Fibre Crops That Can Be Produced in EU27

“Non-food Crops-to-Industry schemes in EU27” WP1. Non-food crops

D1.2 Fibre crops that can be produced in EU27

Lead beneficiary: INSTITUTE OF NATURAL FIBRES AND MEDICINAL PLANTS (INF&MP), POZNAN, POLAND Authors: Krzysztof Heller, Przemyslaw Baraniecki, Maria Talarzyck Co-beneficiaries: CRES-Center for Renewable Energy Sources Authors: Myrsini Christou, Efthymia Alexopoulou Co-beneficiaries: UNIBO – University of Bologna Authors: Andrea Monti, Lorenso Nissen

February 2012 The project is a Coordinated Action supported by

Grant agreement no. 227299

1 Table of contents

INTRODUCTION ...... 5 1 BANANA (Mussa spp L.) Fam. Musaceae ...... 7 1.1 Plant anatomy ...... 7 1.2 Domestication and area of origin ...... 8 1.3 Growing conditions ...... 9 1.4 Logistics: harvesting/handling ...... 9 1.5 Production-Yields ...... 9 1.6 Applications: current/potential ...... 11 1.7 Restricting factors ...... 11 1.8 References ...... 12 2 FIBER FLAX (Linum usitatissimum L.) Fam. Linaceae ...... 13 2.1 Fibre flax morphology & anatomy ...... 13 2.2 Area of origin and current cultivation ...... 16 2.3 Fibre flax growing conditions – input requirements ...... 19 2.4 Fibre flax logistic (harvesting – handling) until industrial plant gate ... 23 2.5 Yields ...... 24 2.6 Quality ...... 30 2.7 Applications: current – potential ...... 32 2.8 Main directions of utilization of raw materials obtained from flax ...... 32 2.9 Factors restricting growth and yielding potential ...... 35 2.10 Research gaps ...... 35 2.11 References ...... 36 Research gaps ...... 40 3 GIANT REED (Arundo donax L.) ...... 42 3.1 Plant anatomy ...... 42 3.2 Domestication and area of origin ...... 43 3.3 Growing conditions ...... 43 3.4 Logistics: harvesting/handling ...... 44 3.5 Production-Yields ...... 44 3.6 Applications: current/potential ...... 44 3.7 Restricting factors and research gaps ...... 45 3.8 References ...... 45 4 FIBRE HEMP (Cannabis sativa L.) Fam. Cannabinaceae ...... 47 4.1 Fibre hemp morphology and anatomy ...... 47

2 4.2 Area of origin and current cultivation ...... 49 4.3 Fibre hemp growing conditions – input requirements ...... 50 4.4 Fibre hemp logistics (harvesting, handling) until industrial plant gate . 53 4.5 Yields ...... 57 4.6 Quality ...... 59 4.7 Application: current – potential ...... 59 4.8 Factors restricting growth and yields ...... 62 4.9 Research gaps ...... 63 4.10 References ...... 64 5 KENAF (Hibiscus cannabinus L.). Fam Cannabinaceae ...... 69 5.1 Plant anatomy ...... 69 5.2 Domestication and area of origin ...... 70 5.3 Growing conditions ...... 71 5.4 Logistics: harvesting/handling ...... 71 5.5 Production-Yields ...... 76 5.6 Applications: current/potential ...... 79 5.7 Restricting factors ...... 82 5.8 Research gaps ...... 82 5.9 References ...... 83 6 LOOFAH (Luffa cylindrica L.) Fam: Cucurbitaceae L...... 84 6.1 Plant anatomy ...... 84 6.2 Domestication and area of origin ...... 84 6.3 Growing conditions ...... 85 6.4 Logistics: harvesting/handling ...... 85 6.5 Production-Yields ...... 85 6.6 Applications: current/potential ...... 86 6.7 References ...... 87 7 MISCANTHUS (Miscanthus x giganteus GREEF et DEU) ...... 88 7.1 Plant anatomy ...... 88 7.2 Domestication and area of origin ...... 88 7.3 Growing conditions ...... 89 7.4 Logistics: harvesting/handling ...... 91 7.5 Production-Yields ...... 91 7.6 Applications: current/potential ...... 92 7.7 Restricting factors and research gaps ...... 92 7.8 References ...... 92

3 8 Nettle (Urtica dioica). Fam. Urticaceae ...... 95 8.1 Nettle morphology & anatomy ...... 95 8.2 Area of origin and current cultivation ...... 96 8.3 Growing conditions – input requirements ...... 96 8.4 Fibrous nettle logistic (harvesting-handling) until industrial plant gate 97 8.5 Yields ...... 101 8.6 Quality ...... 102 8.7 Applications: current – potential ...... 102 8.8 Factors restricting growth and yielding potential ...... 104 8.9 Research gaps ...... 104 9 REED CANARY GRASS (Phalaris arundinaceae L.) ...... 106 9.1 Plant anatomy ...... 106 9.2 Domestication and area of origin ...... 107 9.3 Growing conditions ...... 108 9.4 Logistics: harvesting/handling ...... 108 9.5 Production-Yields ...... 108 9.6 Applications: current/potential ...... 109 9.7 Restricting factors and research gaps ...... 109 9.8 References ...... 109 10 YUCCA (Yucca gloriosa L.) ...... 110 10.1 Plant anatomy ...... 110 10.2 Domestication and area of origin ...... 111 10.3 Growing conditions ...... 111 10.4 Production-Yields ...... 111 10.5 Applications: current/potential ...... 112 10.6 References ...... 112

4 INTRODUCTION

For thousand years human being has been using natural fibres for countless purposes such as textiles, pulp and paper, buildings and fibreboard. Then, in 20th century the advent of synthetic materials has caused the steady replacement of natural fibres with more economic but more impacting compounds. Recently, the increase of awareness towards environmental issues and the booming of the green economy led back to a new interest to natural fibres. A number of political initiatives, including support for enhanced industrial use of renewable resources at the expenses of the non-renewable resources (plastic, glass fibres etc.) are being taken and plant fibres may therefore face a renaissance, not only for past uses, but also for the manufacture of three-dimensional products by hot-pressing of fibre mats or by extrusion or injection moulding of plant fibres in combination with plastic. European production of natural fibres focuses largely upon flax and hemp. France, Belgium and the Netherlands are the traditional flax countries where the flax short fibre production is a by-product of flax long fibre producing. Recently, flax and hemp is being producing in Germany, UK and Scandinavia and in most cases the process lines producing short fibres because the long fibres did not separate from the short. In 2008 the area of cultivation of flax in Europe was around 262,000 ha, while the area of hemp was around 21,000 ha, when the world production was around 77,000 ha) (FAOStat, 2008). The general target of WP1 is to explore the potential of non-food crops, which can be domestically grown in EU 27 countries, for selected industrial applications, namely oils, fibers, resins, pharmaceuticals and other specialty products. The aim of this task is to gather information and reviewing fiber species for industrial uses adapted to European lands. Literature on these plants will be critically revised in order to estimate their potential market in the light of the booming of bio-based market. The reason for this task is that Europe is composed of different environments, which vary with factors like mean temperatures, rainfall and soil quality. No single plant species is optimal for all environments, so identifying promising plant species an EU-27 context, enhancing thus biodiversity will be necessary. The steps undertaken so far are the following: i) preliminary review on crops originally included in the DoW; ii) revision of the original crop list to replace less suited crops to European climate conditions whit more adapted and promising species; iii) editing literature reviews on these crops that are being updated during the next period. During the project meetings some crops can reveal to be worthy of major interest thus higher efforts will be dedicated to that crops.

Task 1.2 – Fibre crops (INF, UNIBO, CRES) Two are only two commercialized sources of European plant fibres; flax and hemp. The most important crops for long fibres production are flax and hemp, while recently interest has been shown in the stinging nettle with experimental fields in Austria, Italy, Germany and UK. The most important crops for short fibres production are cereal straws, miscanthus, reed canary grass, short rotation coppice, fibre sorghum, linseed straw. Species of interest for Southern Europe were shown to be giant reed (Arundo donax L.), kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) and fibre sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.), while miscanthus (Miscanthus sinensis) can be cultivated in whole Europe and stinging nettle (Utrica dioica) and reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea) are for northern and western Europe.

