate our quests for human rect our efforts, devote our energies, and fulfilment; and our nation-states offer a spend our time? Nowadays we have met-

page 64 Why Does the Bible Matter for Ethics? Why Does The Bible Matter For Ethics? Philip Goodchild

MEET THE AUTHOR Philip Goodchild is Professor of Religion and Philosophy in the Department of Theology and Religious Studies at the University of Nottingham. His research covers theology and economics, philosophy as a spiritual practice, Continental philosophy of religion, and twentieth century French philosophy, especially Simone Weil and Gilles Deleuze.

rics; we have quantifying procedures; we modern life, whether religious or not. Un- have defined roles and responsibilities; der such conditions, we might begin ask and we have systems to follow. If there is how the Bible is relevant. Does the Bible a national scandal over something that has tell me how to do my job properly? Most gone wrong people are of course blamed, named jobs and roles that people work in but the modern solution is always clear: today did not exist two centuries ago, ex- let us invent new systems so that this can cept in a few cases in very different forms. never happen again. People’s conduct is How, then, can an ancient text tell us how increasingly regulated by various explicit to live our lives? Is the Bible only relevant rules and codes. Responsibility becomes for personal and family life? limited to the performance of roles. This Here is one explanation of why things has the advantage of ensuring that we are have changed. It is to do with the division much more efficient and effective. It mat- of labour. We become better and better at ters much less what ends we wish to pur- performing a more and more specialised sue than that we pursue them efficiently role and then we rely on other people to and effectively, and so make the world a perform other more specialised roles. To- better place. So ethics has changed its na- gether in cooperation we can be much ture for those who work in institutions in more effective—but only as long as we are

Philip Goodchild page 65 page 66 Why Does the Bible Matter for Ethics?

organised properly. If my simply to have good inten- tions from the teachings role is balanced with and tions or the right personal of Jesus: ‘Give to everyone interacts with the roles of dispositions or capacities. who begs from you; and if others, then modern life Instead, I have to be as- anyone takes away your can operate effectively. Yet sessed against my given re- goods, do not ask for them this specialised division of sponsibilities and demon- again’ (Luke 6:30). To test labour raises a problem: strate that I have fulfilled its relevance for ethics, consider this: could a mod- ern university incorporate Once our duties are written up in the form this into its statutes and of rules and regulations we have to follow, codes of conduct? given us from outside, then personal ethics At first sight, the answer are not sufficient. seems obvious: of course not. And yet perhaps it all depends on what kind in order to get the world all my objectives. The for- of goods we are think- to work together, we need mal regulation of duties, ing about. What kinds of such a complex organi- conduct, and relationships goods are there? Are there “sation that no one really is required. In the past goods that one should al- understands every single these roles and regulations ways give away? I would part of it. Many people are simply did not exist, so no like to suggest that there so specialised in their ex- ancient text offers guid- are three important kinds pertise that few others re- ance on their performance. of goods and that differ- ally understand what they This leads to a crisis of rel- entiating these can shape do, while those who man- evance for the Bible: if so how we think about ethics. age many specialists have many people fulfil their There are goods of appro- no hope of understanding professional and domestic priation—things which can and directing the activi- duties responsibly without be made mine or yours. ties of all those they man- drawing on the Bible, why These are the kinds of age. This means that no does the Bible matter for things that can only be one person can take over- ethics? mine insofar as they are all ethical responsibility. not yours and can only be Instead, we have to have Three Kinds yours insofar as they are systems, procedures, and not mine. Food, once eat- audits. Yet once our duties of Goods: en, is of this nature. Private are written up in the form property, houses, rights to of rules and regulations Modern Appropriation, things, rights to financial we have to follow, given us Ancient Participation, instruments, for exam- from outside, then person- and Biblical Renunciation ple—these are goods of ap- al ethics are not sufficient. propriation. These are the It is not good enough for What is worse, perhaps kinds of things that we can me to be a deeply ethical the Bible seems simply too exchange or count. We can and sincere person; it is not unworldly. Let us take a use these as evidence to good enough for me to be classic example of some demonstrate the quality of a deeply devout person, or unworldly ethical instruc- what we do. If our modern Philip Goodchild page 67 life is about producing these goods of ap- mind or management system, or is there a propriation, then criteria of efficiency and remainder in life that appropriates us? effectiveness seem important. Moreover, Sometimes in the modern world we are the more that we can quantify, the more so preoccupied with evidence-based deci- easily we can compare. There is an ethical sion-making that we have to remind our- imperative to invent systems of measuring selves that the origins of ethics were not so that we can be certain of the relative val- primarily concerned with such goods of ue of what we do. appropriation. Ethics started with goods There are also more subtle levels of of participation—things that can only be appropriation. Appropriation might be mine insofar as they are also yours.1 For a matter of taking in hand, using or eat- example, one cannot have a private Centre ing something. It might be a matter of for Bible, Ethics and Theology, but only a staking a legal claim. Yet when it comes shared centre. These goods would include to goods that we share in common, such the environments that we share and live as economic growth, our minds can ap- in, the laws and regulations that guide propriate them insofar as they are quan- our conduct and the institutions that give tified. They constitute evidence. Once we shape to our lives. These are things that we can measure things, we can manage them. can regulate, understand, and make sense It is not that the evidence is mine rather of, but we would express them in terms of than yours, for evidence is always shared; ideals rather than as things we can quan- but once we can measure things—and say tify. In relation to these goods, our per- that one thing is better than another—then sonal responsibility is no longer a matter this relative value can only belong to one of producing objects for appropriation, thing rather than another. Our minds ap- but ensuring the common good above all propriate our respect for this rather than else. Here, qualities are more relevant than that. Overall, this process leads to a fur- quantities. One contributes towards the ther sense of appropriation: the more we common good by embodying the virtues— make things quantifiable, the more we especially the four cardinal virtues of jus- make things manageable. Our world is ap- tice, temperance, courage, and prudence: propriated by our systems for measuring. We re-organise the way things are done so that they can be quantified and managed. Here, qualities are more relevant There are some who feel that this pro- than quantities. One contributes cess of appropriation is ambivalent. Does to the common good by embodying the land belong to us, or do we belong to the virtues—especially­ justice, the land? More profoundly, do our lives temperance, courage and prudence. belong to ourselves, or do our lives be- long to something greater than us, such as God? As God warned Noah, ‘Every mov- assessing the moral qualities of others to ing thing that lives shall be food for you; actively contribute to the common good is and just as I gave you the green plants, I more significant than measuring the quan- “ give you everything. Only, you shall not tity of their individual achievements. An eat flesh with its life, that is, its blood’ institution or a tradition is not simply ac- (Gen. 9:3-4). Is everything subject to ap- cumulated; it is received, performed, and propriation, to be eaten by either body or enacted through the capacities of its prin- page 68 Why Does the Bible Matter for Ethics? cipal figures. Such actions and capacities if I care for something. You can only pay participate in the virtues and educate oth- attention to things if you give your atten- ers about how to participate as well. tion. You can only have love insofar as you So we have distinguished goods of ap- give your love away. propriation from goods of participation. These are goods of actual conduct and The Bible, however, speaks to us less of they arise from a life of faith. the common good and the virtues than it For whenever one in- does of blood and reununciation. In Levit- vests time, attention, icus, God explains the prohibition against and love into eating blood: ‘For the life of the flesh is in someone or the blood; and I have given it to you for something, making atonement for your lives on the we cannot altar; for, as life, it is the blood that makes be entirely atonement’ (Lev. 17:11). Blood, here, is not sure that to be appropriated but offered. Is there what we do another kind of good—the good of life it- really self—that cannot be eaten or appropriat- ed, but only offered? Let us return to Jesus’ unworldly saying, ‘Give to everyone who begs from you and if anyone takes away your goods do not ask for them again.’ This is strange and unworldly when ap- plied to goods of appropriation, things such as shirts which are wearable, as well as goods of participation, such as virtues which are inalienable. Yet what of those who take up one’s time, one’s care, one’s attention, or one’s life? It would be most strange to ask for one’s time back. That is, not simply to ask the equivalent amount of the time of another, for such time is never equivalent, but to ask for the very time that one has given or lent. It has already gone: it has been of- matters. fered, spilled like blood, and will return to We can only this life no more. Such considerations per- be guided by faith. There is never going haps indicate that there could be another to be any empirical proof that this is how kind of goods: goods that we only have or whom you should love. As Kierkegaard insofar as we offer them, or perhaps even once remarked, ‘Life can only be under- renounce them. I live my life by spending stood backwards, but has to be lived for- my life, and even if I spend all my time on wards.’2 Faith is more central to the way myself, I no longer have that time. These we all live, whether we are religious or goods would be things that are only mine not, than we might believe. insofar as I give them away. For example, My initial suggestion, then, is that these take ‘care’: I can only have care if I do care, kinds of goods as bases for ethics lead to Philip Goodchild page 69 separate domains. It is important to con- economic goods that are measured by ef- sider goods of appropriation, but we can ficiency and effectiveness? When Jesus consider them as primarily economic counselled against storing up treasure on goods. It is important to consider goods earth, ‘where moth and rust consume and of participation, but we can consider where thieves break in and steal’ (Matt. these under the broad heading 6:19), was he not warning against the un- of political goods. But how realistic denial of time implicit in seeking we spend our time, what goods of appropriation? When Jesus ad- we take as mattering, vised people, ‘Therefore, do not worry about your life, what you will eat or what you will drink, or about your body, what you will wear’ (Matt. 6:25), was he not simply pointing out the reality that life is more than food and the body more than clothing? We must go further. A life can be led among economic, political, and religious goods—insofar as we consider them simply as goods, and so treat them as separate domains— but insofar as we treat these as bases for eth- ics, then they come into direct compe- tition: ‘No one can serve two masters: for a slave will ei- ther hate the one and love the other, or be devoted to the one and despise the other. You can- not serve God and mammon’ (Matt. 6:24). My initial sugges- tion, therefore, has to be qualified: we as worthy of attention, are not dealing with distinct domains of that to which we offer ourselves—could goods, here, but simply with faith and the we call these religious goods? way that faith guides people to live their It is the nature of human life that, as lives. What will form the ultimate basis for temporal creatures, we have to spend our our ethical judgements: measurable quan- time. Even if I spend my time on myself, I tities, conceptual qualities, or a life that is don’t have it any more. And yet I still have offered to that which matters? to spend it, in order to have had that time. In the eschatological perspective of the So can we consider religious goods as New Testament gospel, it is only people’s more fundamental and more realistic than lives that count in the final judgement, not page 70 Why Does the Bible Matter for Ethics?

and participation the truly spiritual goods, goods con- sisting in the lives of sin- gular individuals, form the basis for ethical judgement. Or, as Jesus put it, ‘Those who want to save their life will lose it, while those who lose their life will save it’ (Mark 8:35).

Conclusion

The Bible speaks to us all the time about these reli- gious goods of offering. In doing so, it offers us a philosophy of life at odds with the modern world, yet accessible to those of any religious faith, explic- it or implicit. As temporal creatures in receipt of our time, it is necessary to offer our attention to that which we take as mattering: we care, we venerate things as mattering, and we distrib- ute that care through faith CBET Photo Competition 2015 entry by Mark Wreford: “My wife, Ellie, read- and so implicit worship is ing a childhood Bible she was given by her parents to our eldest son, Caleb.” a requirement laid upon their wealth or their right- ral. Life itself is the invest- us by the flow of time. eousness. People will be ment of time, attention, and In Christianity, howev- judged by their faith—by devotion; even if we spend er, such implicit worship how they guide their con- these on ourselves, we only is only spiritual when it duct. As Paul puts it, ‘For have our lives insofar as enacts the love of God in those who live according to we spend them. As Simone Christ that it has received. the flesh set their minds on Weil put it, ‘We possess As Kierkegaard puts it, the things of the flesh, but only what we renounce; those who live according what we do not renounce The more he loves the to the Spirit set their minds escapes from us.’3 Life is unseen, the more he will on the things of the Spirit’ essentially offering, renun- love the men he sees. (Rom. 8:5). Eschatology re- ciation, and sacrifice: along- It is not the opposite, minds us that life is tempo- side goods of appropriation that the more he rejects Philip Goodchild page 71

those he sees, the more he loves the the quest for goods of appropriation and unseen, for when this is the case, God those who commit their lives to the quest is changed into an unreal something, a for the eternal security of ideas, but only fancy… God is too exalted to be able those who live according to flow of time are to accept a man’s love directly… If adapted to reality. The flow of time judges the truth of our existential orientation. you want to show that it is intended The third aspect is one of salvation: the for God, then give it away, but with manifestation of love in the flesh is a pow- the thought of God… God is not a er that converts attention from the things part of existence in such a way that he of the flesh to the things of the Spirit. The demands his share for himself… God flow of time, far from being a formal struc- demands nothing for himself, although ture or empty container, is always a singu- he demands everything from you.4 lar existence. So when we think about ethics, are we Thus, in Paul’s terms, to be ‘in Christ’ only going to consider goods of appropri- means that ‘Christ lives in you’. There is a ation, what we can count and measure, strange resonance between what Paul says and how we may perform our roles as ef- of Christ and what we may say of love or ficiently and effectively as possible? Or are time. Kierkegaard once more: we going to consider how we live our lives, give our time, our care, our attention, and God’s relationship to a human being our love? The Bible matters today because is the infinitising at every moment it tells us about this much more fundamen- of that which at every moment is tal level of ethical life. Ethical life is essen- in a man… everything you say to tially worship, essentially sacrifice, and the and do to other human beings God distribution of time, attention and love. simply repeats; he repeats it with the 5 intensification of infinity. Further Readings