5 The most important markets for the fibre crops are textiles, paper and pulp, wood-based panels, fibre reinforced composites, fibre/cement composites, packaging materials, filters and absorbents, insulation products, polymers and plastics, etc. Plant fibres can be classified into five categories based on their anatomical source. INF has undertaken the leadership of the task and is responsible for the chapters on flax, hemp, jute, kenaf, ramie, nettle, UNIBO reports on banana, luffa, phoenix, and yucca, whereas CRES reports on cotton, kapok, fibre sorghum, giant reed, miscanthus, reed canary grass. In this project the following crops are dealt: 1. Banana, 2. Cotton, 3. Fibre sorghum, 4. Flax 5. Giant reed, 6. Hemp, 7. Jute 8. Kapok, 9. Kenaf 10. Loofah (Luffa cylindrica L.) 11. Miscanthus, 12. Nettle 13. Phoenix 14. Ramie 15. Reed canary grass 16. Yucca The information collected and evaluated by this task addresses the following topics:  Plants anatomy  Areas of origins and current cultivation  Growing conditions-input requirements  Logistics (harvesting-handling) until the industrial plant gate  Yields  Quality  Applications: current-potential  Research gaps

6 1 BANANA (Mussa spp L.) Fam. Musaceae

1.1 Plant anatomy The word "banana" is a general term embracing a number of species or hybrids in the genus Musa of the family Musaceae.

Figure 1-1 - 1) Musa paradisiaca L. 2) Musa acuminata plantation at Canary Isle. 3) Musa basjoo Sieb. & Zucc. Some species such as M. Basjoo Sieb. & Zucc. of Japan and M. ornata Roxb., native from Pakistan to Burma, are grown only as ornamental plants or for fibre. M. textilis Nee of the Philippines is grown only for its fibre, prized for strong ropes and also for tissue-thin tea bags. The so-called Abyssinian banana, Ensete ventricosum Cheesman, formerly E. edule Horan, Musa ensete Gmel., is cultivated in Ethiopia for fibre and for the staple foods derived from the young shoot, the base of the stem, and the corm (Morton, 1987). The Banana plant, often erroneously referred to as a "tree", is a large herb, with succulent, very juicy stem, which is a cylinder of leaf-petiole sheaths, reaching a height of 6 to 7.5 m and arising from a fleshy rhizome or corm. Suckers spring up around the main plant forming a clump or "stool'', the eldest sucker replacing the main plant when it fruits and dies, and this process of succession continues indefinitely. Tender, smooth, oblong or elliptic, fleshy-stalked leaves, numbering 4 to 15, are arranged spirally and they unfurl, as the plant grows, at the rate of one per week in warm weather, and extend upward and outward, becoming as much as 2.8 m long and 0.6 m

7 wide. They may be entirely green, green with maroon splotches, or green on the upper side and red purple beneath. The inflorescence, a transformed growing point, is a terminal spike shooting out from the heart in the tip of the stem. At first, it is a large, long-oval, tapering, purple-clad bud. As it opens, it is seen that the slim, nectar-rich, tubular, toothed, white flowers are clustered in whorled double rows along the floral stalk, each cluster covered by a thick, waxy, hood-like bract, purple outside, deep-red within. Normally, the bract will lift from the first hand in 3 to 10 days. If the plant is weak, opening may not occur until 10 or 15 days. Female flowers occupy the lower 5 to 15 rows. Above them may be some rows of hermaphrodite or neuter flowers. Male flowers are borne in the upper rows. In some types the inflorescence remains erect but generally, shortly after opening, it begins to bend downward. In about one day after the opening of the flower clusters, the male flowers and their bracts are shed, leaving most of the upper stalk naked except at the very tip where there usually remains an unopened bud containing the last-formed of the male flowers. As the young fruits develop from the female flowers, they look like slender green fingers. The bracts are soon shed and the fully grown fruits in each cluster become a "hand" of Bananas, and the stalk droops with the weight until the bunch is upside down. The number of "hands" varies with the species and variety. The fruit turns from deep-green to yellow or red, or, in some forms, green-and white-striped, and may range from 6-30 cm in length and 2-5 cm in width, and from oblong, cylindrical and blunt to pronouncedly 3-angled, somewhat curved and hornlike. The flesh, ivory-white to yellow or salmon-yellow, may be firm, astringent, even gummy with latex, when unripe, turning tender and slippery, or soft and mellow or rather dry and mealy or starchy when ripe (Morton, 1987).

1.2 Domestication and area of origin

Figure 1-2. Banana cultivation in Europe Edible Bananas originated in the Indo-Malaysian region reaching to northern Australia. They were known in the Mediterranean region in the 400 B.C. and are believed to have been first carried to Europe in the 10th Century A.D. Early in the 16th Century, Portuguese mariners transported the plant from the West African coast to South America. The types found in cultivation in the Pacific have been traced to eastern Indonesia from where they spread to the Marquesas and by stages to Hawaii (Morton, 1987).

8 1.3 Growing conditions Bananas are restricted to tropical or near tropical regions, roughly the area between latitudes 30°N and 30°S. Within this band, there are varied climates with different lengths of dry season and different degrees and patterns of precipitation. A suitable banana climate is a mean temperature of 27 °C and mean rainfall of 10 cm per month. There should not be more than 3 months of dry season.

1.4 Logistics: harvesting/handling Banana bunches are harvested with a curved knife when the fruits are fully developed, that is, 75% mature, the angles are becoming less prominent and the fruits on the upper hands are changing to light green; and the flower remnants (styles) are easily rubbed off the tips. Generally, this stage is reached 75 to 80 days after the opening of the first hand. Cutters must leave attached to the bunch about 15-18 cm of stalk to serve as a handle for carrying. With tall cultivars, the pseudostem must be slashed partway through to cause it to bend and harvesters pull on the leaves to bring the bunch within reach. Banana plantations, if managed manually, may survive for 25 years or far longer. The commercial life of a banana "stool" is about 5 or 6 years. From the 4th year on, productivity declines and the field becomes too irregular for mechanical operations. Sanitary regulations require that the old plantings be eradicated.

1.5 Production-Yields It is clear that many factors determine the annual yield from a banana plantation: soil and agronomic practices, the cultivar planted, spacing, the type of propagating material and the management of sucker succession. The “Gros Michel” banana has yielded 3 to 7 t/ha in Central America. A “Giant Cavendish” bunch may weigh 50 kg and have a total of 363 marketable fruits. A well-filled bunch of "Dwarf Cavendish” will have no more than 150 to 200 fruits. Tenerife, Canary Islands, has a current annual production of about 150,000 tons, down from the peak production of 200,000 tons in 1986. More of 90% of the total is destined for the international market, and banana growing occupies about 4200 hectares. Quality Banana fiber is a natural bast fiber and it is a high quality fiber. Appearance of banana fiber is similar to that of bamboo fiber, but its fineness and spinnability is better.

Figure 1-3. Optical and scanning electron micrographs of cross-section of banana fibres (Guimaraes et al., 2009).

9 The main characteristics of banana fibres are:  highly strong;  smaller elongation;  shiny appearance depending upon the extraction and spinning process;  light weight;  strong moisture absorption quality (it absorbs and releases moisture very fast);  biodegradable and eco-friendly;  average fineness of 2400 Nm.  can be spun through almost all the methods of spinning including ring spinning, open-end spinning, bast fiber spinning, and semi-worsted spinning among others.

Figure 1-4. Banana sheaths to produce banana fibers (Guimaraes et al., 2009) Abaca (M. textilis) is a banana-like plant of the Musa species grown mainly in the Philippines. Its fibre, also known as Manila hemp, is obtained from the leaf sheath and has been traditionally used for ropes and cordage. Indeed, it is an excellent raw material for the manufacturing of specialty papers. Its long fibre length, high strength, and fineness make it a superior material for the production of thin, lightweight papers of high porosity and excellent tear, burst, and tensile strengths (Del Rio et al, 2006).

Table 1-1. Chemical composition and tensile properties of banana fibers, compared to sugarcane and sponge gourd fibers (Guimaraes et al., 2009).