• Bruni, Luigino. The Wound and the Blessing: Economics, Rela- The life that we have is the life that we tionships and Happiness. New York: New City Press, 2012. give; it is only by giving our lives that we • Goodchild, Philip. ‘Capitalism and Global Economics’. Pages 218-35 in The Cambridge Companion to Christian Political The- receive any life at all. ology. Edited by Craig Hovey & Elizabeth Phillips. Cambridge: In conclusion, then, there are three as- Cambridge University Press, 2015. • Gorz¸ André. Critique of Economic Reason. Translated by Gillian pects to this biblical basis for ethics. The Handyside and Chris Turner. London: Verso, 1989. first aspect is universal, affecting all crea- • Kierkegaard, Søren. Works of Love. Translated by Howard H. Hong and Edna V. Hong. New York: Harper Perennial, 2009. tion: the flow of time means that we are • Weil, Simone. Oppression and Liberty. Translated by Arthur continually being given up to death, but Wills. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1958. it is only by spending time, attention, and love that we have a life. ‘What is sown is perishable, what is raised is imperisha- 1. These goods are discussed by Alasdair MacIntyre, Dependent Rational Animals (London: Duckworth, 1999), 119. ble. It is sown in dishonour, it is raised in 2. Søren Kierkegaard, The Journals of Søren Kierkegaard: A Selec- glory. It is sown in weakness, it is raised tion, ed. and trans. Alexander Dru (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1938), 1030. in power. It is sown a physical body, it is 3. Simone Weil, Gravity and Grace, trans. Emma Crawford and raised a spiritual body’ (1 Cor. 15:42-4). Mario von der Ruhr (London: Routledge, 2002), 34. 4. Søren Kierkegaard, Works of Love, trans. Howard V. Hong and The second aspect is one of judgement: Edna H. Hong (New York: Harper Perennial, 2009), 158-9. there are those who commit their lives to 5. Kierkegaard, Works of Love, 352. The Bible And Systematic Theology

mongst the various specialisms that compose the discipline of theology today— pastoral, practical, biblical, historical—the area that is labelled ‘systematic theol- A ogy’ is concerned principally with Christian doctrine. The tradition of Christian belief and practice articulates certain doctrines or teachings concerning God, creation, Christ, the Holy Spirit, salvation, the church, the human person and so on. This field of theology is systematic in the sense that the theologian seeks to interpret and organise these teachings in a systematic way, so as to reveal their interconnections and overall coherence and intelligibility. For example, how does the doctrine of God help us to understand what is meant by creation? What is the connection between what is professed about the person and work of Christ and the nature and history of salvation? What is the church in relation to the Holy Spirit whose gifts the church receives? In undertaking this task of interpreting Christian teaching, the systematic theologian does not deal with Scripture only as a his- torical text. hrough its various kinds of writing, sis in the practice of philosophy, its lack of Scripture also makes metaphysical a delineated subject matter and its shared Tclaims: it tells us what things are and concern with existence and meaning, make what they mean. For example, Genesis is philosophy particularly well suited to the not merely a book about how God creat- task of aiding the interpretation of Chris- ed and neither is it only a measure of the tian teaching founded in Scripture. priestly priorities of the Judahites when Over the twentieth century, systematic they returned to Jerusalem from Babylon. theologians debated vigorously how Scrip- Genesis is also concerned with what crea- ture should be deployed, the nature of tion is and what it means. In short, Genesis scriptural authority and the relationship of teaches that creation is ‘very good’ and that the theological interpretation of Scripture humanity has a particular place within the to the historical-critical study of the Bible. created order as formed in God’s image Nevertheless, there is a striking consensus and likeness. In trying to interpret these between probably the two most prominent scriptural claims, the systematic theologi- systematic theologians of the twentieth an will use a range of tools of intellectual century—one Protestant Reformed and enquiry, particularly those of philosophy. the other Roman Catholic—concerning the The blending of contemplation and analy- place of Scripture in the theological enter-

page 72 The Bible and Systematic Theology The Bible And Systematic Theology Simon Oliver

prise. For the Swiss Reformed theologian fies and into a Word to whom testimony is Karl Barth (1886-1968), the Word of God is given.’2 To put the matter very simply, the given in threefold form: the Word revealed Bible is rather like the picture frame around (Jesus Christ), the Word written (Scripture) the portrait of Jesus Christ. and the Word proclaimed (church wit- Very few, if any, systematic theologians ness to, and proclamation of, Jesus Christ of the various Christian traditions would as Lord through its reading and interpre- deny that Scripture is central to their task. tation of Scripture).Whilst Jesus Christ is For some, the reason for this centrality is the Word incarnate, the Bible and church very simple: Scripture is God’s word to hu- proclamation become the Word of God in manity and is therefore trustworthy and their fidelity to God’s self-revelation in the true in a way that invites our faithful and Word who is Jesus Christ.1 In very similar obedient attention. To put the matter an- fashion, the Roman Catholic theologian other way, in the Bible we read what God Hans Urs von Balthasar (1905-1988)—also wants us to hear, so we should listen. For Swiss—writes that ‘Scripture is the word of Karl Barth, Christian theology is a ‘speak- God that bears witness to God’s Word. The ing after’ what is spoken to us first by God one Word therefore makes its appearance in Christ and witnessed by Scripture. So as though dividing into a word that testi- Christian theology is not what we say about

MEET THE AUTHOR Simon Oliver is Van Mildert Professor of Divinity at Durham University and Canon of Durham Cathedral. He was Head of the Department of Theology and Religious Studies at the University of Nottingham from 2012 to 2015. His teaching and research focus on Christian doctrine and philosophy, particularly the doctrine of creation.

Simon Oliver page 73 page 74 The Bible and Systematic Theology

God, but what God says about himself ken Word in creation and election came and us in his threefold word—as revealed, to form the Hebrew Bible and latterly the written and proclaimed. In what follows, I canon of Christian Scripture. It is a matter would like to suggest that Scripture is cen- of historical fact that, for much of Christian tral to the task of Christian systematic the- history, the Bible has been heard publicly ology for another complementary reason: rather than read privately. Prior to the in- because it is first and foremost a word that vention of the printing press and the mass is written only so that it can be spoken. In production of written texts, the Scriptures being spoken publicly, it is a creative word remained primarily a spoken liturgical text through which human creativity shares in performed in churches. Large swathes of divine creation. One of the most striking the Scriptures were committed to memo- characteristics of the Bible is that, of all the ry in order to be recited orally. Even when texts produced by human culture, it is the studied rather than used liturgically, the one that is read and heard publicly, aloud, text would have been read aloud. As Peter every day by millions of people. In a mod- Candler, a contemporary American sys- ern culture in which reading is usually a tematic theologian and writer, puts it: silent and private affair, the Bible is unique in being read aloud daily by large groups Much unlike the highly prized silence of people. Is this significant for understand- of our great research libraries, medi- ing the Bible’s importance? I will suggest eval monastic scriptoria are saturated that it is, and for theological reasons. with noise…Reading is an activity not The Bible witnesses first and foremost to only of the eyes, but also of the ears, the spoken and creative word of God. In not to mention the whole body. The Genesis, God speaks creation into exist- text serves chiefly as an aid to the ver- ence: ‘In the beginning when God created bal articulation of words orally, which the heavens and the earth, the earth was suggests that at this stage, writing is a formless void and darkness covered the not only derivative of speech but also face of the deep, while a wind from God simply a record thereof for its further swept over the face of the waters. Then and future vocalization.3

To understand why this is significant we Prior to the invention of the can turn to one of the Western tradition’s printing press and the mass most influential reflections on the rela- production of written texts, the tionship between the spoken and written scriptures remained primarily a word. Around 370 bce, the Greek philoso- spoken liturgical text. pher Plato wrote a dialogue about love and rhetoric named after its principal character, Phaedrus. At the beginning of the dialogue, God said, “Let there be light…”’ The pro- Socrates, Plato’s teacher and the key char- logue to John’s Gospel is a gloss on Gen- acter in many of his dialogues, is taking a “esis: ‘In the beginning was the Word, and walk outside the walls of Athens. He is in the Word was with God, and the Word was conversation with Phaedrus, who has been God… All things came into being through listening to a speech about the nature of him and without him not one thing came love delivered by a famous Athenian rhet- into being.’ The record of this divine spo- orician known as Lysias. Socrates express- Simon Oliver page 75

es his great desire to hear Lysias’s speech CBET Photo Competition 2015 entry by Jonny Rowlands. and, suspecting that Phaedrus has a copy crucial to a proper understanding and the hidden under his cloak, Socrates persuades attainment of a perfect state of being and him to perform the speech. What is the sig- knowledge which all philosophers seek. nificance of Phaedrus possessing a written Towards the end of the dialogue, this leads copy of Lysias’s speech? To write down a Plato to suggest that the spoken word is of speech implies that it can be repeated end- lessly as the same speech; it can be read greater value than the written word. Why? over and over again. The speech has, as it Because the written word implies that wis- were, been ‘captured’. Once written down, dom or knowledge can be fixed, captured the speech becomes a document to be and endlessly traded. But wisdom, for Pla- passed on; the knowledge it contains can be to and his teacher Socrates, is drawn out bought and sold. But when Phaedrus reads of a student by conversation in which cir- Lysias’s speech, is Socrates hearing Lysias cumstance and context—the very form of or merely a copy or echo of Lysias? Plato’s life—are crucial. The spoken word is fluid dialogue suggests that there is far more to and fleeting. It does not pretend to capture a speech and the learning that it conveys wisdom, but seeks it through the perfor- than merely the written words. The context mance and movement of rhetoric. To make of the speech, including its time and loca- this point more simply, think of one of the tion, the immediate purpose of the speech most famous speeches of the twentieth cen- and the characters of its hearers, are crucial tury: Martin Luther King’s ‘I have a dream’ to the speech’s meaning. Plato sees that the speech, so iconic of the American civil rights context in which wisdom is conveyed is movement. Imagine the difference between page 76 The Bible and Systematic Theology reading this speech on the internet today liturgy of the church. So the Bible was, at and the experience of an African American least in theory, public and shared because it standing at the steps of the Lincoln Memo- was heard collectively in a communal con- rial in Washington, DC, listening to King’s text. The translation of the Scriptures into oration on that August day in 1963. the vernacular in Europe in the sixteenth Surely, to understand the real power century, supremely by William Tyndale, and persuasiveness of Martin finally made the hearing of the Bible Luther King’s speech, truly public. Today, reading is one must consider largely a private and silent its original con- matter. Whilst we may text and the read the same texts mode of its The context or identically repeat- delivery, performance of the ed through print- not simply ing (the latest words spoken word is integral C.J. Sansom, for typed on example) we a page or to its creative power do so in quite appear- different “ contexts ing on a and meaning. It is and for computer different screen. spontaneous and invites reasons, The con- in such a text or per- shared response. way that formance of the this is not a spoken word is truly shared read- therefore integral to its ing and hearing. The growing creative power and mean- popularity of book clubs tries to ing. The written text implies the pos- make such reading more communal and sibility of endless and identical repetition in public. Occasionally, a series of texts be- which context does not matter. So whereas comes so popular that it captures the col- the written word ossifies human thought lective imagination and becomes extreme- and renders imaginable the fixing of and ly creative by being an act of communal trade in those ideas, the spoken word is reading and thinking. A good example spontaneous and invites communal crea- would be the Harry Potter novels by J.K. tive conversation and shared response. It is, Rowling. Indeed, the nearest we come to as it were, a living and creative word with the public oral performance of written texts as yet unanticipated possibilities, rather today is the film adaptation of such novels. than a juridical and regulative word chis- This is creative because film overcomes elled in stone tablets (2 Cor. 3:6). the private activity of reading and gener- In antiquity and the Middle Ages, the ates a public and shared performance with Scriptures as the written word of God were which people can think and discuss. Yet a encountered in very precious manuscripts one-off cinematic performance of just two by a very few people, but by the wider hours tells us so much less than a book that populace through oral performance in the is read aloud habitually and communally Simon Oliver page 77 from one generation to the next. remains only or primarily a written text, The Bible is unique in literature in being rather than a text that is read aloud, heard publically read aloud every day. As such, and discussed, it takes on a regulative rath- the context of its reading—the Christian er than creative character. It becomes a doc- liturgy—is crucial. Understanding the pri- trinal legal charter—a regulative rulebook mary context of the Bible’s performance is of doctrine, or the mere written constitu- as important as remembering the context tion of the church. Such is the importance of Martin Luther King’s ‘I have a dream’ of the Bible for some Christian churches. speech when appreciating the meaning of But for the systematic theologian, a juridi- the text beyond simple authorial intention. cal or regulative understanding to the Bible This is because it allows us also to consider is, at best, insufficient, because it does not the reception of that text, namely its hear- do justice to the creative spoken Word to ing as well as its speaking. Just as impor- which the scriptural text first bears witness. tantly, however, the word of God in Scrip- For both Barth and von Balthasar, the word ture becomes creative in being read aloud of God written in Scripture is the word of in such a way that a response is provoked. God only in its fidelity to the Word that is The public reading of the Bible generates first and foremost the Word that is spoken a shared hearing, which becomes a com- in the beginning, through whom and for mon framework and prompt for music, the whom all things were made. A central as- visual arts and communal acts of education, pect of Scripture’s fidelity to the Word is its healthcare and charity. It is no surprise that creative character that emerges from its ha- the Bible has motivated the greater portion bitual public reading rather than exclusive of Western music, art and architecture pre- private study. This is also an important part cisely because, in the public liturgy of the of the Bible’s authority and its claim on us: church, it is the spoken record of the cre- it is a supremely public book that is heard ative speech of God. In the seventeenth communally. It is the first body of literature and eighteenth centuries, even the natural in history that is compiled for everyone sciences found their rationale through the rather than a particular racial, political, in- spoken naming of the creatures by Adam in tellectual or ruling class. the Garden of Eden. Here was the creative Attending to the creative rather than word of humanity ordering and relating regulative understanding of Scripture the parts of God’s creation. The burgeoning through its public reading is crucial to sys- natural sciences took on the mantle of cre- tematic theology if it is to be a living and atively naming then sorting and predicting creative mode of intellectual enquiry. For the creation spoken into being by God. some strands of Christian theology, nota- In contrast to our public reading of Scrip- bly the neoscholasticism that held sway ture, we do not routinely read aloud other in Roman Catholicism at the turn of the kinds of ‘public’ texts, such as legal docu- twentieth century, the purpose of Chris- ments, national written constitutions, in- tian teaching is only the transmission of a stitutional statutes and the like. Such texts fixed body of doctrine codified in theolog- are important but occasional points of ref- ical manuals for private reading. Scripture erence. They convey facts or fix a set of was merely a part of that ‘deposit of truth’ rules for certain practices—rules that must that was passed from one generation to the be enforced when potential or actual in- next, identically repeated on each occasion. fringement is detected. Insofar as the Bible The coincidence of scant public reading of page 78 The Bible and Systematic Theology

The pulpit at Durham Cathedral, where Simon Oliver is Canon. Simon Oliver page 79

Scripture in the liturgy of the late nine- the community of the church. teenth and early twentieth centuries and None of this is to deny the importance the ossifying, uncreative and mechanical of the individual scholarly reading and character of the theology in this period is study of the Bible, either in historical-crit- not coincidental. Indeed, one can deploy ical or theological mode. These are crucial an important distinction used by Philip enterprises in the discernment of truth. We Goodchild in his contribution to this col- should recognise, however, that the im- lection to understand how our reading of portance and authority of the Bible, and Scripture must remain creative by being therefore the importance of the many and also a shared hearing of Scripture. Philip various approaches to the study of the Bi- writes about goods of appropriation and ble that we enjoy today, rests fundamen- goods of participation. Goods of appro- tally on the way it is read and not simply priation are exclusively or individually on the fact that it is read or bought more owned and enjoyed, such as private prop- than any other book in the world. It is read erty. These are economically quantifiable aloud and heard communally in the body goods and they are mine or yours. Goods we call the church, and it is this Bible, not of participation are goods that are shared. the Bible bought in the local bookshop, to Such goods can be mine and yours, such which the systematic theologian attends as a public park or a school. In addition to for the source and goal of her enterprise. these, there are religious goods of action. By attending to the Bible as the church’s These are goods precisely in being given, Scriptures whose principal home is the lit- such as caring, attention or love. We only urgy and secondary home the library and have care if we give care. We give care, at- seminar room, systematic theology be- tention and love; they are relational goods. comes a creative action that is a response Jesus even implies that our very life is a to, and participation in, God’s creative and good of this kind: ‘For those who want to redemptive Word. save their life will lose it, and those who lose their life for my sake will find it’ (Matt. Further Reading 16:25). Insofar as the reading of the Bible • Hunsinger, George. The Word is Truth: Barth on Scripture. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2011. is private and silent, it risks being a good • Webster, John. Holy Scripture: A Dogmatic Sketch. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. of appropriation, by remaining primarily a • Candler, Peter M. Theology, Rhetoric and Manuduction, or written rather than spoken word. This was Reading Scripture Together on the Path to God. London: SCM Press, 2006. Plato’s concern with Phaedrus’s writing of • Ong, S.J., Walter J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Thirtieth Anniversary Edition. London: Routledge, 2012. Lysias’s speech: it had become a good of • Graham, William A. Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of appropriation that could be traded. Insofar Scripture in the History of Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge as the Bible is read aloud and heard com- University Press, 1987. munally, it is a shared good of participa- tion. It might also be understood as a good 1. Karl Barth, Church Dogmatics I/1, trans. G.W. Bromiley (Edin- burgh: T&T Clark, 1999), ch. 2, section 8, 304. that is ours only by being given, rather like 2. Hans Urs von Balthasar, Explorations in Theology: I. The Word the giving of a speech. To have a speech, Made Flesh, trans. A.V. Littledale with Alexander Dru (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1999), 11. we must give a speech because the audi- 3. Peter M. Candler, Theology, Rhetoric and Manuduction, or ence and context are part and parcel of that Reading Scripture Together on the Path to God (London: SCM Press, 2006), 6. See also Walter J. Ong, S.J., Orality and Literacy: speech. Maybe even to have Scripture in its The Technologizing of the Word (London: Routledge, 1982) and William A. Graham, Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects fullness, Scripture must be given in its oral of Scripture in the History of Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge and public reading within the context of University Press, 1987). Why The Bible Matters: Islamic Studies

here is a sense in which the Bible does not matter at all to Muslims and is of no interest for the study of Islam. Mainstream Islamic tradition has discouraged or T prohibited reading the Bible and has taken the Qur’an as the final and complete revelation, making earlier revelations superfluous. Moreover, Muslims maintain that Christians and Jews have either changed the very wording of their Scriptures or at least corrupted the pure monotheistic message they originally contained. It is Islamic doc- trine that God gave Moses the Torah, David the Psalms, and Jesus the gospel. However, Muslims do not find sufficient evidence to believe that the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament have transmitted those original revelations faithfully, and they maintain that the original gospel given to Jesus has in fact been lost. The four Gospels found in the New Testament are no more than accounts written by Jesus’ followers. They may contain some parts of the gospel revealed to Jesus, but one cannot know for sure.

he relationship of the Qur’an and Is- they believe that the story it tells is essen- lam to the Christian New Testament tial to God’s work brought to fullness in Tmay be compared to the relationship Christ. The fact that Jews and Christians of Christianity to the Jewish Tanakh or He- share a Scripture with its stories, wisdom, brew Bible. Historically speaking, Judaism and prophetic insights means that they and Christianity as we know them today have much in common. They can talk to- both emerged out of the variegated Jewish gether about the faith journey of Abraham religious environment found at the time and Sarah and the drama of Samson and of Jesus. Theologically speaking, howev- Delilah, and they can appreciate together er, Christianity comes after Judaism and the prophets’ calls for justice and the deep sees the New Testament message of Jesus psychological insights of the Psalms. Yet Christ as the completion of God’s prom- the Christian relationship with Judaism ises given in the Hebrew Bible. Christians remains ambivalent, because Christians thus read the Hebrew Bible as the Old Tes- and Jews disagree on the fundamental tament, preparing the way for the New, meaning of the Hebrew Bible and whether and the Hebrew Bible is an integral part it finds fulfilment in the New Testament. of the Christian canon of Scripture. Chris- Much as Christians confess to know tians cannot reject the Hebrew Bible since better what the Hebrew Bible means than

page 80 Why the Bible Matters: Islamic Studies Why The Bible Matters: Islamic Studies Jon Hoover

Jews, Muslims confess that good deeds—will have the Qur’an trumps both their reward before their MEET THE AUTHOR the New Testament and Lord. No fear will overtake the Hebrew Bible. How- them, nor will they grieve’ ever, Muslims go one step (Q. 2:62). Moreover, the further than Christians, by Qur’an refers to many sto- excluding all earlier texts ries, practices, and beliefs from the domain of author- familiar from the Bible and itative Scripture. Emerging late antique Christian and in the seventh century, Is- Jewish literature—to the lam comes after Christiani- point that some historians ty both historically and the- speak of a biblical subtext ologically—and the Qur’an to the Qur’an. Yet Muslims clearly refers to both Ju- have traditionally rejected daism and Christianity in the notion that the Bible, a way that the Bible could Judaism and Christiani- never have referred to Is- ty had any influence on lam. The Qur’an perceives the Qur’an or the Prophet itself as proclaiming the Muhammad, and Muslims same message as that given have not taken the Hebrew Jon Hoover is Associate to earlier messengers, such Bible or the New Testament Professor of Islamic Studies at as Moses and Jesus, and it into their canon of authori- the University of Nottingham. His sometimes regards Jews tative Scriptures. Instead, interests include Islamic theology, and Christians as having it is understood that the the history of Islamic thought, and equal access to God’s bless- Prophet Muhammad re- Christian-Muslim relations, and ings and rewards: ‘Truly, ceived the Qur’an directly he has published extensively on those who believe, those from God, without the me- who are Jews, the Chris- diation of the Bible or the the influential Muslim reformer tians, and the Sabians— Jews and Christians of that Ibn Taymiyya and his student Ibn whoever believes in God time. In Muslim doctrine, Qayyim al-Jawziyya. and the Last Day and does the Qur’an proclaims the

Jon Hoover page 81 page 82 Why the Bible Matters: Islamic Studies

same essential theological fact they had not. The text have explained this qur’an- message as the Bible and reads, ‘[The Jews] said, ic reference to Jesus’ death provides the final correc- “We have killed the Messi- differently: it applies to tive to all error found in it, ah, Jesus, son of Mary, the his dying a natural death but the Qur’an is in no way Messenger of God.” They after returning to earth dependent upon the Bible. did not kill him, nor did just before the final Day The fact that Muslims they crucify him, though of Resurrection—not to a have not adopted the Bi- it was made to appear like death during his earlier ble as part of their canon of that to them… they cer- time on earth. This tradi- Scripture means that they tainly did not kill him’ (Q. tional Muslim interpreta- need not try to reconcile its 4:157). Many a Muslim in- tion makes no attempt to stories with differing ac- terpreter has said that this reconcile the text with the counts found in the Qur’an. verse denies that Jesus died New Testament crucifixion In a simple example, the on the cross—God instead accounts. biblical account of Noah raised him to heaven di- Even though the Bible has all three of Noah’s sons rectly—and has suggested holds no religious authori- and their families board the instead that one of Jesus’ ty for Muslims and despite ark, and they are all saved disciples was made to look the widespread Muslim from the impending flood like him and was crucified conviction that the Qur’an (Gen. 7:13). However, the in his place. Christian read- and Islam owe nothing to qur’anic account says that ers of the Qur’an have not- the Bible, Muslims have still one of Noah’s sons refused ed that it also quotes Jesus found occasion to use the to enter the ark and thought as saying, ‘Peace be upon Bible, in a variety of some- that he could save himself me the day I was born, and times unexpected ways. by seeking refuge on a high the day I die, and the day I It is here that the Bible be- mountain; he of course am raised to life again’ (Q. gins to matter for Muslims drowned (Q. 11:42-43). For 19:33), and have argued and the study of Islam, and Muslims the qur’anic ac- that there is thus no rea- Muslim use of the Bible cer- count takes priority over son to deny Jesus’ death tainly constitutes an impor- the biblical version. on the cross, as the verse tant chapter in the history In another example, the affirms both Jesus’ death of the Bible’s reception and Qur’an does not say clear- and resurrection. It was, interpretation. The Qur’an is not always easy for readers today to Even though the Bible holds no religious authority understand, even for na- for Muslims and despite the widespread Muslim tive speakers of Arabic. conviction that the Qur’an and Islam owe nothing Nor was it easy to under- to the Bible, Muslims have still found occasion to stand for the early Muslim community either. This use the Bible in unexpected ways. created a demand for bib- lical lore—stories derived ly that Jesus died on the after all, the Romans who from the Hebrew Bible, cross. Rather, it accuses the carried out the crucifixion, the New Testament and “Jews of claiming that they not the Jews. Muslim com- especially later religious had killed Jesus when in mentators for their part writings of biblical inspira- Jon Hoover page 83 tion—to fill in the gap. Two early Jewish the modern period. Just before Zionism ush- converts to Islam, ‘Abd Allah ibn Salam ered in the state of Israel in 1948, a Muslim and Ka‘b al-Ahbar, were well known for commentator in Egypt named Abu Rayya knowledge of biblical traditions, while the labeled Ka‘b al-Ahbar the first Zionist, on most famous early Qur’an commentator, account of what was now seen to be his Ibn ‘Abbas (d. 686), apparently made liber- hideous attempt to undermine the Islam- al use of their traditions. Moreover, there was a saying narrated from the Prophet Muhammad permitting borrowing from Many Muslim Qur’an scholars the Jews. The Prophet is reported to have throughout the twentieth century said, ‘Transmit from me, even if only one worked to cleanse qur’anic commentary verse. And narrate [traditions] from the of biblical lore and interpret the Qur’an Children of Israel; there is nothing objec- only through itself. tionable in that’ (found in the hadith col- lection of Bukhari). The net result of this liberality toward biblical lore was that a ic religion. Many Muslim Qur’an scholars lot of it found its way into early commen- throughout the twentieth century worked “ tary on the Qur’an. With the passing of the to cleanse qur’anic commentary of biblical centuries, however, some Muslims grew lore and interpret the Qur’an only through increasingly ambivalent toward these sto- itself and traditions from the Prophet. ries; the medieval Qur’an commentator Ibn Even though most Muslims no longer Kathir (d. 1373) was one noteworthy critic. look to biblical lore to illuminate the mean- Ibn Kathir argued that Muslims should ing of the Qur’an, the Bible is still of con- rely solely on the Qur’an and traditions cern to them insofar as they encounter it in from the Prophet Muhammad to interpret interaction with Jews and Christians. For the sacred text, not on stories and legends readers of the Qur’an today, the ongoing borrowed from Jews and Christians. existence of Jews, Christians and the Bible One example will illustrate the point. The provide contemporary, even if inexact, an- Qur’an is not entirely clear about which alogues for the Qur’an’s numerous refer- son Abraham was commanded to sacrifice ences to them, and they continue to present (Q. 37:100-107). Was it Isaac, as Jews and many of the questions to which the Qur’an Christians contend on the basis of Genesis was responding 1400 years ago. If the Bi- 22:1-13, or was it Ishmael? Numerous tra- ble and those who read it as authoritative ditions were gathered in support of both Scripture no longer existed, the Qur’an views, and classical Qur’an commentators would lose much of its rhetorical force as a weighed up the evidence, sometimes in fa- dialogical and polemical text speaking to a vour of Isaac and sometimes in favour of sectarian religious environment. Ishmael. Ibn Kathir sought to put an end to The fact that Jews and Christians take this speculation by condemning the Jewish the Bible as authoritative and express their convert Ka‘b al-Ahbar as the source for all religiosity through it also challenges Mus- traditions supporting Isaac and by reinter- lims to read it and come to a view on its preting the Qur’an, and even the Bible itself, contents. Muslims have adopted several to support Ishmael as Abraham’s intended strategies in this regard. I will outline four, sacrifice. Ibn Kathir’s attack on Ka‘b al-Ah- two of which are dominant. The first is to bar reverberated through the centuries into demonstrate the corruption of the biblical page 84 Why the Bible Matters: Islamic Studies

An 11th century North African Qur’an in the British Museum. text, and the second is to find predictions ever, John reports that Andrew and Peter of the Prophet Muhammad in the Bible. followed Jesus before the arrest of John the The eleventh century Andalusian schol- Baptist, not afterward (John 1:35-42), and ar Ibn Hazm (d. 1064) adopted the first Luke reports that Jesus’ called them after strategy. He is well known for pointing out they had been fishing all night, not before alleged errors, contradictions and inappro- they were about to start out (Luke 5:1-11). priate claims to prove the corruptness of Ibn Hazm concludes from the differences the biblical text. He notices, for example, in these accounts that one or more of the that the four Gospels differ over Jesus’ first Gospel writers must have lied and that disciples Simon Peter and his brother An- the Gospels were written by liars. Beyond drew. Matthew and Mark report that Jesus highlighting contradictions of this kind, called these two disciples to follow him just Ibn Hazm complains that the Bible contains as they were about to cast their fishing nets unfulfilled prophecies (e.g., Jesus’ promise into the sea and after the arrest of John the that the disciples would see the Kingdom Baptist (Matt. 4:12-20; Mark 1:14-18). How- of God before they die in Mark 9:1), por- Jon Hoover page 85

rah that was revealed pre- and Christians but not the viously and bearing good rest of the text. news of a Messenger com- A third but less common ing after me whose name Muslim strategy for deal- is Ahmad [i.e. the Prophet ing with the Bible is to give Muhammad]”.’ Follow- it an Islamic interpretation. ing on from this, Muslims This approach allows that frequently interpret Jesus’ the biblical text may not promise of the ‘Comforter’ have been corrupted, but or ‘Advocate’ (paraclete) in claims that Jews and Chris- John 14:16, 26; 15:26; and tians have misinterpreted 16:7 to refer to the Prophet it. In this manner, the me- Muhammad, not the Holy dieval scholar Najm al-Din Spirit as Christians under- al-Tufi (d. 1316) wrote an stand it. Similarly, Muslims extensive commentary on have taken numerous texts various parts of Genesis, from the Hebrew Bible the prophetic books and to be predictions of Mu- the four Gospels in order to hammad’s coming, as in ‘correct’ Christian interpre- Deuteronomy 18:15 where tations. For example, al-Tu- Moses promises, ‘The Lord fi considers the expression your God will raise up for ‘God is with us’, found in you a prophet like me from the birth narrative of Christ among your own people.’ in Matthew’s Gospel (Matt. Some Muslims have also 1:23, quoting Isa. 7:14). claimed that Muhammad’s Al-Tufi accuses Christians name appears explicitly in of taking ‘God is with us’ Habakkuk 3:3 and 3:9. literally, to refer to Jesus It has often been ob- Christ as God incarnate, served that upholding the when they should rather trays an anthropomorphic corruption of the Bible is read it metaphorically. The God (e.g., God as a warrior incompatible with using sense in which God was in Exod. 15:3), and attrib- it to prove the coming of ‘with’ us in Christ was in utes wrongdoing to proph- Muhammad. If the Bible is Christ’s performing mira- ets (e.g., Jacob stole Esau’s corrupt, how can we know cles and in his command- birthright in Gen. 27). that its predictions of his ing and prohibiting what The second strategy, prophethood are reliable? God commanded and pro- that of finding the Proph- The fourteenth century hibited; God was with us et Muhammad predicted theologian Ibn Qayyim inasmuch as his messenger in the Bible, takes its cue al-Jawziyya (d. 1350) neat- was with us. Al-Tufi notes from the Qur’an 61:6, ‘And ly resolves this dilemma by a parallel with the interpre- when Jesus, Son of Mary, maintaining that God pre- tation of the Qur’an verse said, “O Children of Israel! served the predictions of ‘God is with you wherever I am the Messenger of God Muhammad from corrup- you are’ (Q. 57:4) which, to you, confirming the To- tion at the hands of Jews according to al-Tufi, means page 86 Why the Bible Matters: Islamic Studies