10 1.6 Applications: current/potential Banana leaves are widely used as plates and for lining cooking pits and for wrapping food for cooking or storage. The leaves of the 'Fehi' banana are used for thatching, packing, and cigarette wrappers. The pseudostems have been fastened together as rafts. Split lengthwise, they serve as padding on banana inspection turntables and as cushioning to protect the bunches during transport in railway cars and trucks. Seat pads for benches are made of strips of dried banana pseudostems in Ecuador. In West Africa, fiber from the pseudostem is valued for fishing lines. In the Philippines, it is woven into a thin, transparent fabric called "agna" which is the principal material in some regions for women's blouses and men's shirts. In Ceylon, it is fashioned into soles for inexpensive shoes and used for floor coverings. Plantain fiber is said to be superior to that from bananas. In the mid-19th Century, there was quite an active banana fiber industry in Jamaica. Improved processes have made it possible to utilize banana fiber for many purposes such as rope, table mats and handbags. In Kerala, India, a kraft type paper of good strength has been made from crushed, washed and dried banana pseudostems which yield 48 to 51% of unbleached pulp. A good quality paper is made by combining banana fiber with that of the betel nut husk (Areca catechu L.). About 130 tons of green pseudostems would yield only 1 ton of paper. Thus, the pseudostem has much greater value as organic matter chopped and left in the field. Dried banana peel, because of its 30 to 40% tannin content, is used to blacken leather. The ash from the dried peel of bananas and plantains is rich in potash and used for making soap. The product of the burned peel of unripe fruits of certain varieties is used for dyeing. In Japan the cultivation of banana for clothing and other household use dates back to the 13th century. In the Japanese method of making banana fiber, the care is taken right from the stage of plant cultivation. The leaves and shoots of the banana plant are pruned periodically to ensure their softness. The harvested shoots are first boiled in lye to prepare the fibers for making the yarn. These banana shoots give away fibers having varying degrees of softness. This further results in yarns and textiles with differing qualities that can be used for specific purposes. The outermost fibers of the shoots are the coarsest ones. They are therefore, more suitable for making such home furnishings as tablecloths. The softest part is the innermost part that gives soft fibers which are widely used for making kimono and kamishimo, the traditional Japanese apparels. The abaca fibre offers great potential for different industrial applications. Due to the extremely high mechanical strength of the fiber as well as long fiber length of 2 – 3 m, application of abaca even in highly stressed components could be feasible. Despite these advantages, the abaca fibre is currently not used by the industry. Among other requirements its implementation depends also from standardized fibre quality offered in sufficient quantities with guaranteed continuous supply. Currently, abaca is produced mainly by smallholders in the Philippines, who have neither access to high-yielding and disease resistant varieties nor have the machinery needed for proper processing of the raw material.

1.7 Restricting factors Wherever bananas and plantains are grown, nematodes are a major problem. The most injurious is the burrowing nematode and it is the cause of the common black head-toppling disease on land where plantains have been cultivated for a long time. Some fields may be left fallow for as long as 3 years. Rotating plantains with Pangola grass controls most of the most important species of nematodes. In any case, nematicides, properly applied, will protect the crop. Otherwise, the

11 soil must be cleared, ploughed and exposed to the sun for a time before planting. Sun destroys nematodes at least in the upper layer of the soil.

1.8 References [1] Morton, J. 1987. Banana. p. 29–46. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL. [2] http://www.platanodecanarias.net/ [3] Del Rio J.C., Jimenez-Barbero J., Chavez M.I., Politi M., And Gutierrez A. 2006. Phenylphenalenone type compounds from the leaf fibers of Abaca (Musa textilis). J. Agric. Food Chem. 54, 8744-8748. [4] Guimaraes J.L., Frollini E., da Silva C.G., Wypych F. and Satyanarayana K.G. Characterization of banana, sugar cane and sponge gourd fibers of Brazil. Industrial Crops and Products. 30, 407-415.

12 2 FIBER FLAX (Linum usitatissimum L.) Fam. Linaceae

Figure 2-1. Linum usitatissimum L

2.1 Fibre flax morphology & anatomy Seeds of fibrous flax (group microspermum) are oval in shape with one end broadly round and the opposite one in the form of sharp tip. The 1000 seed weight (TSW) varies between 3.5-5.5 g. Average dimensions of fibrous flax seeds:  length: 3.0-4.9 mm,  width: 1.8-2.6 mm  thickness: 0.5-1.0 mm Flax seeds are flat, slightly nub on both sides. Seeds are usually brown (in different shades – from light brown to dark brown); seed surface is smooth and glossy which causes flax seeds to "flow" when poured. Anatomical structure of flax seeds. Three main parts are distinguished in the flax seed structure: seed shell, endosperm and embryo. The latter is composed of well developed cotyledons and a radicle.

Chemical composition of flax seed:  fats 22.5-45.0 %  nitrogen substances 16.1-30.0 %  non-nitrogen substances 17.6-28.8 %  water 5.5-14.2 %  cellulose 4.3-11.6 %

Figure 2-2 Fibre flax seed

Stem Above-ground part of the plant is composed of the three main parts  root neck,  unbranched stem, panicle.

Figure 2-3 Stems of linseed (on the left) and fibre flax (on the right) Fibrous flax in conditions of dense sowing usually creates slender stems with weak branching at the top. Leaves are placed alternate, usually more numerous on the bottom half of stem as compared the upper one. Leaves are narrow-lanceolate, have no peduncle and three parallel nerves. The edge of leaf is smooth and the whole leaf is covered by wax.

Root Flax produces a root system with main tap root and more or less formed lateral roots. Flax roots are weakly formed and are weaker in comparison with roots of oil flax. Morphological structure of flax stem, from technological point of view can be evaluated with the help of the following factors: - total length of stem – a total length of flax stem measured from the cotyledons base to the top of the plant - technical length of stem – a section of plant formed by an unbranched stem measured from the cotyledons base to the first branch. A correlation has been found between technical length of stem and fibre efficiency and quality. Unbranched part of stem, containing the highest amount of quality fibre is the most important in processing, therefore, the longer is the straw, and the higher rank is given to the raw material - stem thickness – diameter of stem in the middle of technical length – is important for the fibre efficiency and its quality. The thinner the stem, the higher value of the raw material - stem slenderness – a parameter describing the ration of two stem parameters: technical length of stem and its diameter measured in the middle of the stem. These two parameters remain in the positive correlation, i.e. increasing the plant height increases also the stem thickness. The slenderness of stem describes the value of the raw material – a correlation was found: the higher value of stem slenderness, the higher the efficiency and quality of long fibre - stem branching – a parameter of morphological structure of flax plant describing the number of primary and secondary branches and also the number of seed capsules on the plant. Although the high number of seed capsules has positive effect on the yield of seeds, in cultivation of fibrous flax the cultivars with higher number of seed capsules are worse, from the technological point of view, from cultivars with lower number of seed capsules where the weight of branched is relatively lower and lower is impact on long fibre efficiency.

14 Anatomical structure of the stem (cross section):  epidermis (outer part of stem formed of epidermis cells) – covered with cuticle  primary cortex formed of 2-7 layers of parenchyma cells  layer of bast fibres (bundles of fibres located in the form of loose ring around the stem)  cortex tissue – secondary cortex formed of small cells forming sieve tubes  cambium (layer of cells separating cortex from wood)  wood (strongly developed part of stem formed of cells with thick and lignified cell walls)  core (inner part of wood)  core void (an empty space in the form of core channel running along the them). Fibre bunches, commonly called bundles, are located in the cortex part of the stem. Fibrous flax is characterized by high number of fibre bundles with compact structure. Low number of bundles and their loose distribution is typical for linseed.

Fibre bunches

Figure 2-4 Fibre bunches

Figure 2-5 Elementaty fiber (gain x 1000 on the left and gain x 500 on the right)

Flower An inflorescence in flax is usually hanging raceme or panicle. The flower is autogamous, regularly 5-fold with five-leaf sepal and five-petal crone. The flower colour, depending on the cultivar is usually blue (from light blue to violet) or white. Five connate at the base stamens are broach-like in shape and 2-5 mm in length. Carpel is composed of 5-chamber ovary and 5 free styles topped with club-like stigmas.

Figure 2-6 Flax flower and fruit

Fruit Fruit in flax is a seed bag, almost spherical topped with acute tip. A mature seed bag is yellow to brown. There are 5 true partitions inside the seed bag, each divided into two semi- partitions.

2.2 Area of origin and current cultivation The chapter evaluates not only the areas of origin of flax, but also the current cultivation areas of flax in Europe in comparison to the world.

Total flax cultivated area in EU countries: in 2000 103 8673/ ha, in 2001 94 6313/ha, in 2002: 88 8851/ha, in 2003: 98 9651/ha., in campaign 2004/2005: 118 251 ha, in campaign 2005/2006: 122 379 ha, 2006: 10/105 025 ha; in 2007: 10/78 500 ha. According to European Commission document AGRI.C.5 the total flax cultivated area in EU countries-campaign 2008/2009: 84 070, campaign 2009/2010: 69 868, campaign 2010/2011: 73 029 (Table 2.1) Source: Generally, data provided by relevant countries’ official organizations (see also the country data). Those data are not marked. Another source of information is described below:

Table 2-1 The area of flax cultivation [ha] in EU (2008-2010). Country Campaign Campaign Campaign 2010/2011 2008/2009 2009/2010 (est.)* BE-Belgium 12 230 10 350 11 377 CZ-Czech Republic 156 145 4013 (4000ha linseed +13ha fibre flax)1/ DE-Germany 42 30 n/a FR-France 67 688 56 637 54 679 LV-Latvia 356 39 n/a LT-Lithuania 247 34 459.88 (448.2ha linseed, 11.68 ha fibre flax,)2/ NL-The Netherlands 2 572 2 086 2 000 Poland 779 547 500

Total 84 070 69 868 73 029 Source: Document of EC: AGRI.C.5 *On the basis of unofficial information received from sector representatives, 1/ AGRITEC Research, Breeding & Services Ltd., E-mail: [email protected] Šumperk, Czech Republic, E-mail: [email protected], 2/ LIA - The Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture and Forest, Upyte Research Station, Lithuania, E-mail: [email protected]

Table 2-2 Fibrous flax cultivated area in the world [ha]

Country 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 AUSTRIA 1716/ 142 5/ 1096/ 1341/ 1291/ 0,0210/ 0 0 0 BELARUS 67 900 70 900 79 000 78 500 75 200 78 5001/ 78 00015/ 69 00015/ 58 00515/ BELGIUM 15 3155/ 19 306 5/ 19 8231/ 18 670 1/ 16 3541/ 14 6301/ 12 23012/ 10 35012/ 11 37712/ BULGARIA 470 150° 70 °/ °/ °/ °/ °/ °/ 133 200 0006/ °/ CHINA 80 0006/ 130 000 118 500 110 000 °/ °/ 0006/ 130 0007/ 4013 15612/ (4000ha linseed CZECH REPUBLIC 5 885 6 003 5 500 4 3181/ 2 73611/ 82410/ 14512/ +13ha fibre flax)1/ DENMARK 0 1/ 0 1/ °/ °/ °/ °/ °/ 0 0

EGYPT 8 9369/ 13 0109/ 17 1389/ 5 8479/ °/ 20 0001/ °/ °/ 8487 Fibrous Flax 0, °/ ESTONIA 35 17 0 °/ °/ °/ °/ Linseed 91ha FINLAND 202 5/ 97 5/ 675/ 571/ 171/ °/ 0 0 0 5/ 1/ 12/ 1/ 76 439 1/ 1/ 76 497 1/ 67 688 12/ 12/ FRANCE 68 416 x 80 081 81 508 75 523 56 637 54 679 GERMANY 2006/ 2246/ 1806/ 381/ 30 51 4212/ 3012/ °/ IRELAND °/ °/ °/ °/ °/ °/ °/ °/ °/ ITALY 0 5/ 20 5/ 80 181/ °/ °/ 0 0 0 LATVIA °/ °/ 1 6546/ 2 0721/ 1 420 22010/ 35612/ 3912/ °/

17 Country 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 459.88 24712/ (11.68- LITHUANIA 9 346 9 4441/ 5 494 3 5991/ 1 0571/ 9501/ 3412/ fibre flax, 448.2 linseed) 13/

4 36611/, 2 57212/ NETHERLANDS 4 000 5/ 4 615 5/ 4 5171/ 4 6911/ 3 4581/ 2 08612/ 2 00012/ 1/

19914/ POLAND 5 1004/ 6 0004/ 6 345 4/ 6 8434 4 22511/ 2 05610/ 779 54712/ 50012/ AGRI.C.5 PORTUGAL 01/ °/ °/ °/ °/ °/ °/ °/ °/ RUMANIA 3006/ °/ °/ °/ °/ 10710/ °/ °/ °/ 110 820 118 060 70 000 59 000 RUSSIA 112 300 95 450 86 000 75 000 100 0006/ 104 0006/ 81 000 14/ 14/ Slovak Rep. °/ °/ °/ °/ °/ 6710/ °/ °/ °/ SPAIN 605/ 25/ °/ °/ °/ °/ °/ °/ °/ SWEDEN 251/ 01/ 301/ °/ °/ 34 °/ °/ °/ UKRAINE 28 200 32 4808/ 38 2208/ 25 5308/ 16 164 12 0008/ 5 7608/ 2 2758/ 1 2808/ 1961/ 211/ UNITED KINGDOM 1565/ 1755/ 1 8201/ °/ °/ °/ °/

18 2.3 Fibre flax growing conditions – input requirements

Cultivars

The most important, from the breeding point of view parameters of fibrous flax: quality and content of fibre, are characterized by the low inheritability and high effect of environmental factors which makes breeding difficult, especially in countries with less favourable climate. Therefore, an important role is played by breeding for features having an indirect effect on quality and content of fibre.

In breeding for resistance an important are cultivars resistant to different races of Fusarium fungi. Examples of resistant cultivars are: Artemida, Modran, Nike, Atena, Sara. An interesting direction of breeding is cultivars resistant for low air temperatures. Other important breeding goals are tolerance for drought and early maturing cultivars. A cultivar characterized high resistance to water deficit in the soil is French cultivar Diane. Examples of cultivars with short vegetation period are Scandinavian cultivars Helmi and Martta developed in Finland. Currently, the Register of European Union holds 67 fibrous cultivars of flax. Breeding work is conducted mainly in France, The Netherlands, Czech Republic, Poland and Romania.

Table 2-3 List of fibrous flax cultivars registered in European Union. No. Variety Country of origin No. Variety Country of origin 1 Ada RO 35 Lorea FR 2 Adria RO 36 Louis RO 3 Agatha BE, CZ, FR, NL 37 Luna PL 4 Alin RO 38 Luncavat RO 5 Alizee FR, LT 39 Marilyn CZ 6 Amina BE, FR, NL 40 Marylin BE, FR, NL 7 Aretha FR, NL 41 Martta FI 8 Ariane NL 42 Melina BE, FR, NL 9 Artemida PL, LT 43 Merkur CZ 10 Atena PL 44 Modran PL, LT 11 Bazil RO 45 Monica RO 12 Betalisa RO 46 Nike PL 13 Bonet CZ 47 Nineta RO 14 Bonita BE, FR, NL 48 Paula RO 15 Caesar NL, LV 49 Rares RO Augustus 16 Codruta RO 50 Rina CZ 17 Cosmin RO 51 Sara PL 18 Dangiai LT 52 Sartai LT 19 Delphine NL 53 Selena PL 20 Diane FR 54 Selin PT 21 Drakkar FR, LT 55 Snaigiai LT 22 Electra BE, CZ, FR, NL, SK 56 Sofie BE, FR, NL 23 Elise NL, LV 57 Sumuleu RO 24 Escalina NL, SK 58 Super SK 25 Evelin NL 59 Suzanne BE, FR, NL 26 Ferdinand RO 60 Tabor CZ

19 27 Helmi FI 61 Temida PL 28 Hermes BE, FR, NL 62 Texa SK 29 Ilona NL, CZ, SK 63 Vasilelin RO 30 Jitka CZ 64 Venica CZ 31 Jordan CZ, SK 65 Vesta FR, NL 32 Josephine NL 66 Viking NL 33 Kastyciai LT 67 Viola NL 34 Laura NL, AT

Place in rotations Requirements of flax in terms of predeceasing crop are not very high and flax can be grown successively after any crop, providing it gave good yield and left the soil in good culture. Good forecrop in conditions of intensive farming are successful cereals, although they leave the soil in less good structure and very often infested with weeds. The best crop to be grown before flax among cereals is oats which also intensifies the process of soil self-cleaning from Fusarium wilt pathogens.