his massive Qur’an commentary. The Bible is not quite canonical for al-Biqa‘i, and he A fourth and perhaps more recent maintains the authority of the Qur’an over Muslim strategy for making sense of the Bible in case of difference. However, the Bible is to treat it as one form of he quotes long passages from the Hebrew revelation among the many in which Bible and the four Gospels to elucidate the one God has revealed the truths of parallel texts in the Qur’an, often to the ex- divine unity and transcendence. clusion of more traditional Islamic exeget- ical materials such as the biblical lore men- that God is our helper and protector, not tioned earlier and the traditions from the “that God in his very being is literally right Prophet Muhammad. For example, when next to us. the Qur’an first mentions the creation A fourth and perhaps more recent Mus- of Adam, al-Biqa‘i quotes the first three lim strategy for making sense of the Bible is chapters of Genesis. Al-Biqa‘i elaborates to treat it as one form of revelation among the long qur’anic narrative of Joseph by the many in which the one God has re- copying in the biblical story of Joseph as vealed the truths of divine unity and tran- well. He even uses the Bible as a source for scendence. This approach is found among ascertaining what Jews believe, and he is some Sufis, and a prominent proponent is fond of quoting the Ten Commandments, Seyyed Hossain Nasr (b. 1933), for whom as self-evidently divine revelation. the diverse religions vary in their outward Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328), a prolific theolo- forms but are one in their inner meaning. gian from Damascus, provides a different Thus, the fact that the Bible and the Qur’an but equally unusual instance of a Muslim differ and even contradict each other in finding an ally in Bible. In a treatise on their particulars simply reflects God’s God’s creation of the world, he turns to choice to manifest the single inner truth in Genesis 1:1-2 to show that his theological diverse forms. There is no substantive dif- position enjoys support well beyond the ference between the various religions and Muslim community. After citing the first revelations. verse of Genesis—‘In the beginning of the The four Muslim strategies just sur- matter, God created the heavens and the veyed share the same aim of giving bib- earth’—Ibn Taymiyya emphasises that lical texts an Islamic reading, in order to when God began to create the heavens and blunt and replace Jewish and Christian the earth ‘water was [already] covering interpretations that do not accord with Is- over the earth, and the wind was blowing lamic doctrine. However, Muslims have over the water’ (Gen. 1:2). As Ibn Taymi- not only read the Bible to neutralize an- yya saw it, God did not create the world tithetical interpretations of the text. They from nothing. The world as we now know have also, on rare occasions, turned to the it was created out of something else that Bible as an ally in their pursuit of Islamic existed beforehand. religious learning and even as a kind of in- That God created the world out of pri- dependent sacred text. meval chaos is a common interpretation Perhaps most noteworthy in this regard of Genesis 1:1-2 among biblical scholars is the eccentric medieval scholar al-Biqa‘i today, but in medieval times it was rare (d. 1480) who provoked considerable con- among both Muslim and Christian theolo- troversy in Cairo by quoting the Bible in gians. Christians from the early centuries Jon Hoover page 87 of the church argued that God’s creative one who does not create?!’ (Q. 16:17). activity had a beginning—it was impossi- Ibn Taymiyya turns to the Bible to cor- ble that the world extended back in time roborate his views on creation and does infinitely—and the Fourth Lateran Coun- so with the intention of showing the uni- cil enshrined this view as an article of faith ty of the three major monotheistic confes- in 1215. Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274) did sions—or at least their Scriptures—in af- allow that a good rational case could be firming God’s continuous creation of the made for the eternity of the world as well, world from eternity to eternity. This was but he ultimately found reason inadequate to resist the far more common view among to decide the matter. It must be taken on Ibn Taymiyya’s Muslim theological com- the authority of Genesis 1:1 that the world petitors that the world had a beginning. had a beginning. Most Muslim theologi- To sum up, the Islamic tradition has ans reasoned to the same conclusion, and usually discouraged or even banned read- some even condemned Muslim philoso- ing the Bible, but Muslims have nonethe- phers who argued for the eternity of the less found reason to engage it. The most world as heretics. Along the way, though, obvious reason has been to appropriate occasional voices wondered whether the the Bible into an Islamic frame of refer- Qur’an really said clearly that the world ence, so as to take the edge off Jewish and had a beginning. Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d. Christian readings of the text and firm up 1210), one of the sharpest minds the Is- an alternative Muslim doctrinal identity. lamic tradition has ever known, conclud- Yet Muslims also turn to the Bible occa- ed that neither reason nor revealed texts sionally to nurture their faith and support could decide the matter. The only thing their doctrine. Even though the Muslim that could be known for sure was that the relationship to the Bible is deeply ambiv- world depended on God for its existence. alent, the Bible does matter for Muslims Ibn Taymiyya was not so sceptical. The and the study of Islam, for without the Damascene Muslim scholar quotes Gen- Bible, it would be difficult to understand esis 1:1-2 to buttress a position on crea- what the Qur’an and generations of Mus- lim scholars have been responding to and tion that he had already come to on the seeking to set straight. Islam claims to be basis of qur’anic verses, such as ‘[God] a correction of corrupted biblical religion, created the heavens and the earth in six and, without the Bible, Islam would lose a days, and His Throne was on the water’ major constituent of its reason for being. (Q. 11:7). To Ibn Taymiyya this verse in- dicates the existence of water and God’s Throne prior to the creation of this world; there is, furthermore, nothing irrational Further Reading: or unscriptural about believing in crea- • Adang, Camilla. Muslim Writers on Judaism and the Hebrew tion without beginning. In fact, according Bible: From Ibn Rabban to Ibn Hazm. Leiden: Brill, 1996. • Demiri, Lejla. Muslim Exegesis of the Bible in Medieval Cairo: to Ibn Taymiyya it is profoundly rational Najm al-Din al-Tufi’s (d. 716/1316) Commentary on the Christian that God should create perpetually from Scriptures. A Critical Edition and Annotated Translation with an Introduction. Leiden: Brill, 2013. eternity. A God who only started to cre- • Hoover, Jon. ‘Perpetual Creativity in the Perfection of God: ate at some point in the past would have Ibn Taymiyya’s Hadith Commentary on God’s Creation of this World.’ Journal of Islamic Studies 15.3 (2004): 287-329. been imperfect prior to that. Rather, the • Lawson, Todd. The Crucifixion and the Qur’an: A Study in the History of Muslim Thought. Oxford: Oneworld, 2009. Qur’an speaks of creativity as essential to • Tottoli, Roberto. Biblical Prophets in the Qur’an and Muslim God’s perfection, ‘Is He who creates like Literature. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 2002. Why The Bible Matters: Jewish Studies

ver the past decades the concept of “Abrahamic religions” has gained significant traction, and Abraham is now presented as the spiritual forefather and symbol for O the elements that unite, rather than divide Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. New programs, chairs, and publications were called to life, as a growing community has rallied around the ecumenical symbolism of Abraham. Critical voices, of course, have also illus- trated how easy it is to dismantle this concept. The Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Abra- hams are such distinct characters that any meaningful attempt to give a precise definition of the term “Abrahamic” always excludes at least one of the main groups under consideration. Nevertheless, ‘Abraham’ serves as a powerful symbol. Like ‘the Torah’ or ‘Jesus’, Abra- ham is a key symbol for each of these religious traditions, allowing us to perceive their internal coherence. In sharing the biblical stories about Abraham—his departure from the idols of his father, the near-sacrifice of his son, his role as a forefather of the com- munity—the three Abrahamic religions have at least agreed on what to disagree on: the importance, and even the outline, of the biblical narrative. The Abrahamic debate is by no means new; deep disagreements about Abraham ex- isted already in Late Antiquity (a period covering the first to seventh centuries ce). True, Abraham is a figure that divides Muslims, Jews, and Christians from each other, as least as much as he unites them. Yet, rather than discarding the idea of ‘Abrahamic religions’, these disagreements reflect a deeper agreement—an interpretive framework, which may matter at least as much as the idea of any doctrinal overlap. This framework, to put it simply, is that the Bible matters.

The Qur’an and the ham’s universal relevance on the notion that he was ‘neither a Jew nor a Christian, Religion of Abraham rather he was a ḥanīf, a muslim’ (Q 3:67). The passage is not arguing that Judaism Let us first have a very brief look at what and Christianity would necessarily be in- Abraham meant in late antique interre- compatible with Abraham’s religion, but ligious discourse. The Qur’an provides a pointing out that the Israelites—and there- good starting point, as it marks the first by the Jews and the Christians—came af- reference to millat ʾibrāhīm, the ‘creed’ or ter Abraham. At the same time, the Qur’an ‘religion of Abraham’ (Q 2:135). Here and places itself into Abraham’s heritage. The elsewhere, the Qur’an predicates Abra- rabbis and the church fathers had turned

page 88 Why the Bible Matters: Jewish Studies Why The Bible Matters: Jewish Studies Holger M. Zellentin

Abraham into a rabbin- Qur’an’s ‘Abrahamic reli- ic and a gentile Christian gion’ remains in the sin- MEET THE AUTHOR figure, respectively; the gular—though this should Qur’an’s alternative was to not be understood as exclu- return to the biblical Abra- sivist. Elsewhere the Sūrat ham. Although the precise al-Baqarah emphasizes that meanings of ḥanīf and mus- Jews and Christians will lim are debated, muslim find God’s favour (Q. 2:62). seems to have developed The historical result of the from anyone who ‘sub- Qur’an’s ecumenical impe- mitted to God’ to someone tus, however, was not the accepting the propheth- end of the divide between ood of Muhammad, while Jews and Christians but ḥanīf likely designates a the formation of a new— monotheist who is neither or, in its own terms, the Jew nor Christian: a pious revival of a very old—re- person whose religious ligion: a religion that came Holger Zellentin (PhD Princeton practice predates and tran- to be partially predicated 2007) taught at Rutgers and in scends the historically con- on the incompatibility of Berkeley before joining Nottingham tingent sectarian strife of the meaning of Abraham in 2011. His interests range from Jews and Christians. The in these three traditions, in Hellenistic Judaism to Early Islam; Qur’anic Abraham is an at- addition to being open to his most recent publication is tempt to transcend the rifts further, internal schism. The Qur’ān’s Legal Culture: The among his followers. Didascalia Apostolorum as a Point Perhaps as the result Paul and the of its wording, as well as of Departure (2013). later development of the Faith of Abraham concept of the ‘religion of Abraham’, this ‘ecumen- The Qur’an was not the even transcended, previous ical’ attempt has not yet first to define an ‘Abraham- come to fruition. In con- ic religion’, nor the first forms of worship. In fact, trast to the contemporary to suggest that the faith the Qur’an quite closely fol- ‘Abrahamic religions’, the of Abraham included, or lows the Apostle Paul. In

Holger M. Zellentin page 89 page 90 Why the Bible Matters: Jewish Studies

his letter to the Romans, Paul interprets the Judaism that the later rabbis endorsed— biblical promise to Abraham (‘I have made though even these rabbis will agree to the you father of many nations’, Gen. 17:4) in- terms of the debate, with scriptural argu- clusively, emphasizing that this promise mentation focused on Abraham. In using temporally as well as causally predated the Scripture and Abraham as the ultimate ar- patriarch’s circumcision (which is short- biters of truth, Paul remains fundamentally hand for his legal observance). Paul argues, ‘Abrahamic’ in the modern sense. in fact, that Abraham received the sign of Paul’s argumentation from the Bible and circumcision as a seal of the righteousness his focus on Abraham mirror the Qur’an. that he had had, by faith alone, while he And, just like the Qur’an, Paul seeks a was still uncircumcised (Rom. 4:11). Paul’s kind of universalism, promising salvation Abraham, crucially, is a man of faith before to both Jews and to gentiles—seeking to he becomes a man of legal observance. establish a place for non-Jewish believers Paul’s emphasis on Abraham’s faith is in Jesus alongside the law-observing Jews. based on his reading of Genesis 15:6, quot- As with Islam, however, Paul’s inclusiv- ed in Romans 4:3: ‘For what does the Scrip- ism did not quite translate into practice: ture say? “Abraham believed God, and it rather, it led to the development of a gen- was reckoned to him as righteousness.”’ tile Christian religion that in most instanc- Genesis, it may seem, puts more emphasis es sought to exclude practising Jews from on faith than on circumcision. Yet neither its ranks. Soon the church fathers argued historians of ancient Judaism nor all ancient that the only way to follow Abraham was Jews would have agreed with this reading. to leave behind Judaism altogether; the Paul’s reading reflects the Greek Septu- Christian Abraham, just like the Muslim agint’s translation of a Hebrew term des- one, transformed from a symbol of inclu- ignating ‘trust’ (‘mn) with the Greek pis- sion into one of exclusion. tis, ‘faith’. The translation is not wrong, as such, but introducing the Greek concept The Talmud and the of ‘faith’ into the world of Judaism was at least as much of a change as was the claim Law of Abraham that the Messiah had arrived. For the rab- bis, ’mn designated trust and contractual The rabbis duly responded. As we have seen, Paul emphasized that the promise to Abraham was given because of his faith, Introducing the Greek concept of not his adherence to the law. The exclusivist ‘faith’ into the world of Judaism reading of Paul’s language permeated the was at least as much of a change Greek and Syriac (Aramaic) patristic dis- as was the claim that the Messiah cussions of late antiquity, to which the rab- had arrived. bis were clearly exposed. The rabbis, how- ever, read Genesis differently than Paul, pointing out that—regardless of the time of agreement, as it did in the Bible; the concept his circumcision—God states quite clearly of ‘faith’ only gained (limited) significance that he made his promise to Abraham, ‘be- “much later. Despite its biblical foundation, cause Abraham obeyed my voice and kept then, Paul’s emphasis on Abraham’s ‘faith’ my charge, my commandments, my stat- is a departure from the practice-focused utes, and my Torah’ (Gen. 26:5). By empha- Holger M. Zellentin page 91 sizing the Torah, the rabbis de-emphasize ‘faith’ without having to deny or even name The rabbis, their Christian the concept explicitly. Though they do not contemporaries and the Qur’an deny the value of faith, observance is more all share a Scriptural hermeneutic important. For them, Abraham was a rab- framework. Like Paul and the Qur’an, binic Jew. The Babylonian Talmudic schol- the Talmud sees Abraham as a central ar Rav is reported to have read the verse founding figure. from Genesis as indicating that ‘our father Abraham kept the whole Torah’ (Babyloni- the rabbis seem to begin with an explicit an Talmud Tractate Yoma, folio 28b), while exclusivism, squarely focused on God’s Rava, one of the most prominent scholars promise to Abraham and to his law-abid- “ evoked by the Babylonian Talmud, took the ing Jewish and rabbinic descendants. interpretation even further, interpreting the verse to mean that Abraham kept not only Christians and the the laws promulgated in the written Torah, but even those formulated by the rabbis Bible in the Talmud themselves—the legal tradition called ‘the oral Torah’ (which retained its name de- Do these rabbis thus deny the shared spite the fact that its results were eventually concept of an Abrahamic tradition? They committed to writing). do and they do not. The Tannaitic rabbis The disagreement between Christians whose words were recorded in the sec- and Jews is unmistakable: the Talmud ond and third century ce saw a real po- teaches precisely the opposite of what the tential for the salvation for all humankind, Christians taught, and both parties intro- as long as the gentiles kept a few simple, duce Late Antique concepts into their read- ‘Noahide’ commandments. This open- ing of Genesis. Muslims were of course ness slowly diminished among the Amo- equally prone to such hermeneutics, yet it raic and later rabbis, whose words were is hard to disagree with the Qur’an’s charge recorded from the fourth century ce on- that both Jews and Christians were (mis-) wards, and who shaped the Talmudic Ju- reading Abraham in light of what divided daism normative in the Middle Ages. Yet, them, neglecting their shared biblical basis just as anti-Islamic, anti-Christian, and in the process. Yet the apparent disagree- certainly anti-Jewish exclusivism was (and ment hides their underlying agreement: remains) a potential consequence of the the rabbis, their Christian contemporaries universalism in the Christian and Muslim and the Qur’an (which was beginning to Scriptures, the potential for interreligious circulate right after the final edition of the debate—the agreement on what to disa- Babylonian Talmud) all share a scriptural gree on—remains a potential implication hermeneutical framework. Like Paul and of the Talmudic rabbis’ exclusivism. the Qur’an, the Talmud sees Abraham as As with the other Abrahamic religions, a central founding figure, whose actions Scripture was the basis on which these should guide the adherents of any Abra- rabbis engaged with contemporary Chris- hamic religion. In contrast to Saint Paul tians, just as it was the basis on which later and the Qur’an, however, whose inclusiv- Jews would engage with Muslims. For the ist arguments for an oikumene of Jews and rabbis, then, the Bible matters. Indeed, the gentiles faded in subsequent generations, Babylonian Talmud—with exquisite iro- page 92 Why the Bible Matters: Jewish Studies ny—teaches that the Bible mattered more do not study it carefully.” for those rabbis living under Christian They said: “Will you then tell us [the rule in Late Roman Palestine than for the meaning of the verse]?” rabbis of Mesopotamia who authored the He said: “I will tell you a parable. To Babylonian Talmud. In the Tractate Avodah what can this be compared? To a man Zarah, folio 4a, this Talmud tells the fol- who is the creditor of two persons, one lowing story, touching on Jewish-Chris- of them he loves, and one of them he tian relations, the difference between rab- hates; of the one he loves he will accept binic learning and knowledge of scriptural payment little by little, whereas of the interpretation, and the difference between one he hates he will exact payment in Palestinian and Babylonian Judaism: one sum!”’