Among root crops, which leave the soil clean, free of weeds and in good structure, a good choice is – first of all – potatoes as this crop does not use up preferentially soil nutrients and moisture. Potatoes also reduce the risk of Fusarium wilt. In addition potatoes leave the field relatively early which allows for better soil preparation in autumn. Sugar beet, having long root, loosen deeper soil layers which allows flax to develop stronger root system. However, in dry years, the field may be a worse choice due to the fact that sugar beet takes up water from deeper soil layers which may reduce its accessibility for flax. Sugar beets also create favourable conditions for development of Fusarium wilt and that is why this crop is considered one of the worse forecrops for fibrous flax. On poorer soils, with low cultivation culture, a good forecrop can be legumes: clovers, field peas, and birdshot. These crops leave the soil in good culture, enrich it in nitrogen and reduce the Fusarium wilt risk. Choosing fields for flax cultivation those where flax was grown relatively recently should be excluded in the firs place. Growers should follow the rule not allowing growing flax sooner than every seven years on the same field. This is the time required to reduce the number of Fusarium wilt pathogens in the soil to the level safe for flax. Following this rule will ensure high and most of all healthy yields.

Soil requirements Ensuring optimum conditions for flax yields requires cultivation on fertile soils kept in high culture, medium heavy, humus rich sandy clays that produce no crust, with regulated air- water ratio. Besides fertile, high culture soils also newly cultivated post-forest, post-meadows, post pastures and fallows can are good choices for flax. Soil requirements for flax can be summarize as follows: - soil should be deep and have loose aggregate structure that allows for air access to the roots and soil microflora, as well as evacuation of excess water, - soil should have good sorption, i.e. ability to absorb and hold water and nutrients that are diluted in it, another words it should allow for economical water management throughout the whole vegetation period, - soil should have optimum reaction (degree of acidicity close to neutral – pH 6.5-6.9.

Weather conditions Fibre flax should e grown in areas where annual sum of precipitation is at least 600-650 mm of which in vegetation period falls 110-150 mm.

20 Flax plants take up and transpire very high amounts of water. The transpiration coefficient, determining the amount of water necessary for production of a dry matter unit for flax is very high – 400-600 mm. The moisture conditions in the soil after sowing, at favourable temperatures are crucial for even germination and in consequence for homogeneous length of straw. Fibrous flax shows no high thermal requirements. High temperature during vegetation has clearly a negative effect on growth and development of flax. High yields are promoted by moderate temperatures (18-20oC) and accompanying cloud cover. Mild solar operation contributes to good growth of stem which results in a good anatomical stem structure and high long fibre efficiency. Recently occurring droughts may require watering, however, this is very costly.

Soil cultivation The forecrops leaving the field early, e.g. rye, oats, barley require conducing of stubble- breaking as soon as possible followed by harrowing to brake up the layers and protect soil against excessive water loss. Harrowing and cultivator treatment can be repeated as required to eliminate weeds. Plants leaving the field late, e.g. potatoes usually leave the soil clean and loose, therefore the harrow is applied to level the furrows followed by winter ploughing (no stubble-breaking in this case). Deep ploughing should be eliminated in spring. The spring tillage should be limited to the most necessary treatments:  dragging aiming at stopping transpiration from the soil and induction weed seeds to germinate  loosening soil structure before sowing which also destroys germinating weeds with a harrow, cultivator with stiff of semi-stiff teeth, depending on the type and condition of the soil,  rolling of soil when it is too loose or dispersed and a threat appears the seeds will be placed too deep,  pre-sowing and post-sowing harrowing with light harrows to reduce water transpiration and cover the planted seeds (if necessary).

Fertilization Fibrous flax has poorly developed root system. Take-up of nutrients by flax is poor, especially in the first period of. After that period a fast growth stage follows (BBCH 32) when daily growth can reach 2-3 cm. In this stage flax takes-up nutrients intensively reaching the maximum at the stage of bud formation and flowering. Seven tons of flax yield contains approximately 66 kg of nitrogen (N), 32 kg of phosphorus (P2O5), 120 kg of potassium, (K2O), 30 kg of calcium (CaO) and 43 kg of magnesium (MgO). Fibre flax takes-up relatively high amounts of potassium and what is interesting, it is a rare example among the plants when magnesium is taken in higher amounts than calcium. Fibre flax requires very precise fertilization because particular nutrients have effect on qualitative features of fibre. To ensure good yield of fibre of high quality it is recommended to provide the macronutrients in the following ratio: N: P2O5: K2O as 1:2:3 which should correspond to the following amounts: 30-40 kg N, 60-80 kg P2O5 90-120 kg K2O per hectare. 60% of nitrogen dose should be applied before sowing and remaining amount should be applied after germination depending on condition of plants and soil and climatic conditions. Depending on the forecrop and weather pattern, a supplying dose of nitrogen can be applied after germination. Nevertheless, nitrogen has to be applied in the initial phase of growth because applied later can worsen the quality of fibre. Calcium should not be applied directly before flax sowing as this can reduce the quality of fibre. Good quality of fibre can be obtained provided the correct application of at least five nutrients is secured (NPK, Ca, Mg).

21 Nitrogen is necessary but excessive doses cause thickening of stems and reduces the fibre strength. Beneficial effect of potassium is revealed when application of nitrogen is correct. Excessive doses of nitrogen the length of stem and fibre content can be reduced. Potassium has beneficial influence on both fibre quality (strength, elasticity) and also is crucial for proper dew retting process. The recommended doses of potassium found in literature vary from 50 kg ha-1 to 180 kg ha-1. Phosphorus is indispensable for straw to reach the proper length and form proper number of fibre bundles in the stem The excessive doses of phosphorus, however, lead to shortening and branching of the stem which has a negative effect on fibre quality by reducing its tensile strength. Optimum pH of the soil for flax is 6.5-6.9. Excessive doses of calcium causes fibre breaking and its lignification – application of calcium directly for flax should be avoided. Also magnesium is an important element for flax. Deficiency of magnesium causes leaves chlorosis and stem shortening while optimum supplementation ensures good technical length of straw. When growing flax on soils where calcium application is not required but showing low content of magnesium it is recommended to apply magnesium fertilizers: rolmag, kizeryt or potassium-magnesium fertilizers: kamex, kainit at 40-80 kg MgO per ha. Flax is susceptible to deficiency of copper, boron and zinc. Soils with low content of boron should be fertilized with single superphosphate with boron addition. These fertilizers should be applied in autumn on heavy soils and in spring on light soils. On organic-mineral soils or half-bog soils after newly cultivated areas, a supplement of copper in the form of copper sulphite should be applied at 25 kg/ha. Plant health condition is stimulated by zinc. Soils in the EU show high or average content of zinc (from 10 to 200 mg Zn in 1 kg of soil), however, soil pH has significant effect on zinc assimilation: the more acidic is the soil reaction, the better is uptake of zinc. Since flax is grown on soil with pH close to neutral, it may be necessary to supplement zinc (ZnSO4) at 15 kg /ha.

Sowing (time, technique) Sowing of flax falls in the period when upper layer of soil is warmed up to 7-9o C [fenologically, time of blooming marsh marigold (Caltha sp.) and wood anemone (Anemone nemorosa L.)]. On heavy, crusty and confluent soils it is recommended to use a spiked roller or ring roller and sometimes pre-sowing light harrow.

Sowing method Sowing seeds (healthy seeds treated with fungicides). Sowing amount: Industrial plantations: 110-130 kg ha-1 (2000-2400 seeds per 1 m2), Seed plantations: 50-70 kg ha-1 (1000 -1100 seeds per 1 m2). - Row spacing – usually 13 -15 cm [very good quality of fibre can be obtained when lower row spacing is used (7-10 cm)], - Sowing depth: 2 cm.

22 2.4 Fibre flax logistic (harvesting – handling) until industrial plant gate

2.4.1 Harvesting time

Optimum pulling time of flax for fibre is BBCH 83 stage – a green-yellow maturity stage of straw. At this stage, stems are yellowish to the 1/3 of height. Leaves have been fallen down from ¼ length of the stem. Seed bolls begin to turn yellow. Flax for seeds is harvested at so called yellow maturity namely when stems are completely yellow, leaves are fallen down from the 2/3 of stem length. Seed bolls are yellow and the oldest ones turn brown. Seed are completely formed and begin to turn brown.

2.4.2 Flax harvesting machines Pulling and swathing of flax in central and eastern Europe is mostly done by Russian hooked combains: LKW–4T, LK–4T, LKW–4A and LK–4A. The LKW–4T and LK–4T combines, allow pulling, seed removal and swathing straw in layer. The LKW–4A i LK–4A allow pulling, seed removal and binding straw in bundles (optionally binding in bundles may be eliminated). In Western Europe are applied self propelling machines – type ARAHY (pulling, swathing) and AECACHY (deseeding from the layer), produced by DEPOORTERE Belgium or equipment of other producers e.g. DEHONDT France.

Figure 2-7 - Machines for harvesting fibrous and linseed

23 2.4.3 Fibre flax logistic of handling up to industrial plant gate

Figure 2-8 - Technologies of harvesting and handling fibrous and oil flax

2.4.4 Fibre flax processing

For flax, hemp and allied bast fibrous plants INF&MP elaborated the details about following processing: 1. Processing of straw by scutching drums. 2. Processing of scutching waste fibre by tow producing unit. 3. Decortication

2.5 Yields

Yields of flax were evaluated and compared their yielding potential and the practical yields. Presented results have been initially sourced from the publicly available statistical databases and from the databases complied at the Institute of Natural Fibres & Medicinal Plants/ FAO- ESCORENA European Research Network on Flax and other Bast Plants.

The results on potential yielding have been gained as well from the official bodies responsible for registration of the cultivars such as research centres for cultivar testing, as well as, directly from the flax and hemp research institutions. The information on commercial yields has been provided by the relevant bodies, responsible in the particular countries for the collection of the data in agriculture and industry. The statistical data provided in this elaboration were initially presented in the EC project: 4F CROPS, Future Crops for Food, Feed, Fibre and Fuel, Grant agreement No: 212811, FP7-KBBE-2007-1. The Project Crops2Industry aims to prepare the knowledge complimentary to the 4FCROPS, but basing on the parts of the data elaborated for 4CROPS.

24 As far as the scientific and flax varieties potential in scope of fibrous flax is concerned – the major research centres having long lasting and recognized achievements are in Europe (including the Institute of Natural Fibres, which conducts research in scope of flax and hemp for almost 80 years). The linseed (oil flax) research and very valuable varieties are in Canada, which is the biggest producer of linseed. The significant linseed (oil flax) producers are: Argentina, USA, and India. In Europe major players in scope of linseed: Hungary, Turkey, Poland, Ukraine, Czech Republic. It is necessary to underline that there is the lack of the GM research in the scope of fibrous flax.

2.5.1 The survey of potential yielding of fibrous flax in Europe

Table 2-4 The survey of the potential yields of fibrous flax in flax producing countries in Europe

Specification Belarus Czech France The Poland Russia Rep. Netherland s Total yield [t/ ha] 12.48 8.27 11.41 6.1 c/d 11.75 7.5-8.0 Ginned (deseeded) straw 11.58 8.00 10.76 6.0 10.30 5-6 yield [t/ha] c/d Seed yield [t/ha] 2.01 1.27 0.55 0.1 0.90 1.8

Total fibre content in ginned 43.7 37.6 33.32 40.0 22.0 45 straw yield [%] Long fibre content in ginned 26.0 24.1 26.76 22.5 16.9 24 straw yield [%] Short fibre content in 17.7 n/a 6.56 17.5 5.1 11 ginned straw yield [%] Yield of total fibre [t/ha] 5.060 2.51 3.584 2.4 2.266 2. 5

Yield of long fibre [t/ha] 3.011 1.66 2.879 1.35 1.740 1. 6 Yield of short fibre [t/ha] 2.049 0.85 0.705 1.05 0.525 0.9

Cultivated area average 75 000 4 822 70 8831 4 516.71 5 0913 111 9304 [ha] c/d-calculated data, n/a-not available Sources of data: Belarus: Results of the official sorts testing of crops of the Republic of Belarus in 2005-2007. Data provided by the Institute of the Agrarian Economics, Minsk, Belarus, E-mail: [email protected] Czech Rep.: Pavelek, Tejklova, Journal of Natural Fibres 2002 France: Eng. Trouvé Jean-Paul, Responsable de la Recherche, Research Manager, Terre de Lin, 76740 Saint Pierre le Viger, France, +33 (0)2 35 97 41 33, fax: +33 (0)2 35 97 13 18, www.terredelin.com the Netherlands: Ms. Eugene Van de Bilt, Van de Bilt zaden en vlas bv, PO BOX 16, 4540 AA SLUISKIL, The Netherlands, T: +31 115 471922, F.+31 115 472229, E-mail: [email protected] Poland: Computer Data Base Access 2007, the Institute of Natural Fibres, Poznan, Poland Russia: Source: 1 Alexander Goncharov, Deputy Director, Department for Public and International Relations, Federal Service of State Statistics of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia. 2 Flax Research Institute(VNIIL), Torzhok, Russia, E-mail: [email protected];

25 Table 2-5 Comparison of fibre flax yielding potential in Western and Eastern Europe Specification Western Eastern Specification Western Eastern Europe Europe Europe Europe (France) (Poland) (France) (Poland) 1 Total yield 11.41 11.75 5 Long fibre content in 26.76 16.9 [t/ha] ginned straw yield [%] 2 Ginned 10.76 10.30 6 Short fibre content 6.56 5.1 (deseeded) in ginned straw yield straw yield [%] [t/ha] 3 Seed yield 0.55 0.90 7 Yield of total fibre 3.584 2.266 [t/ha] [t/ha] 4 Total fibre 33.32 22.0 8 Yield of long fibre 2.879 1.740 content in [t/ha] ginned straw yield [%] 9 Yield of short fibre 0.705 0.525 [t/ha] Source: 1. Western Europe/France: Eng. Trouvé Jean-Paul, Responsable de la Recherche, Research Manager, Terre de Lin, 76740 Saint Pierre le Viger, France, +33 (0)2 35 97 41 33, fax: +33 (0)2 35 97 13 18, www.terredelin.com 2. Eastern Europe: the best results from 315 field trials carried out in the period 1967-2007. The results Experimental Farm of INF, Wojciechow, Poland. Computer Data Base Access 2007, the Institute of Natural Fibres, Poznan, Poland

26 2.5.2 The commercial yielding of fibrous flax Europe Table 2-6 The survey of average commercial yields of fibre flax in western and eastern Europe

Specification Years 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Average Eastern Western Eastern Western Eastern Western Eastern Western Eastern Western Eastern Western Eastern Western Eastern Western Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe 1 Ginned straw 4.49 5.40 3.23 5.20 3.57 4.95 3.85 4.45 3.56 4.75 3.46 4.80 3.62 5.60 3.68 4.99 yield [t/ha] 2 Seed yield 0.82 1.00 0.60 0.98 0.70 0.92 0.80 0.83 0.65 0.89 0.60 0.90 0.73 1.05 0.70 0.93 [t/ha] 3 Total fibre 30.00 35.30 30.20 36.10 33.60 33.90 31.10 31.80 30.80 31.20 28.80 32.30 30.70 32.10 30.74 33.50 content in ginned straw yield [%] 4 Long fibre 18.90 22.60 18.50 25.00 22.40 21.80 19.50 21.30 19.60 20.60 18.70 20.80 20.70 25 19.76 22.50 content in ginned straw yield [%] 5 Short fibre 11.10 12.70 11.70 11.10 11.20 12.10 11.60 10.40 11.20 10.50 10.10 11.50 11.00 7.10 11.13 11.00 content in ginned straw yield [%] 6 Yield of total 1.350 1.905 0.980 1.875 1.200 1.680 1.200 1.415 1.100 1.480 1.000 1.550 1.150 1.800 1.134 1.675 fibre [t/ha] 7 Yield of long 0.850 1.220 0.600 1.300 0.800 1.080 0.750 0.950 0.700 0.980 0.650 1.000 0.750 1.400 0.723 1.130 fibre [t/ha] 8 Yield of short 0.500 0.685 0.380 0.575 0.400 0.600 0.450 0.465 0.400 0.500 0.350 0.550 0.400 0.400 0.411 0.545 fibre [t/ha] 9 Cultivation 5 200 15 315 3 000 19 306 6 345 19 823 6 000 18 670 4 243 16 354 2 056 14 630 1 991 12 030 4 119 16 590 area [ha] Source: The data in the above table are based on the data achieved in the commercial scale, in the flax industries of Poland and Belgium. The data are provided by the following sources: in case of Poland— Flax and Hemp Chamber, which obtains the data from the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and the Institute of Natural Fibres data; in case of Belgium—Algemeen Belgisch Vlasverbond (Belgian Flax Association), Kortrijk, Belgium. The data from Belgium, provided by the Belgian Flax Association- the member of CELC (Confédération Européenne Du Lin et Du Chanvre) are comparable with data on fibrous flax parameters and yielding in France and the Netherlands. The next tables gather together the data regarding the average commercial yields of fibrous flax obtained in the different countries-the producers and processors of flax in Europe in some recent years.