‘R(abbi) Abbahu praised R(av) Sa- One rabbi (the Palestinian Rabbi Abbahu) fra to the heretics, as if he were a great has commended the learning of another man. They exempted him from paying rabbi (the visiting Babylonian Rav Safra) taxes for thirteen years. to certain ‘heretics’, who hold the power of One day, [the heretics] found him taxation. In recognition of his learning, the [i.e. Rav Safra]. They said to him: heretics exempt Safra from taxes. But, after “It is written: ‘You only have I known finding out that he cannot answer a basic from all the families of the earth; there- scriptural question, these heretics begin to fore I will visit upon you all your torment Rav Safra. Abbahu then explains iniquities’ (Amos 3:2). Does one who that he had commended Safra because he has a vicious horse make it attack his knows (Tannaitic) rabbinic teaching—not friend?” because he knows the Bible. Abbahu then But [Rav Safra] was silent and could explains the scriptural verse himself; since give them no answer; [the heretics] he lives among the heretics, he has stud- wound a scarf round his neck and tor- ied the Bible and knows how to explain mented him. They said: “Give us the this-worldly suffering as a sign of divine taxes for thirteen years!” favour and vice versa. R. Abbahu came and found him (i.e. It is not difficult to discern the identity of Rav Safra). He said to [the heretics] the ‘heretics’: the story presupposes an ad- “Why do you torment him?” vanced stage in the Christianization of Ro- They said: “And have you not told us man Palestine, after Constantine the Great. that he is a great man? He cannot ex- The story portrays these Christian ‘heretics’ plain to us the meaning of this verse!” as pursuing an Abrahamic line of reason- He said: “I may have told you [that he ing: they exempt a Jewish rabbi from taxes was learned] in Tannaitic teaching; did I because he purportedly knows Scripture. tell you [he was learned] in Scripture?” Yet this inclusivism comes to a sudden halt They said: “How is it then that you when this investment fails to yield a return, [pl.] know it?” that is, knowledge of the Torah. He said: “We [i.e. the Palestinian rab- But why does this episode from the Tal- bis], who find ourselves in your [pl.] mud portray the Babylonian rabbis, its own midst [i.e. among the heretics], set our- sages, as deficient in Scripture? The answer selves the task of studying it thorough- to this question—and a fuller appreciation ly, but they [i.e. the Babylonian rabbis] of the story—lies in its historical context. Holger M. Zellentin page 93

The Talmud in Context the midst of the ‘heretics’. (The Aramaic word employed by the Babylonian Tal- The Babylonian Talmud was edited be- mud for ‘heretic’ was originally used to tween the fifth and seventh century ce in designate several groups deviating from ‘Babylonia’ (the rabbis’ name for Sasanian rabbinic teaching, but after Constantine it Persia), in the area around modern Bagh- developed to designate Christians more dad. Although it preserves older tradi- specifically.) At the time when the Babylo- tions, recent scholarship privileges its edi- nian Talmud was edited, then, it was the torial and decidedly Persian context for its Christians who were responsible for tax- interpretation. So, while this story is set in ation in Roman Palestine and it was the Palestine at the turn of the fourth centu- Christians who had the power to torment ry ce, it is much more reflective of a later a visiting Babylonian rabbi who did not time, after the rise of Christianity in the share their definition of Abrahamic reli- Roman Empire. gious learning. Whatever the immediate The story’s perspective is that of the historical value of the story’s narrative, it Babylonian exile. Babylonian Jews largely shows us that the Babylonian rabbis knew kept to themselves, without interacting on that Christians ruled Palestine, that these a daily basis with the large Christian com- Christians interacted with rabbinical Jews, munities of Mesopotamia. By contrast, the and that they engaged in scriptural her- Jews of Palestine were increasingly con- meneutics. The story’s Christians, and the fronted with the reality of the ongoing Talmud in which they appear, identify the Christianization of the Roman Empire. Bible as the shared terrain on which these The Palestinian rabbis lived, as it were, in groups meet.

This detail from the Menorah in front of the knesset in Jerusalem shows the Torah accompanying her people into exile. page 94 Why the Bible Matters: Jewish Studies

A Literary these prophecies to be pertinent to Jews of later times. In Amos, God warns the Israel- Analysis of the Story ites that their privileged relationship with him comes with heightened responsibil- The Talmud’s sense of the influence of ity, with punishment should they trans- geo-political and cultural factors on the gress. The Christians’ citation of the verse rabbis and on their religious practice can is anything but innocent: they are asking feel almost postmodern. Its way of ex- the rabbi what this privilege is actually pressing itself, however, remains decided- worth, if it only leads to punishment (‘one ly Talmudic. As is common in this litera- who has a vicious horse, does he let it at- ture, the story is marked by the repetition tack his friend?’). The charge is common of keywords, in this case, ‘to find’. The throughout Late Antiquity; for example, story starts out with a Palestinian rabbi se- the Qur’an (in Q 5:18) levels it against both curing an apparent privilege (exemption Jews and Christians. In the Talmud, the from taxation) by fostering interreligious Christians ask why God would let disas- dialogue. Then, however, the Christians ters—such as the destruction of the First ‘find’ Rav Safra and question him—and and especially of the Second Temple— the plot takes a turn for the worse. Abba- befall the Jews if they were his ‘friends’? hu then ‘finds’ Safra under duress—and Their implicit answer is that the Mosaic things begin to improve. In the denoue- covenant has ceased to matter (even that ment, Abbahu explains that the Palestin- it may not have been worth much to be- ian rabbis ‘find themselves’ amongst the gin with). To this, Safra—even though his Christians and therefore must learn Scrip- name ironically evokes the heavenly sefer, ture; he uses his learning to justify Jewish the holy Book—has no answer and, in or- suffering in history. With all this ‘finding’, der to drive home their point about Jew- the story acknowledges the historical and ish suffering and Christian triumphalism, geographical situatedness that defines the Christians demonstrate the meaning rabbinic Judaism, pointing to the remark- of Christian power and Jewish impotence able variance between Palestinian and by tormenting the rabbi. Safra’s ‘scarf’ is a Babylonian rabbinic learning: Babylonian distinctly Babylonian headdress reserved rabbis exclusively study Talmud, whereas for distinguished scholars; in our story the Palestinian rabbis also study Scripture. Be- scarf marks Safra’s ethnic identity even in tween the lines, the story thus manages to the satorial realm—now turned into a sym- combine a polemic against the Christians bolic element of torture. The episode, with with a reflection on the status of Scripture remarkable audacity and openness, thus in Judaism. portrays a Babylonian rabbi as not only The story’s polemic is straightforward. failing but as entirely incapable of meeting The Christians are portrayed as the ag- the challenged posed by Christian scrip- gressors, asking Rav Safra about Amos tural hermeneutics. Is not the Christians’ 3:2. In the Bible, this verse occurs amidst a success a sign of divine approval? Many series of warnings, in which Amos proph- church fathers, and many Christians, sure- esies the Israelites’ impending punish- ly saw it thus. ment. While the historical Amos mainly The story’s dramatic effect, of course, addressed the northern kingdom of Isra- begins rather than ends here. Abbahu el, later Jews and Christians understood intervenes by explaining that Palestini- Holger M. Zellentin page 95 an rabbis (like himself) whereas the Christians, are well versed in Scrip- distracted by their Roman ture, because they are fre- triumphalism yet hated quently faced with similar by God, will be faced with Christian challenges—un- painful judgement. The like Babylonian rabbis like Christians are mistaken, Rav Safra. Abbahu then both in their anti-Jewish explains the verse from reading of Scripture and in Genesis through a simile, For their naïve equation of his- a narrative device as com- Abbahu torical reality with divine mon in the Talmud as it is the Jews, intent. The Talmud de- in the New Testemant and velops this interreligious loved by God, will in later Christian, Jewish, argument on the basis of have paid their and Muslim literature. The the very scriptural herme- story’s use of “debt” im- debts, whereas neutics it shares with its agery, moreover, may iron- the Christians, Christian opponents. At ically invert Jesus’ simile distracted by their the surface, then, the sto- about debt in Luke 7:40-50. Roman triumphalism ry is as ‘Abrahamic’ as it is Abbahu, in his simile, uses “yet hated by God, polemical. one of the core arguments will be faced with Yet that is not all there is. of Talmudic theodicy: that painful judgment. Beneath the surface, there the righteous (those whom The Christians is a truely Abrahamic ac- God ‘loves’) suffer in this are mistaken, knowledgement of the val- world so as to do pen- both in their anti- ue of Scripture and thereby ance for any of their minor Jewish reading of of the Jewish-Christian en- transgressions. They are Scripture and in counter. This is present in the ones from whom the their naïve equation the story in a more under- creditor recalls its loan ‘lit- hand way; it is harder to of historical reality tle by little’—and they will assess than the polemical with divine intent. then stand blameless on surface. judgment day. The wicked The Talmud develops To the Western and (those whom God ‘hates’), this interreligious Christian eye, the Talmud’s by contrast, are made to en- argument on the basis portrayal of Rav Safra may joy the fruits of this world, of the very scriptural already seem self-critical: in order to reward them hermeneutics it shares he represents the ‘Eastern’, for their minor (or even ac- with its Christian Babylonian rabbinic tradi- cidental) acts of kindness. opponents. tion not only to the world Already repaid for their of Christian Palestine but good deeds in this world, also to ‘Western’, Palestin- they will stand entirely ian Judaism. His failure guilty on judgment day, seems to portray the Bab- when their debt is recalled ylonian rabbinic academy ‘in one sum’. For Abbahu in a poor light. The Baby- the Jews, loved by God, lonian Talmud is indeed will have paid their debts, capable of self-criticism, page 96 Why the Bible Matters: Jewish Studies

The Cave of Machpelah in Hebron - the traditional burial place of the Patriarchs. Initially built by Herod the Great, the building over the caves has served as a synagogue, mosque, and church. yet its self-criticism is doubly mitigated— general terms it does not clearly endorse it concerns the Talmud itself, rather than this ‘scriptural turn’ as religiously mean- Rav Safra. This self-criticism is also coated ingful, or even desirable: while the study in interreligious polemics; the Christians of the Bible may unearth some theologi- may read the Bible, but this will not help cal truths about judgement day or about them on judgement day. Rav Safra’s lack Jewish-Christian relations and God’s pro- of ability, on the other hand, has to be un- clivities, the study of the Talmud remains derstood in the context of Babylonian rab- paramount. binic culture, in which study of the Torah Nevertheless, the story has the poten- is generally ranked far lower than study of tial to challenge the Talmud’s preference the rabbinic tradition. for rabbinic learning. Reading the story Rav Safra is thus anything but a buf- in its broader literary context shows that foon. To the contrary, his learning is fit for the sugya (the legal-literary dispute in the heavenly academy—simply not for the which we find the story) in its entirety is needs of survival in Late Roman Palestine. a reflection on the relationship of the To- Rabbi Abbahu’s scriptural teachings have rah to non-Jews, with a special emphasis their value in interreligious polemics, but on judgement day. This story functions as matter less in the pure realm of the Bab- the fulcrum of the entire sugya; reading it ylonian rabbinic academy. The Talmud in this context allows us better to assess thus acknowledges that living amongst the story—and perhaps to conclude by ac- Christians will shift the emphasis of Jew- knowledging Abbahu’s ‘Abrahamic’ debt ish learning towards the Bible, but in to the heretics, after all. Holger M. Zellentin page 97

The Story’s study and keeping of the The destruction of the Torah—for both Jews and Temple—and thereby the Literary Context gentiles. Its main image is question of Jewish suffer- that of God, ‘the Holy One, ing and theodicy—is never The Talmud is, by and blessed be He’, who ‘will far from the mind of the large, a commentary on take a scroll of the Torah sugya’s rabbinic ‘authors’. the Mishna (the rabbis’ le- in His embrace and pro- Wondering why the Per- gal code dating from the claim: “Let him who has sians would pursue the early third century ce). We occupied himself with her same weak line of argu- find our story on the fourth [the Torah] come and take mentation as the Romans, folio of the Talmud’s trac- his reward”’ (Avodah Za- after having seen them fail, tate Avodah Zarah (‘Foreign rah 2a). Had the gentiles the Talmud explains that [Idolatrous] Worship’), accepted the Torah, their the Persians ‘will say to and this literary context reward would have (at themselves: “The Romans should guide our reading. least in theory) been high: have destroyed the Temple, The law under discussion ‘a worshipper of stars [i.e., whereas we have built it”’ when our story is told a pagan] who studies the (Avodah Zarah 2b). The sug- treats commercial interac- Torah is equal to a High ya here ostensibly speaks tions with pagans in the Priest’ (Avodah Zarah 3a). about pagan Rome—but three days preceding one But the pagans never did does it also consider the of their festivals. The issue accept the Torah. The sub- christianized Roman Em- is that such transactions sequent discussion depicts pire, the Romans’ ‘Abra- might brighten the pagans’ the tension between idola- hamic turn’, as our story mood at the festival, leav- try and Torah study, paral- does? The question of how ing the Jew who has dealt leling in broad outline the much the Talmud reflects with them guilty of sup- topics of our story about the Christianization of the porting their idolatrous ‘Roman’ Christianity. One Roman Empire is hotly de- activity. The Talmud’s passage depicts how the bated—we will return to subsequent discussions Roman and the Persian this question momentarily. are broadly reflective of Empire—the two nations After claiming unsuc- the topic of idolatry—and whose ‘reign will last till cessfully to have helped idolatry is of course the the coming of the Messiah’ Israel study Torah, the na- ultimate charge against (Avodah Zarah 2b)—will be tions shift their defence, de- Christianity. Yet Talmudic judged at the end of time. claring that they were not discussions meander like Both nations claim that given the Torah and thus a river, proceeding by top- their urban development they could not keep it. But ical association as much as and even their military the sugya rejects this claim, systematic legal inquiry. exploits have been ‘only illustrating, by way of bib- The lens through which for the sake of Israel, that lical prooftexts, that the this sugya reflects on the they might occupy them- nations were offered the pagans is their relation- selves with the study of Torah but declined it—and, ship to the Torah, discuss- the Torah’, but God rejects moreover, that they failed ing the merits of ‘busying this ludicrous defence, first to keep even the most basic oneself with the Torah’— from the Romans and then commandments, whereas encompassing both the from the Persians. Israel (by and large) kept page 98 Why the Bible Matters: Jewish Studies

the Torah. (In stark contrast, the Christians piecemeal. God is said to put it in the fol- in our story have accepted the Torah—a cru- lowing words: cial point to which we will return.) Finally “When I judge Israel, I do not judge them as I do the idolaters concerning Though the Talmud does not idealize whom it is said, I will overturn, overturn, Israel’s actions, it emphasizes God’s overturn it (Ezek. 21:32) but I only exact indulgence towards its people. The theme payment from them as the hen does her of divine punishment eventually leads picking.” Another explanation: “Even to a discussion of Israel’s piecemeal if Israel does before Me but few good punishment already in this world. deeds at a time, like hens picking in a rubbish heap, I will make it accumulate to a large sum, as it is said, though they and most pertinent for our story, we learn pick little they are saved (Job 30:24).” “that God himself studies Torah daily—even before judging the world: Remarkably, God compares first himself to a hen, when he metes out punishment, Rav Judah said in the name of Rav: ‘The then Israel—likening their good deeds to day consists of twelve hours; during the the few morsels of food a hen manages to first three hours the Holy One, blessed find in a heap of rubbish. The rubbish pile be He, sits down and occupies Himself is Israel’s evil deeds: though the Talmud with the Torah, during the second three does not idealize Israel’s actions, it empha- He sits in judgment on the whole world, sizes God’s indulgence towards its people. and when He sees that the world is so The theme of divine punishment eventual- guilty as to deserve destruction, He ly leads to a discussion of Israel’s piecemeal transfers Himself from the seat of Jus- punishment already in this world. This is tice to the seat of Mercy. the context in which the sugya finally tells the story of Rabbi Abbahu and the heretics. This passage, then, paints a slightly differ- Our story’s literary context, then, is a ent picture of the image of God sitting in discussion of the value of busying oneself the heavenly study house and discussing with the Torah. This closely reflects the law with the rabbis: God ‘busies himself topic treated in our story, with the story— with Torah’, the study of His own ‘writ- especially Abbahu’s interpretation—thus ten’ Scripture, at least as much as with the functioning as a fulcrum of the entire sugya, ‘oral’ Torah of the rabbis. The Talmud’s encapsulating and recasting its overarching general emphasis on rabbinic learning of message: Israel is punished incrementally, course comprises the study of the Torah while the gentiles are punished all at once. itself. This highlights the one blatant discrepan- The sugya then further considers the cy between the story and its context: where- value of ‘busying oneself with the Torah’, as the pagans in the sugya have rejected the which leads to the topic of how Israel and Torah, the Christian heretics in the story the nations will be judged. The guiding have accepted it. The sugya is not coy in de- line here is that the punishment of the na- picting the doom that awaits the Romans at tions will be immediate, swift, and com- the end of times, with its explicit depictions plete, whereas Israel’s punishment will be continuing a rabbinic discourse established Holger M. Zellentin page 99 well before the Christianization of the Em- vitriol in certain contemporary ‘scriptural’ pire. But how are we to understand this, if discussions, on the internet and in public, the Romans have accepted the Torah in the far exceeds that of Late Antiquity. None of meantime—even if not quite in a manner the texts discussed openly advocates the acceptable to the rabbis? ideal of a true co-existence of Abrahamic The sugya’s ambivalence towards Rome religions. Yet, the Qur’an, Paul’s letter to the reflects the rabbis’ ambivalence towards the Romans and the early rabbinic literature Christianization of the Roman Empire—an all point to the possibility of co-existence, ambivalence which is expressed in quite and all contain teachings that can easily be Abrahamic terms. On the one hand, the developed into a more inclusive approach sugya as a whole continues to depict Rome that goes further than simply defining the as pagan (a charge also reflected in Byzan- rules of engagement. Even the Talmud, the tine patristic polemics against the continu- most openly exclusivist of the texts here ities between pagan and Christian Roman discussed, contains much that remains practice). On the other hand, the story very relevant to the contemporary Abraham- much presupposes that the Roman Chris- ic impulse. In the Talmud’s appreciation tians ‘busy themselves with Torah’ and are of Christian scriptural learning—however eager to learn its meaning. This challenges mitigated, underhand, and reluctant—we the entirety of the sugya’s arguments about can still see the basis for a fundamental ac- Rome! It seems that for the Talmud, the ceptance by the rabbis that both they and Christians are heretics not only in name: the Christians had decided that disagreeing the presence of this story in this sugya im- on Scripture is what would henceforth bind plies that there is a real difference between the two traditions to each other. This link pagan and Christian Rome. has become only stronger, as a third scrip- The sugya as a whole undoubtedly em- tural tradition has joined the fray—and the phasizes scriptural learning more than family. other passages in the Talmud—and it does so in a specifically Abrahamic exchange. It would be too much to claim that the phe- nomena are co-dependent; we cannot say that the appreciation of Scripture here is a direct result of reflections on the Roman turn to Scripture. Yet we can say the shared hermeneutical basis of Christians and Jews—and later also Muslims—constitutes a remarkable platform of interreligious de- Further Readings bate. • Bakhos, Carol. The Family of Abraham: Jewish, Christian, and What might we learn from all this? We Muslim Interpretations (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014). may state that the value of such debates is • Levenson, Jon Douglas. Inheriting Abraham: The Legacy of the always determined by the goals of the par- Patriarch in Judaism, Christianity & Islam (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012). ticipants; the history of Jews, Christians and • Levine, Lee I. ‘Rabbi Abbahu of Caesarea.’ Pages 56-75 in Muslims strongly suggests that religious Christianity, Judaism and Other Greco-Roman Cults: Studies for Morton Smith. Edited by J. Neusner. Leiden: Brill, 1975. and cultural proximity do not necessarily • Rubenstein, Jeffrey. The Culture of the Babylonian Talmud. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003. translate into mutual appreciation. This was • Zellentin, Holger M. Rabbinic Parodies of Jewish and Christian as true in Late Antiquity as it is now; the Literature. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011. The Bible And English Literature

hen the orphaned child, Jane Eyre, is interviewed by the alarming Anglican cleric, Mr Brocklehurst, he tests her religious knowledge: W ‘“Do you read your Bible?” “Sometimes.” “With pleasure? Are you fond of it?” “I like Revelations, and the Book of Daniel, and Genesis, and Samuel, and a little bit of Exodus, and some parts of Kings and Chronicles, and Job and Jonah.” “And the Psalms? I hope you like them?” “No, sir.” “No? Oh, shocking! I have a little boy, younger than you, who knows six Psalms by heart: and when you ask him which he would rather have, a ginger-bread-nut to eat, or a verse of a Psalm to learn, he says: “Oh! The verse of a Psalm! Angels sing Psalms,” says he; “I wish to be a little angel here below.” He then gets two nuts in recompense for his infant piety.” “Psalms are not interesting,” I remarked.’1

n 1847, when Charlotte the lion’s den, Jonah swal- terrupted marriage would Brontë’s novel Jane Eyre lowed by the whale, the have been bigamous, as Iwas first published, the many adventures of King her husband has a mad child Jane’s biblical knowl- David in the historical book wife locked up in the attic, edge—shown here as so 1 Samuel. The only book in it is to the Psalms that she extensive—was quite nor- the New Testament she en- has recourse to express her mal. Jane would have been joys is that technicolour vi- agony of mind and sense made to learn whole chap- sion of a cosmic battle in the of desolation: ‘the waters ters off by heart and her en- Revelation of St John. With came into my soul; I sank in tire worldview would have this love of exciting story, deep mire: I felt no stand- been shaped by the biblical it is not surprising that for ing; I came into deep wa- stories. Indeed, she prefers a nine year old the psalmic ters; the floods overflowed the narrative sections of hymns are just not inter- me’.2 She quotes freely here the Old Testament and the esting. The irony of this is from Psalm 69:2. most exciting, not to men- that when the adult Jane From Jane Eyre we can be- tion gory stories: Daniel in faces the fact that her in- gin to see how and why the

page 100 The Bible and English Literature The Bible And English Literature Alison Milbank

MEET THE AUTHOR Alison Milbank is Associate Professor of Literature and Theology in the Department of Theology and Religious Studies at the University of Nottingham, where she teaches on many aspects of religion and culture. She is the author of Daughters of the House: Modes of the Gothic in Victorian Fiction (1992), Dante and the Victorians (1998), Chesterton and Tolkien as Theologians (2007), For the Parish: A Critique of Fresh Expressions (2010).

Bible matters for literary productions. Jane arching narrative itself—from creation in sees her whole life as shaped by biblical sto- Genesis, through the history of the Jewish ries such as the Exodus, in which the Jewish people, to prophecy, then in the New Testa- people escape slavery in Egypt. In the same ment to the life of Christ and the adventures way, Jane will escape Mrs Reed’s domestic of his followers, concluding with the end of tyranny. Like Joseph escaping the embrace time in Revelation and the creation of a new of Potiphar’s wife in Genesis, Jane will flee heaven and earth. Jane’s own story moves the adulterous arms of a seducer. She will like this meta-narrative, so that Revelation be tried like poor, long-suffering Job and structures the final chapters of the novel. have a wilderness experience, fasting like Her cousin, St John Rivers, is a kind of John Elijah, before finally being fed by God’s the Divine, who not only preaches from grace. Even the Psalms, attributed to David, Revelation 21 and 22’s descent of the heav- offer a narrative that shapes her life-story— enly bride and the establishing of a New Je- from despair to hope and praise. The Bible, rusalem, but calls Jane to make it come true moreover, is ordered by Jewish and later by travelling with him to be a missionary Christian arrangement to pattern an over- in India. She refuses his loveless marriage

Alison Milbank page 101 page 102 The Bible and English Literature and finds Rochester again, now blinded the Sundays when ordinary games were by his attempt to save his mad wife, chas- not played in devout homes! Novels right tened and widowed. Revelation becomes up to Cormac McCarthy’s post-catastrophe the key text in which the characters at this novel, The Road (2000), depend implicitly point contest the relation of body to soul. St on this internalization of the biblical jour- John wants only the soul; Rochester earlier ney. Certainly it lies behind Daniel Defoe’s had seemed to desire a sinful, purely bodi- Robinson Crusoe (1719)—who is captured, ly union. Now, tempered by suffering, Jane shipwrecked, and then saved from despair and Rochester enjoy an anticipation of the by his discovery of a whole pile of Bibles union of body and soul in the New Jerusa- in the hold of the wrecked ship. Victorian lem on earth. So it all comes full circle, as novels often quote from Pilgrim’s Progress the adult woman and the young Jane both overtly, such Charles Dickens’ Oliver Twist privilege ‘Revelation’. (1838), which is even subtitled, in imitation Most literary critics miss this contesta- of Bunyan, as ‘The Parish Boy’s Progress’. tion of biblical interpretation in Jane Eyre, One can therefore understand the novel because they do not inhabit the Bible as as a sort of continuation of the biblical story, Brontë’s Victorian readers would have in the life of a later follower of Christ seeking done. In the nineteenth century readers to imitate his story—as is appropriate for a were soaked in biblical narrative, alert to faith based on the person of Jesus. Chris- even the most indirect reference. Indeed, tian belief is itself expressed in the form of a the novel form developed in the eight- narrative: the Apostles’ and Nicene Creeds, eenth century as itself a kind of secularized which begin with the glory of the life of the Scripture. John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress Godhead and the act of Creation, followed (1679) had taken the idea of a journey to the by the story of the Son’s taking on human heavenly city by the believer and turned existence, dying and rising to new life, cul- the Bible into a topography through which minating in his return to heaven. Just as the the protagonist, Christian, must travel. Jewish believer is formed as it were by the Psalm 23, ‘The Lord is my shepherd,’ pro- story of Exodus, recalled yearly at Passover, vides the central geographical features of so the Christian performs, albeit imperfect- ‘green pastures,’ ‘still waters’ and ‘the val- ly, the life of Christ—descending into the ley of the shadow of death’ through which deathly waters of baptism to be reborn and Christian must journey. That seductive but united to the Saviour. illusory market of desires, the ‘Vanity Fair,’ The Bible for Christians therefore is a is an actualization of the ‘all is vanity’ of kind of play script—so it is no accident that the wisdom books, such as Ecclesiastes. drama in Christian medieval Europe also Christian too must face a hill like Golgotha develops directly out of Scripture. Medie- where Christ was crucified. val drama is often said to have begun in the What Pilgrim’s Progress achieved was a context of worship. The Christian Eucharist unified biblical narrative, which merged (Holy Communion) is already a perfor- different books and centred on the life of an mance, as the last supper of Christ with his individual. Every literate home would have disciples is re-enacted to draw present-day had a copy and there were also versions for worshippers into the action. On Easter children, including one by the BBC’s ‘Un- morning, the gospel account of the wom- cle Mac’ as late as the 1950s. There were en encountering the empty tomb of Christ also wall charts and even board games, for came to be not just read but acted out at Alison Milbank page 103

Salisbury Cathedral, with various acolytes drama brought the stories alive, being per- holding incense thuribles to represent the formed by one’s neighbours in contempo- sweet-smelling oils being brought to anoint rary dress and, like modern pantomimes, the body. What made it dramatic was the bringing the audience into the action. One fact that they did not process in a straight can be sure that the Devil, or Herod about line but wandered from side to side as if to massacre the Bethlehem infants, were searching for the missing body. A cleric thoroughly booed and hissed. Again, the in a white alb acted the part of the angel biblical story was one in which the contem- at the tomb and exchanged dialogue with porary Christian found an interpretation of the ‘women’. This was a continuation of the his or her own life, especially as characters dramatic reading of the Passion story from were not idealized but often treated with the Gospels performed on Palm Sunday, considerable humour. with different monks or clerics taking the Although the Protestant Ref- various parts of Pilate, Jesus, the ormation put an end to these crowd, and so on. mystery plays, especially Out of these practices as many of them told there developed the The Bible for stories of the saints, most lively tradition we know that they of whole commu- Christians therefore is were still being nities enacting performed in cycles of biblical a kind of play script— William Shake- plays, either in so it is no accident that speare’s youth. church or out- drama in Christian The comic side, often on “ ‘mechanicals’ carts. This can medieval Europe also who put on the still be seen classical play today in York develops directly out of of Pyramus and or Chester, two Scripture. Thisbe with much cities whose play slapstick in Shake- scripts still survive. speare’s A Midsummer Such cycles began Night’s Dream (c.1590- with Creation, like the Bible, 7) are probably a memory and ended with the Last Judgement and of local amateurs putting on a biblical Revelation. They were performed main- play, in which men would play the female ly by amateurs, with guilds (professional parts in exactly the same way that Flute associations) taking responsibility for in- plays Thisbe, with the same comic inten- dividual plays. So vintners, for example, tion. Although the theatre became secular might take on the Marriage at Cana from in the Elizabethan period, biblical plays John’s Gospel, in which Jesus turned water remain implicit in the stage: with its up- into wine, whilst carpenters enacted No- per part (formerly for God and the heav- ah’s Ark and the crucifixion was offered enly court), the middle stage for human by nail-makers. What is interesting is how action, and the opening to a pit (formerly such a practice made the work itself partic- the mouth of hell). Christopher Marlowe’s ipate in the action and be seen as partici- Doctor Faustus (1604) still has guardian an- pating in the biblical story. At its best such gels and tempting devils like the medieval page 104 The Bible and English Literature

Detail from the exterior of the Duomo in Milan depicting Jael killing Sisera (Jud. 4): the ‘muscularity’ of the King James translation of this passage inspired Charlotte Brontë’s writing in Villette. plays, but instead of a biblical narrative, as Now, at this time, Marlowe’s early au- such, the play turns upon biblical interpre- dience would have heard the Bible in tation. Faustus is a polymath who has ex- English every Sunday and many of them hausted all subjects, so he tries out theolo- could read it for themselves. Bibles were gy. He picks up a Bible and reads: also chained to the lectern in church, so that anyone could come in and read if he The reward of sin is death: that’s hard. had no Bible of his own. Even the illiter- [Reads.] ate would hear these words, from the First Si peccasse negamus, fallimur, et nulla Letter of John, read at Morning Prayer on est in nobis veritas; Sunday: ‘If we say that we have no sin, we If we say that we have no sin, we de- deceive ourselves, and there is no truth in ceive ourselves, us’. The priest, however, would continue and there is no truth in us. Why, then, to verse nine: ‘if we confess our sins he is belike we faithful and just to forgive us our sins and must sin, and so consequently die: to cleanse us from all unrighteousness’. Ay, we must die an everlasting death. Similarly, ‘the reward of sin is death’, from What doctrine call you this, Che sera, Romans 6:23, continues: ‘but the gift of sera, God is eternal life’. What will be, shall be? Divinity, adieu! So Faustus was a bad reader of Scripture, who failed to read on and see that sin and From these two verses, Faustus thinks the wrath were not the end of the story. With- Bible condemns him and gives up theology. out that biblical knowledge, the play loses Alison Milbank page 105 its irony for the modern 4) takes its title from Scrip- into a rich reading and re- reader or playgoer. The ture: sponse; the reader without whole crux of the play is that knowledge reads only whether Faustus can repent Be ye therefore mer- flatly. The very first poem or not: it engages debates ciful, as your Father we have in our literature about the freedom of the also is merciful. Judge is Caedmon’s hymn, from will, predestination, and not, and ye shall not be Bede’s Ecclesiastical History, the nature of God’s grace— judged; condemn not, which is a paraphrase of the all of which depend upon and ye shall not be con- biblical narrative of crea- interpretation of biblical demned; forgive and ye tion. From the seventeenth texts. Without that biblical shall be forgiven… for century metaphysical po- dimension, it is not really a with the same measure ets like Donne and Herbert tragedy at all and does not that ye mete withal, it to Eliot, Auden, Seamus involve the audience. For shall be measured to Heaney, and Geoffrey Hill what Faustus decides to you again (Luke 6:36- today, our poetry is inflect- do once he thinks there is 38). ed with biblical reference. no hope in Divinity is call But it is easy to miss. Here, up demons and attempt to It is a play about justice for example, is a sonnet gain longevity of life and and mercy, which also has from the Monna Innominata power over the world that analogies to the parable of (‘unknown lady’) sequence way, as well as heavenly the vineyard of Mark 12, of love songs by Christina knowledge. Towards the in which a vineyard owner Rossetti, the Victorian poet: end of the play he also be- leaves stewards to look af- comes an anti-Job. The bib- ter his property. They mis- Thinking of you, and lical Job never quite curses use his property and even all that was, and all God and his life, despite en- enact violence on his son, That might have been during appalling suffering; just as Angelo misuses his and now can never be, Faustus curses everyone authority over Vienna’s cit- I feel your honour’d ex- and everything. The orig- izens in the Duke’s absence. cellence, and see inal audience would have Measure for Measure is one Myself unworthy of the seen a grim humour in the of the most problematical happier call: biblical reversal. of Shakespeare’s plays, but For woe is me who Similarly, Shakespeare’s it makes much more sense walk so apt to fall, plays are also awash with when seen in the context of So apt to shrink afraid, biblical allusions and, in- the Bible as a debate about so apt to flee, deed, the life of Christ be- justice and mercy. Apt to lie down and die comes a model for Richard Poetry most of all is a (ah, woe is me!) II at the very point at which mode of expression that Faithless and hopeless he loses his crown. Shake- loses out from an igno- turning to the wall. speare enacts a kind of rance of biblical allusion. And yet not hope- passion play at this point, It is often so compressed less quite nor faithless thus interrogating how far that echoes are piled upon quite, the monarch should be a echoes. The biblically liter- Because not loveless; kind of Christlike servant. ate reader picks these up love may toil all night, Measure for Measure (1603- intuitively and takes them But take at morning; page 106 The Bible and English Literature