Table 2-7 The survey of the average commercial yields of fibrous flax in flax producing countries in Europe Specification BLR BE BUL CZ DK EST FR LV LT NL PL RUS ESP UK UKR

Straw yield [t/ha] 2.73 4.99 2.261 3.11 0. 7461 0.888 7.05 n/a 3.15 5.014 4.433 2.845 1.271 3.441 2.3 1

Seed yield [t/ha]*of fibre 0.25 0.93 n/a 0.51 n/a 0.9 0.472 0.294 0.39 0.798 0.703 0.115 n/a n/a 0.23 flax Long fibre yield [t/ha] 0.304 1.125 n/a 0.412 n/a n/a 1.459 0.073 0.3.3 1.041 0.729 0.459 n/a n/a 0.149 2 3 5 - 0.565 4 Long fibre production [t] n/a n/a n/a 1 865 n/a n/a n/a 1 258 2 108 n/a 10 52 52 71 n/a n/a 4477 33 24 Short fibre yield [t/ha] 0.324 0.545 n/a 0.506 n/a n/a 0.891 n/a 0.50 0.662 0.411 0.153 n/a n/a 0.252 3 5 5

Short fibre production [t] n/a n/a n/a 2389 n/a n/a n/a n/a 3 174 n/a 5 542 158 1 n/a n/a 7841 3 366 Percentage of dew 1002 1002 n/a 100 1002 100 1002 1002 1002 1002 1003 1002 1002 1002 retting [%] 1002 Cultivated area av.[ha] 75 000 16 590 183. 31 4 822 2661 140 70 88 1 728 8 158 4 5 091 111 2 383 4 400 29 41 31 516.7 3 9304 1 1 5 1

Sources of data: calculation of average data from several years 1/ EUROSTAT 2/ EUROFLAX Bulletins of the European Cooperative Research Network on Flax and other Bast Plants, No. 22-28. 3/ Polish Flax and Hemp Chamber

Note: * for 1ha harvested area, n/a- not available Other sources than EUROSTAT regarding the particular countries are provided by: Belarus: Institute of the Agrarian Economics, Minsk, Belarus, E-mail: [email protected] Belgium: Algemeen Belgisch Vlasverbond, Kortrijk, Belgium, Tel.: +32/ 56 22 02 61, Fax +32/56 22 79 30, E-mail: [email protected] Czech Republic: P. Šmirous, H. Suchomelová, S. Krmela, ATOK Praha and Flax Union CR, Šumperk- Temenice, Czech Republic, E-mail: [email protected] Estonia: Aime Lauk, Senior Consultant of the Information and Marketing Service, Statistical Office of Estonia, Tel +372 6259 300, E-mail: [email protected] France: Dr. Trouvé Jean-Paul, Responsable de la Recherche, Research Manager, Terre de Lin, 76740 Saint Pierre le Viger, France, +33 (0)2 35 97 41 33, fax: +33 (0)2 35 97 13 18, www.terredelin.com with a help of Mr Christophe Mallet, Association Générale des Producteurs de LIN, 5, rue du Louvre- Boîte n°84, F-75 001 PARIS, Tel. 00.33.(0)1.40.41.11.66, Fax 00.33.(0)1.40.41.11.55 Latvia: U. Apels, Department of Information, Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Latvia, Riga Lithuania: LIA – The Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture Upyte Research Station, Upyte, Lithuania; E- mail: [email protected]; “Crops". 2005 (ISSN 1648-0198)-statistical bulletin of Statistikos departamentas / Statistics Lithuania, published in Vilnius, Lithuania in 2005 The Netherlands: Source: Ms. Eugene Van de Bilt, Van de Bilt zaden en vlas bv, PO BOX 16, 4540 AA SLUISKIL, The Netherlands, T: +31 115 471922, F.+31 115 472229, E-mail: [email protected]

Russia: 4/Department for Public and International Relations, Federal Service of State Statistics of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia, Fax: (7-095)207-31-86, e-mail: [email protected] and 5/Flax Research Institute(VNIIL), Torzhok, Russia, E-mail: [email protected]; 6/Calculated data Ukraine: Institute of Bast Crops, Glukhov, Sumy, Ukraine, Tel.: /Fax: 3805444 22643, E-mail: [email protected] and Prof. Dr. I. Karpets, Agriculture Institute of Ukrainian Academy of Agrarian Sciences, Chabany, Ukraine

Discussion of the presented data comparisons The major conclusions are: Potential versus commercial yielding of fibre flax in Europe The average commercial yields of fibre flax in Europe are noticed in practice on the level from 50 – 70 % of potential yielding in the countries of high level of agriculture, in the optimal climatic conditions for flax. It means, that there is still potential and the need to increase the flax yielding in the commercial scale.

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It is generally accepted, that increase of fiber flax yield production capacity is possible to achieve through following practices:  Breeding of cultivars with high functional characteristics  Optimization of agrotechnical conditions of cultivation  Regionalization of production  Because fibrous flax and hemp are non-food crops it is very important to investigate and introduce GM crop, especially e.g. resistant to drought, with low level of pectine and lignin.

2.6 Quality

Industrial processing the fibres demands homogeneous and good quality raw material. The expectations regarding flax and hemp fibre quality features depend on the final destination of fibre.

The INF&MP were elaborated the quality parameters for the following raw materials: • Long flax fibre for hackled yarns. • Short flax fibre for carded yarns. • Flax wool-like homomorphic fibre for blended yarns. • Flax cotton-like fibre for blended yarns. • Green decorticated fibre. • Flax fibre used in disinfection mats.

Long flax fibre for hackled yarns.

Table 2-8 Parameters of flax scutched and hackled fibre. Raw material Fibre length [mm] Fibre thinness [tex] Flax long scutched fibre 300-1400 4,0-6,0 Flax hackled scutched fibre 350-700 1,4-3,3 * source: INF&MP research

Short flax fibre for carded yarns.

Table 2-9 Parameters of flax tow Raw material Fibre length [mm] Fibre thinness [tex] Scutching tow 80-140 3,5-5,5 Matted tow 140-250 4,5-6,5 * source: INF&MP research

Flax wool-like homomorphic fibre for blended yarns. Flax wool-like fibre should meet the following quality parameters: - average length of fibres about 60-90 mm, - linear density max. 2.3 tex - impurities content max 0.4 %

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- maximum length of fibres 130 mm with maximum content of longer fibres not higher than 5%, - average thickness of fibres 40-50 µm.

Flax cotton-like fibre for blended yarns.

Flax noils of 170-120 (Ns10-14) grade obtained from mechanical hackling of scutched fibre is the most suitable for flax wool-like fibre production. Also so called homomorphic fibre from dew-retted straw and scutching waste fibre meeting relevant parameters are suitable for production of this type of fibre.

Green decorticated fibre.

The raw material obtained from the following sources can be used for production of decorticated fibre:

 linseed where straw contains low quality fibre,  fibrous flax plantations which produce fibre not suitable for processing into yarn, namely: - heavily weeded plantations, - seed plantations, - lodged plantations yielding curve and tangled straw, - plantations infected with diseases, - plantations yielding short and insufficiently retted straw.

Flax fibre used in disinfection mats. In production of disinfection mats based on natural fibres the flax and hemp lower grade (Ns 2) tow, is used.

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2.7 Applications: current – potential

Figure 2-9. Scheme of directions of applications of flax straw for fibre and shives.

2.8 Main directions of utilization of raw materials obtained from flax 1. Flax long fibres: a) hackled fibres for yarns for wet and dry spinning 2. Flax short fibres: a) for carded yarns b) for “wool-like yarns c) for “cotton-like’ yarns d) for twines e) flax green fibre (decorticated) f) for non-woven (e.g. disinfection mats) 3. Flax shives/ by products

Long flax fibre for worsted yarns Long flax scutched fibre is subject to a hackling process. During this process fibre is being divided into long hackled fibre and short fibre – machine noils. Long flax hackled fibre is used for traditional flax wet or dry spinning system for yarn production. For production of thinner worsted yarns the wet spinning system with boiling is used. In dry spinning system the yarns of higher linear density are produced.

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Short flax fibre for carded yarns. Short flax fibre: scutching noils and matted tow are processed in carding wet (including boiled and bleached roving) and dry spinning system. Linear density of carded yarn is a result of the fibre grade and applied spinning system.