wrestle till the break ‘fall’, comes at what is called the ‘volta’ or Of day, but then wield power with God ‘turn’—when a sonnet breaks to turn back and man:— on itself in a fresh insight, here signalled by So take I heart of grace as best I can, ‘and yet…’ in the next line. The image that Ready to spend and be spent for your follows, of the love wrestling, may seem sake.3 puzzling, unless one recognises another biblical narrative: the wrestling of Jacob The poem is replete with biblical echoes. with the angel in Genesis 32:24-30. They For example, the simple phrase, ‘woe is fight until dawn; Jacob will not let the angel me’ is itself a biblical phrase, occurring in (often interpreted as God himself) go until Job, Psalms, Jeremiah and Isaiah. Isaiah 6:5 he has been blessed by his opponent, who is perhaps the most celebrated reference: also gives him a new—and blessed—name: ‘Then said I, Woe is me! for I am undone; Israel. So love will fight and never give up, because I am a man of unclean lips, and I gaining a blessing from the struggle. Love dwell in the midst of a people of unclean will bring hope to the hopeless, just as God lips: for mine eyes have seen the King, the did to the fugitive Jacob (who will go on LORD of hosts.’ Read against this sense of to meet and be reconciled with his brother unworthiness at the sight of God himself, Esau in the next chapter). The speaker’s in- the woman poet’s distress becomes specif- ternal struggles are re-interpreted as signs of hope and blessing. One other reason why the Bible matters for English literature is its own status as a So love will fight and never give up, literary work. The Authorised Version, or gaining a blessing from the struggle. ‘King James Bible’, of 1611 was used un- Love will bring hope to the hopeless, til recently as the main Bible for worship just as God did to the fugitive Jacob. and public declamation, as well as indi- vidual reading. It is still in extensive use among conservative Christians in the Unit- ic and expresses her sense of missing and ed States, as well as in Britain in services being unfit for the ‘happier call’ of sexual using the Anglican Book of Common Prayer. love, which she sees as the way God is me- This translation kept much of the direct, “diating himself to her life. homely poeticism of William Tyndale’s ‘Turning to the wall’ has become prover- translations of the New Testament (1526) bial but originates in the distress of King and parts of the Old Testament (1530s). It Hezekiah in 2 Kings 20:2. When the proph- added its own literary techniques to make et announces he is soon to die and must a translation of incomparable dignity and ‘set his house in order’ (another phrase beauty, particularly shaped towards pub- that has entered common discourse), Heze- lic recitation. The translation revising com- kiah ‘turned his face to the wall’. We use mittees would read each section aloud to the phrase to mean giving up, which is each other, thinking always about balance how the poem employs it—a ‘faithless and of phrasing and length of breath, so that hopeless’ action. And yet Hezekiah did not the reader finds the text easy to shape and give up: he prayed to God and was, in fact, find the right emphasis. The present writer granted longer life. Similarly, the blank- recalls that primary school children found ness of ‘wall’, rhyming inexorably with no difficulty in using the King James Bible Alison Milbank page 107 as a text for nativity plays as late as the icant that the use of the Bible here allows 1960s, whilst the Prayer Book Society still a strength and violence of expression that sponsors a yearly competition for children would hardly else have been acceptable at to read aloud from it. the time. Therefore, as well as being shaped by the This is true also in the present. Accord- stories of the Bible, the writer of the past ing to Marilynne Robinson, the Bible is a was formed also by the style, cadences, huge ‘well of special meaning’ for liter- and imagery of the King James Version. ature. Her own fiction, including Gilead The earthy directness and muscularity of (2004), Home (2008) and the recently-pub- Charlotte Brontë’s style is a good exam- lished Lila (2014) is biblical in its rhythms, ple. Here, a depressed and lonely English use of the present tense, and ideas. But teacher in Villette is speaking: we are all, whether we realise it or not, steeped in biblical language. ‘A labour of I did long, achingly, then and for four love’, for example, comes from 1 Thessa- and twenty hours afterwards, for lonians 1:3; ‘signs of the times’ from Mat- something to fetch me out of my pres- thew 11:3; ‘by the skin of my teeth’ from ent existence, and lead me upwards Job 19:20; and ‘broken heart’ from Psalm and onwards. This longing, and all of a 34:18. Note how these phrases are descrip- similar kind, it was necessary to knock tive and even metaphorical. Those of us on the head; which I did, figuratively, who use the English language, however after the manner of Jael to Sisera, driv- secular we may feel, are indebted for the ing a nail through their temples. Un- way we talk and write to the Bible. Indeed, like Sisera, they did not die: they were it keeps our increasingly abstract language but transiently stunned, and at inter- ‘earthed’ in the poetic and the homely. In vals would turn on the nail with a re- that sense alone, it matters—not just for bellious wrench: then did the temples poets and writers, but for us all. bleed, and the brain thrill to its core.4

The story to which Lucy Snowe, the speak- er, alludes is one of the heroic and often violent legends of the Book of Judges. Sis- era had oppressed the Israelites for twenty Further Reading years when he was defeated at the Battle of • Frye, Northrop. The Great Code: The Bible and Literature. Cam- Mount Tabor. He fled to Jael’s tent, where bridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1987. she first welcomed him with a bottle of milk, • Hass, Andrew, David Jasper and Elisabeth Jay, eds. The Oxford Handbook of English Literature and Theology. Oxford: Oxford then killed him as the enemy of her people: University Press, 2007. she ‘went softly unto him, and smote the • Knight, Mark and Thomas Woodman, eds. Biblical Religion and the Novel, 1700-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006. nail into his temples, and fastened it into • Hamlin, Hannibal and Norman W. Jones, eds. The King James the ground’ (Judg. 4:21). Stylistic features Bible after Four Hundred Years: Literary, Linguistic and Cultural Influences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Brontë shares with the King James Bible are the inversion of words (‘four and twenty’; 1. Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre, ed. Q. D. Leavis (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983 [1847]), Chapter 4, 65. ‘then did’), direct, physical language (as in 2. Brontë, Jane Eyre, Chapter 26, 324. ‘knock on the head’), and chiastic structure 3. Christina Rossetti, Poems and Prose, ed. Jan Marsh (London: Everyman, 1994), 234. (words or syllables in an a-b-b-a pattern as 4. Charlotte Brontë, Villette, ed. Tony Tanner (Harmondsworth: in ‘temples bleed/brain thrill’). It is signif- Penguin, 1985), Chapter 12, 176. Does the Bible Matter for Music?

he Bible is a text imbued with music from start to finish. Music first appears in the Hebrew Bible in Genesis 4:21 with reference to the figure of Jubal, in connection to the origins of professional music (Jubal ‘was the father of all who play stringed in- T 1 struments and pipes’). The significance of music is then emphatically underscored at the height of Israel’s glory within the biblical narrative. Not only are the great kings David and Solomon celebrated for their own musicianship (e.g., 1 Sam. 16:14-23; 1 Kings 4:32), but the magnificent musical traditions of Solomon’s Temple are traced back to Davidic origins (e.g., 1 Chron. 16, 25; Neh. 13:45). In addition, songs of thanksgiving to God punctuate the biblical narrative of salvation history—a fact recognised in the rabbinic tradition of listing the ten great songs of Israel’s history, beginning with the Song of Moses and Miriam at the Red Sea, celebrating redemption from Egypt (Ex. 15:1-21), and ending with the new song to be sung at the coming of the messiah (cf. Isa. 42:10ff.; Pss. 33, 40, 96, 98, 144, and 149).

Music in the Bible When we turn to the New Testament we see that it is framed by musical references in addition to the canonical backdrop of The centrality of song in Israel’s tradition is the music of the Old Testament. The an- also highlighted in relation to the despair nouncement of the birth of Jesus is cele- of exile. In Psalm 137 the Israelites’ captors brated with Mary’s song in Luke 1:46-55 demand that they ‘sing… one of the songs (the ‘Magnificat’), while Revelation pre- of Zion’, to which they reply, ‘how could sents a ‘new song’ that envelops heaven we sing the Lord’s song in a foreign land?’ and earth in praise—not only of God, but (vv. 3b-4). The very presence of the Psal- also of Christ the Lamb enthroned along- ter within the Hebrew Bible is testimony side him (Rev. 5:9-14; 14:3). This provides to the wider significance of singing within a key aspect of a biblical theology of mu- in it: the Psalms demonstrate that singing sic, in which singing provides a means of has a distinctive role within the overarch- participation in the perfected praise of the ing biblical theme of the relationship be- renewed creation. tween God and his people, even if it is not Critical study of the New Testament always clear how the Psalms were actually from the late nineteenth century onwards performed in historical liturgical practice. has demonstrated that, the closer one looks

page 108 Does the Bible Matter for Music? Does the Bible Matter for Music? Peter Watts

at various aspects of the in early Christian commu- biblical text in relation to nities through the prac- MEET THE AUTHOR their contemporaneous tice of liturgical singing.2 culture, the more the music Therefore, while the New of the Bible can be ‘heard’. Testament is somewhat re- This is evident in the iden- served on the topic of the tification of hymnic ele- music-making of the ear- ments within the Pauline liest Christians—with the epistles and their connec- exception of a handful of tion to early Christian litur- references to musical prac- gical music practices. In the tices such as Ephesians 5:19 case of the Old Testament, (cf. Col. 3:16)—the prece- songs are very often clearly dent of the Jewish tradition delimited from their narra- of music, combined with tive contexts even if the ter- the identification of hymnic minology of singing is not fragments within the New present (e.g., Num. 21:17; Testament, point to the Judg. 5:1-31; 1 Sam. 2:1-10). Christian community be- In the New Testament, ing ‘born in song’,3 with the only Luke and Revelation singing of psalms and other employ hymn-like direct songs providing a key con- Peter Watts is the director of the speech (e.g., Luke 2:13-14; tribution to the formulation Faculty of Arts Foundation Year at Rev. 4:8b). It is neverthe- of Christian doctrine. the University of Nottingham and less probable on the ba- was previously Teaching Associate sis of their style, syntax Music, Worship in Biblical Studies. and vocabulary that texts His PhD research focussed on the such as Philippians 2:6-11 and Theology ‘new song’ in the book of Revelation (the so-called ‘Philippian and he is currently investigating the hymn’), Colossians 1:15-20 It may also be said that the use of the Bible in various forms of and 1 Timothy 3:16 draw Bible is at the heart of the popular music. on traditional material, musical life of both Juda- developed and passed on ism and Christianity. The

Peter Watts page 109 page 110 Does the Bible Matter for Music? hymns contained in the biblical text and its played an important role in the Reforma- wider references to music-making contin- tion.5 Even today, the debate surrounding ue to inspire the use of music within these the atonement theology of the popular traditions. Take, for example, the Magnifi- hymn ‘In Christ Alone’ (2002),6 written by cat and the Nunc Dimittis, which are part Keith Getty and Stuart Townend, hinges on of the sung liturgy of a number of Chris- its relation to the biblical texts. tian traditions and which draw their texts directly from the New Testament (Luke Biblical Music beyond 1:46-55 and 2:29-32 respectively). These well-known musical examples provide Worship just a glimpse of the many examples of the direct relationship between the Bible and Beyond the liturgy of Judaism and Christi- the music of communities that hold the anity, perhaps the most well-known use of Bible to be sacred. It is hardly surprising, the Bible in music is the genre of the biblical then, that the Bible matters for Christian oratorio. For many, the words ‘For the Lord and Jewish music! God omnipotent reigneth’ will evoke their Before I turn to the significance of the Bi- setting by Handel, in the ‘Hallelujah Cho- ble for music more broadly, however, it is rus’ of his Messiah (1741). This most famous worth considering the fact that music mat- of choral works—which has made singers ters for the Bible. It matters because singing and audiences alike commit the words of provides a primary means of dissemina- the Authorised Version’s translation of Rev- tion of and engagement—both intellectual elation 19:6 to memory—was composed for and spiritual—with the text among faith the concert hall. The Passions of Bach (St communities. This is an idea that finds its John Passion [1724] and St Matthew Passion basis in the Bible itself, whereby the second [1727]) have become something of a ‘cross- ‘Song of Moses’ (Deut. 32:1-43) is intended over’ genre, becoming familiar works be- to be memorised—or taken to heart—as yond their intended ecclesiastical setting, a ‘witness’, in order that Moses’ words whilst other popular biblical oratorios such might be remembered and heeded by fu- as Joseph Haydn’s The Creation (1798) and ture generations (see vv. 44-47). So too in Felix Mendelssohn’s Elijah (1846) ensure the New Testament: Paul refers to the sing- that the words of the Bible are frequently ing of ‘psalms, hymns and spiritual songs’ heard in secular contexts. (Eph. 5:19) in the context of thanksgiving The use of biblical texts in the twenti- to God. In a largely illiterate society—or eth century may be seen in the success of one with limited access to texts, as was the musicals intended for the theatre, such as case in first century Christianity—biblical- Stephen Schwartz’s Godspell (1971) and ly-based hymnody had (and still has) an Tim Rice and Andrew Lloyd Webber’s im- important role to play. mensely popular Joseph and the Amazing In fact, this has continued to be a signif- Technicolor Dreamcoat (1968) and Jesus Christ icant part of ecclesiastical life. The work of Superstar (1970).7 To some extent, these are the well-known hymn writers Isaac Watts heirs of the biblical oratorio. The Bible has (1674-1748) and Charles Wesley (1707-1788) also been source and inspiration for a range provides good evidence of this,4 and their of classical compositions, including Arthur own hymnody is dependent on the ground Honegger’s Le Roi David (1923), Stravin- provided by Luther’s biblical hymns, which sky’s Symphony of Psalms (1930) and Bern- Peter Watts page 111 stein’s Chichester Psalms (1965). This pattern of bib- The Bible functions as a commonly accessible lically-inspired works con- tinues in the present day in resource—in various times and places foundational for many different groups of people— the work of Arvo Pärt (b. 1935) and James Macmillan that deals with the most fundamental aspects (b. 1959), among others. of human life. The ‘canon’ of western classical music, then, in- Dawkins, in The God Delu- tion in theological discus- cludes many examples sion.10 So, then, the first rea- sion—academic and pop- where biblical texts and son that the Bible matters ular alike.12 In heavy metal themes are central, even if “ for music, beyond the rela- music there is a pervasive the music was not (explic- tion between the two with- use of biblical imagery itly) intended for religious in religious traditions, is connected, in particular, 8 purposes. But to what ex- because the Bible has been to Satan and the Apoc- tent does the Bible matter in influential for so much alypse—exemplified in this regard? What can be music. A fuller under- Iron Maiden’s ‘Number of said about the significance standing and appreciation the Beast’ (1982).13 Indeed, of the use of the Bible in of such compositions is to some of the most explicit the music of the theatre or be gained from becoming biblical references and al- concert hall? conversant with their un- lusions in popular music in There has been much derlying biblical texts; bib- recent years can be found recent discussion of play- lical illiteracy is a barrier to within this genre. Biblical wright Tom Stoppard’s heightened appreciation of influences are evident even expression of frustration biblically-inspired music. in the names of bands such about what he can expect as Black Sabbath, Judas of contemporary theatre Priest, Lamb of God, and audiences. Stoppard says The Bible in Rotting Christ. he hesitates to use particu- Contemporary I am not about to argue lar literary references and here that these various allusions, because he fears Popular Music songs and bands, which that theatregoers will not each draw in some way recognise and understand Despite the regularly on the biblical texts, have them, and even suggests lamented decline in bibli- the same artistic merit as that contemporary audi- cal literacy, references to the canon of classical mu- ences are worse than their the Bible can still be heard sic referred to above—that 1970s counterparts in this in the popular music com- is a debate for another regard.9 Appreciation of posed today.11 Boney M’s context! One reason why various forms of art lad- ‘By the Rivers of Babylon’ the Bible features in all en with biblical allusions (1978) is a well-known ex- of these types of music, is impoverished without ample, with its direct ci- however, is that the Bible a knowledge of the bibli- tation of Psalm 137, while functions as a common- cal texts. This argument the use of the Bible in the ly accessible resource—in is made—perhaps un- songs of Bob Dylan and U2 various times and plac- expectedly—by Richard has received much atten- es foundational for many page 112 Does the Bible Matter for Music? different groups of peo- tion after generation in the ple—that deals with the Psalter, the most famous of Mumford and Sons performing at most fundamental aspects songbooks. In this way the the Teatro Romano in Verona. of human life. In the case Bible remains a culturally of heavy metal, the Bible significant repository of provides a developed and the expression of the range recognisable mythology of the emotions of humani- of evil. In the case of U2, ty in relation to one anoth- biblical texts contribute to er, as well as in relation to the articulation of deeply God.15 personal experiences. It is unsurprising, for exam- A Brief Case ple, that the Psalms are frequently drawn on in Study: U2’s songs (e.g., ‘Gloria’ Mumford and [1981], ‘40’ [1983], ‘The Unforgettable Fire’ [1984], Sons ‘Love Rescue Me’ [1988], ‘Magnificent’ [2009]), be- One of the most successful cause they epitomise the bands of recent years—in breadth of human expres- terms of both record sales sion on offer in the bibli- and critical reception—ex- cal texts. As John Witvliet hibit a clear biblical influ- suggests, the Psalter con- ence on their lyrics: Mum- veys, “the whole range of ford and Sons have risen human emotion, from de- to worldwide success on spondent sorrow (Psalm the back of their albums 88) to ecstatic joy (Psalm Sigh No More (2009) and 47 or 48), from ravaging Babel (2012), to the extent guilt (Psalm 51) to pro- that they can be credibly found gratitude (Psalm labelled ‘the biggest band sic and lyrics cannot be so 136). In Calvin’s famous in the world’.16 Their rap- neatly divided like this in phrase, the Psalms are ‘the id ascent is difficult to ex- reality). Their songs are anatomy of the soul’.”14 plain on the basis of their saturated with literary There is no need for the musical style alone, which, quotations and allusions, biblically literate U2 to re- with its folk-influenced el- including John Steinbeck invent the wheel when it ements, represents an un- (e.g., ‘Dust Bowl Dance’) comes to composing lyrics usual sound at the top of and William Shakespeare concerning war and peace, the charts (even if there (e.g., ‘Sigh No More’) as love and death. Instead has been something of well as the Bible. ‘Roll they draw on the experi- a folk revival in recent Away Your Stone’, for ex- ences of those who have years).17 It may, however, ample, not only uses the gone before them, whose owe much to their lyrical biblical language of grace songs have been carefully sophistication (though, of but does so through allu- preserved through genera- course, the impact of mu- sion to the famous parable Peter Watts page 113

of the ‘Prodigal Son’ of Luke 15:11-32: giveness, mercy and grace in the Gospel of Luke. This provides just a brief example It seems that all my bridges have been of the way that the songs of Mumford and burnt, Sons have the potential to offer something But you say that’s exactly how this to the listener that depends on the extent grace thing works, of their knowledge of and engagement It’s not the long walk home that will with these biblical intertexts. change this heart, A basic definition of what gives a song But the welcome I receive with the re- value—so that it might be considered a start. ‘good song’ whether it is deemed ‘high’ or ‘low’ art, ‘classical’ or ‘popular’—hinges Here the band’s lyricist and singer, Mar- on the song’s ability not only to resonate cus Mumford, expresses an aspect of a per- with the emotions of the listener but for its sonal relationship in a way that creates an words and music to facilitate new insight ‘intertextual’ link to Jesus’ parable of for- into the listener’s own situation. This is page 114 Does the Bible Matter for Music? surely one of the reasons that the careers of and Sons represents a thirst for music that Bob Dylan and U2 have extended over mul- attempts to deal with fundamental ques- tiple decades. It is likely that Mumford and tions of humanity’s purpose—even in re- Sons’ music will have a similarly enduring lation to the divine—and that the ‘re-dis- appeal, because they tackle the most pro- covery’ of biblical ideas in the context of found of human themes—not in the indi- popular music would be well received.18 vidualistic manner of other contemporary On the one hand, then, the Bible contin- popular music, but in relation to the repos- ues to matter for the appreciation of music, itory of literary expressions of these themes but it is possible that drawing on biblical available through ‘canonical’ literature of texts may offer an inspirational spark for various types, especially the Bible. the creation of new and profound expres- On a more theological note, it is also sions in song of age old themes, at the possible that the popularity of Mumford heart of human nature.

Further Reading John R. Tyson, Assist Me to Proclaim: The Life and Hymns of Charles Wesley (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008); on hymnody • Dawn, Maggi. The Writing on the Wall: High Art, Popular Culture in general see further J.R. Watson, The English Hymn: A Critical and the Bible (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 2010) and Historical Study (Oxford: OUP, 1999). • Dowling Long, Siobhán and John F. A. Sawyer. The Bible in 5. Examples include ‘Ein feste Burg’ (based on Psalm 46) and Music: A Dictionary of Songs, Works and More (Lanham, MD: ‘Vom Himmel hoch’ (based on Luke 2:1-20); see e.g. Christo- Rowman & Littlefield Education, 2015) pher Boyd Brown, Singing the Gospel: Lutheran Hymns and the • Exum, J. Cheryl. Retellings: The Bible in Literature, Music, Art and Success of the Reformation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Universi- Film (Boston, MA: Brill, 2008) ty Press, 2005). • Sawyer, John F.A. (ed.). The Blackwell Companion to The Bible 6. See e.g. www.christiantoday.com/article/presbyterian.church. and Culture (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006) usa.drops.in.christ.alone.from.hymnal/33599.htm • Stern, Max. Bible & Music: Influences of the Old Testament on 7. Ian Bradley, You’ve Got to Have a Dream: The Message of the Western Music (Jersey City, NJ: KTAV, 2011) Musical (London: SCM Press, 2004), 28-9, refers to these as ‘the mighty trinity’ of biblical musicals and suggests that ‘Tim Rice and Andrew Lloyd Webber have arguably done more than 1. Susan Gillingham, ‘The Arts: Architecture, Music, Poetry, most priests and preachers in the last 30 years to promote Psalmody,’ in John Barton (ed.), The Biblical World, vol. 2, biblical knowledge and awareness’ inasmuch as they have ‘at (London: Routledge, 2002), 53-74 [61], suggests that, ‘[t]he the very least introduced scriptural characters and themes Genesis passage shows that music was considered among the to thousands of young people who might otherwise have most ancient of occupations in Israel, even more so before largely been unaware of them.’ the advent of poetry and song.’ Even before this aetiological 8. While numerous further examples could be cited, it is worth reference, however, there are possible musical overtones in noting that the definition of ‘music’ here is essentially limited the very opening chapter of Genesis, which Gordon Wenham to that of ‘song’. It is primarily ‘logocentric’ music, namely refers to as a ‘hymn’ (Genesis 1-15 [Waco: Word, 1987], 10) in music in which words are a primary component, where the relation to the wider discussion of its possibly poetic nature relationship between the Bible and music can be seen most (see e.g. Walter Brueggemann, Genesis: A Bible Commentary for clearly. Nevertheless there are also a number of examples Teaching and Preaching [Atlanta: John Knox, 1982], 27). where the influence of the Bible on instrumental music in 2. Note that the identification of these texts as ‘hymns’ (in- various ways is apparent, and in each case a greater knowledge cluding the question of the appropriate terminology in this and understanding of the biblical texts can lead to a greater respect) and their relationship to the singing of the earliest understanding and appreciation of the piece of music. So, Christian communities remain a topics of much debate. for example, Iain G. Matheson begins his article, ‘The End of For contrasting viewpoints see Richard N. Longenecker, Time: A Biblical Theme Messiaen’s Quator,’ in Peter Hill (ed.), The ‘Christological Materials in the Early Christian Communi- Messiaen Companion (London: Faber and Faber, 1995), 234-48, ties,’ in Longenecker (ed.) Contours of Christology in the New by asking ‘[c]an music engage with the Bible in any way other Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005), 47-76, and Ralph than the mere setting of its texts and stories?’ and constructs Brucker, ‘‘Songs’, ‘Hymns’, and ‘Encomia’ in the New Testament?’ an affirmative answer in relation to Messiaen’s, Quartet for the in Clemens Leonhard and Hermut Löhr (eds.), Literature or End of Time (Quatuor pour la fin du temps; 1941). Compare also Liturgy? Early Christian Hymns and Prayers in their Literary and James Macmillan’s 2012 work Woman of the Apocalypse (Rev. Liturgical Context in Antiquity (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014). 12), which the composer himself describes as a ‘sort of tone 3. Ralph P. Martin, Worship in the Early Church (London: Marshall, poem … divided into five sections, each with a title referring Morgan & Scott, 1964), 39. This position is also supported by to some aspect of the image or narrative’ (St. John Passion [Lon- reference to the extra-biblical evidence of Pliny (Epistles 10.96) don: Boosey & Hawkes, 2007]). For another way in which the who writes in the early second (c. 112 ce) about the Christian Bible has had a significant influence on classical music, in this practice of singing hymns to Christ as to a God. case opera, see Richard Bell, Wagner’s Parsifal: An Appreciation 4. Take for example Watts’ ‘Joy to the World’ (based on the ‘new in the Light of his Theological Journey (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, song’ Psalm 98) or ‘O God our Help’ (based on Psalm 90). 2013), e.g. 117-118: ‘Wagner lived in the world of Luther… read On Watts see e.g. Graham Beynon, Isaac Watts: His Life and his Bible translation and his writings, and thoroughly immersed Thought (Fearn: Christian Focus, 2013); on Wesley see e.g. himself in this world of God and grace.’ Peter Watts page 115

The Choir and Organ at Southwell Minster, Nottinghamshire.

9. See www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/thea- for this wonderful collection of songs and prayers expresses tre-news/11398015/Tom-Stoppard-I-have-to-dumb-down- the heart and soul of humanity. … In them [the Psalms] the jokes-so-the-audience-can-understand.html. writers pour out their souls expressing the whole range of hu- 10. Richard Dawkins, ‘Religious Education as a Part of Literary Cul- man experience, their inmost feelings, desires, fears, concerns, ture’, in The God Delusion (London: Black Swan, 2007), 383-7. perplexities and uncertainties.’ 11. Listen, for example to BBC Radio 4’s 2011 documentary, ‘Pop 15. Ironically, however, there is in effect a ‘canon’ of more transito- Goes the Bible’ and see www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/ ry popular music that itself forms a shared cultural repository rockandpopfeatures/8958436/Radio-4s-Pop-Goes-the-Bible- relating to the fundamental aspects of humanity. On this how-pop-found-religion.html basis one bishop has recently called for the Beatles’ lyrics 12. See e.g. Deane Galbraith, ‘Drawing our Fish in the Sand: Secret (and other popular songs) to be used to explain the Bible; see Biblical Allusions in the Music of U2,’ Biblical Interpretation 19.2 www.telegraph.co.uk/news/religion/3223193/Beatles-songs- (2011): 181-222; Christian Scharen, One Step Closer: Why U2 as-likely-to-explain-Christianity-as-the-Bible-says-bishop. Matters to Those Seeking God (Grand Rapids: Brazos, 2006); Mi- html; see further Clive Marsh, ‘‘Theology as Soundtrack’: Popu- chael J. Gilmour, Tangled Up in the Bible: Bob Dylan & (London: lar Culture and Narratives of the Self,’ Expository Times, 118 Bloomsbury, 2004); Stephen H. Webb, Dylan Redeemed: From (2007): 536-41; and Jean-Guy Nadeau, ‘Public Theology in Pop Highway 61 to Saved (London: Continuum, 2007). Culture,’ in Elaine Graham and Anna Rowlands (eds.), Pathways 13. See e.g. Jonathan Cordero, ‘Unveiling Satan’s Wrath: Aesthet- to the Public Square: Practical Theology in an Age of Pluralism; ics and Ideology in Anti-Christian Heavy Metal,’ Journal of International Academy of Practical Theology, Manchester 2003, Religion and Popular Culture 21.1 (2001); Christopher Partridge and Eric Christianson (eds.), The Lure of the Dark Side: Satan Vol. 1. (Münster: Lit Verlag, 2005): 157-70. and Western Demonology in Popular Culture (London: Equinox, 16. Tom Lamont, ‘How Mumford and Sons Became the Biggest 2009); Keith Kahn-Harris, ‘End of the World Music: Is Extreme Band in the World,’ www.theguardian.com/music/2012/ Metal the Sound of the Apocalypse?’ in Kenneth G.C. Newport nov/15/mumford-sons-biggest-band-world. and John Walliss (eds.), The End All Around Us: The Apocalyptic 17. www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/worldfolkand- Texts and Popular Culture (London: Equinox, 2009), 22-70. jazz/8421564/Folk-music-A-quiet-revolution.html 14. John D. Witvliet, The Biblical Psalms in Christian Worship: A Brief 18. See e.g. Laura Barton, ‘The Almighty Power of Mumford & Introduction and Guide to Resources (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, Sons,’ www.theguardian.com/music/2010/feb/11/mumford- 2007), 30; cf. Calvin, Commentary on the Book of Psalms, vol. 1 sons-sigh-more. Among the many and varied individual (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1948), xxxvii. For a representative examples of the explicit exploration of such questions in popular expression of this idea see Hugh Hill, The Heart of the popular music see e.g. Elton John’s, ‘If There is a God in Bible (Oxford: Lion Hudson, 2012), 166: ‘It is surely no accident Heaven (What’s He Waiting For?)’ (1976), and Regina Spektor’s that the book of Psalms is placed in the centre of the Bible, ‘Laughing With’ (2009). In this exciting collection of articles leading scholars of the Centre for Bible, Ethics and Theology, based at the Universtity of Nottingham, reflect on the significance of the Bible. These accessible contributions are intended to en- courage and enable informed conversation about the Bible’s ongoing effects on daily life–from Muslim thought to Mumford and Sons. Produced with the generous support of Bible Society, this thought-provoking volume will impact a wide readership, offering an opportunity to encounter the joys of the Bible by wrestling with the question of its contemporary relevance.