Flax homomorphic wool-like fibre for blended yarns production. The main raw material for flax homomorphic wool-like fibre is flax dew-retted homomorphic fibre obtained from processing of dew-retted straw which was pulled earlier. A substitute of the above can be short flax dew-retted noils obtained from mechanical hackling of long flax dew-retted fibre.

Flax homomorphic cotton-like fibre for blended yarns production. The types of fibre mentioned above should be mechanically or chemically processed to meet the technological requirements of cotton-like fibre. In production of flax cottonized fibre from flax fibre the homogeneity and quality of produced fibre in terms of its length, linear density and impurities content.

Green fibre (decorticated). Fibre dimensions, especially its length over 15 mm and chemical composition makes it a good material for production long fibrous pulp which are used for production high quality paper as fillers in composite materials.

Flax fibre used in disinfection mats. Fibre for production of ecological disinfection mats are obtained by processing of first of all hemp green straw by decortication. To a lesser extent flax fibre of inferior grades can be used. The fibre obtained by this processing method are of high strength and resilience. The strength is necessary for the mat to give it required tensile strength, while resilience increases the mat absorption.

Flax products • Straw • Fibre • Shives • Seeds

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Nonwoven Pulp&paper Carded yarn Insulation Nonwoven Nets Decorticated Fibre Matted tow Cordage Fabrics •decorative •technical Fibre •bedlinen

Dew-retted Fibre

Long Short Homomorphic scutched fiber scutched fiber fiber

Long hackled fiber

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In bast fibre crops like flax, hemp the yield of waste biomass per ha is relatively low. Approximately 15-25 % of the stem dry weight is the appreciated long fibre. The woody parts (shives, hurts, stick) may be applied as light weight construction materials or burnt as (cooking) fuel. During the transformation from straw to fabric yield losses are considerable Fine and regular long flax fibres are spun into yarns for linen textiles. More than 70% of linen goes to clothing manufacture, where it is valued for its exceptional coolness in hot weather-the legendary linen suit is a symbol of breezy summer elegance. Linen fabric maintains a strong traditional niche among high quality household textiles-bed linen, furnishing fabrics, and interior decoration accessories. Natural, healthy, fresh, protective: linen is a protagonist of the fashion scene, a fibre backed by both tradition and modernity. And linen has also taken on a leading role in the knitwear sector thanks to improved technology (Safilin). Shorter flax fibres produce heavier yarns suitable for kitchen towels, sails, tents and canvas.

Fibre processing softening / lubricating hackling / carding / drawing spinning weaving finishing / dyeing / bleaching

Different grades of tow and short fibres are released during the scutching and hackling processes that are better suitable for staple fibre spinning and rope making, for non-wovens and fibre composites and in non-wood specialty paper pulp production. Lower fibre grades are used as reinforcement and filler in thermoplastic composites and thermoset resins used in automotive interior substrates, furniture and other consumer products.

2.9 Factors restricting growth and yielding potential  The main factor limiting yielding capacity of fibrous flax in the EU is global warming (rainfalls amount and high air temperatures)  Lack of fibrous flax cultivars resistant to drought and high temperatures  Lack of flax cultivation technology adapted to climate change (high temperatures, drought)  Average area of flax field in EU is too small to obtain high lots of good quality fibre  High differentiation of flax cultivation conditions (weather, cultivation technology) and dew retting (weather) is the factor limiting obtaining high lots of good quality fibre

2.10 Research gaps

• Development of Linum gene map, identification of genes responsible for fibre yield and its quality • Breeding of flax cultivars with higher resistance to drought and high temperature • Flax cultivation technologies suitable for global warming • Environmental friendly methods of fibrous flax cultivation • Optimization of dew retting methods of flax straw • New, cost effective methods of flax straw degumming

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2.11 References Plant morphology and anatomy  Barnes D K, Culbertson J O, Lambert J W (1960), Inheritance of seed and flower colors in flax. Agron. J. 52, 456-459  Bi Fu Y, Diederichsen A and Richards K (2002),’Molecular characterization of 2800 flax accessions at plant gene resources of Canada with RAPD markers’, Proceedings of the 59th Flax Institute of the United States, March 21-23, 144-149.  Dempsey J M (1975), Fiber crops, Gainesville, University of Florida Press.  Marchenkov A, Rozhmina T, Ushapovski I and Muir A D (2003), Cultivation of flax in: Flax The Genus Linum, Saskatoon, ed. Muir and Westcott.  Marshall G, Morrison I and Nawolsky K (1988), ‘Studies on the physiology of Linum usitatissimum L.: The application of mathematical growth analysis’, Proceedings of the EEC Flax Workshop, held in Brussels, Belgium, 4-5 May, 1988, 39-47.  Muir A D and Westcott N D (2003), Flax The Genus Linum, Saskatoon, ed. Muir and Westcott.  Sultana C (1983), ‘The cultivation of fibre flax’, Outlook of Agric,12, 104-110.  Tammes T (1928) The genetics of the genus Linum. Bibliographica Genetica 4, 1-36  Tobler F (1928), Der Flachs, als Faser – und Őlpflanze, Berlin.  Wannemacher R (1949), Der Flachs, Wien. Area of origin  A. Daenekindt: Algemeen Belgisch Vlasverbond, Oude Vestingsstraat 15, B-8500 Kortrijk, Belgium, e-mail: [email protected]  FAOSTAT Statistical Database Results 1997 http://apps.fao.org  Mr. Jordi Petchamé Ballabriga, Administrateur, Olives, huile d’olive et plantes textiles, D.G. VI.C.4-Loi 130 7/126, European Commission, Rue de la Loi 200, B-1049, Bruxelles, Belgium  Polish Chamber of Flax and Hemp, office at the Institute of Natural Fibres, Poznan, Poland, t.: +48-61 8 455 851, f.: +48 61 8 417 830, [email protected], data provided by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development.  54ème Congrès CELC – Berlin, Réunion d'information Générale / Section commune Culture- Teillage  CELC/MASTERS OF LINEN, 15, rue du Louvre, 75001 Paris, France, t.: +33(0)1 42 21 06 83, f.: +33(0)1 42 21 48 22, e-mail: [email protected]  Research Institute of Industrial Crops of Heilong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China, 150086, t:(86)0451-55261351, f.(86)451866 77431, E-mail: [email protected]  Dir. Victor M. Kabanets, Institute of Bast Crops of NAAN, Lenina 45, 245130 Glukhov, Sumy, Ukraine, t./f: 3805444 22643, [email protected]  Prof. Dr. D. M. El-Hariri, The Network Representative in the Near East, NRC, Cairo, Egypt, e-mail: [email protected]; acc. to Agricultural Economics Bulletins of the Central Administration for Agricultural Economics and Statistics of Egypt.  Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Poland (basing on European Commission documents)  Data of European Commission, DG AGRI of May 2008, Doc. No 9875/08  Document of EC: AGRI.C.5 o data from LIA - The Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture and Forest, Upyte Research Station, Lithuania, e-mail: [email protected]

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o note: in all tables the mark °/ means data not available  Flax Research Institute(VNIIL), Torzhok, Russia, E-mail: [email protected]  Dr. Anatolij A. Lopatniuk, Institute for Agrarian Economy of the National Academy of the Republic of Belarus, Kazintsa st., 103, 220108 Minsk, Republic of Belarus,. T.: +375 (17) 21231 27, e-mail: [email protected] Growing conditions  Agosti M B, Sorlino D and Trapani N (2005), ‘How does light intensity affect the elementary fiber length in flax?’, J Nat Fib, 2/1, 15-24.  Allam A (2004), ‘Flax Latest Diagnostic’, J Nat Fib, 11,109-110.  Andruszewska A, Langner K, Byczynska M (2001), ‘The economical aspect of trace elements containing fungicides and fertilizers application in flax cultivation’, Nat Fib 2001/1, 281-282.  Beaudoin X (1989), ‘Disease and Pest Control’, Proceedings of the EEC Flax Workshop, held in Brussels, Belgium, 4-5 May, 1988, 81-88.  Brayford D (1996), ‘Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Lini. IMI description of fungi and bacteria’, Mycopath,133, 49-51.  Brundtland G H (1989), ‘Global change and our common future’, Environment, 31.5  Burdon J and Jarosz A (1992), ‘Temporal variation in the racial structure of flax rust (Melampsora lini) populations growing on natural stands of wild flax (Linum marginale): local versus metapopulation dynamics’, Plant Path, 41, 165-179.  Convey R P (1962), ‘Field resistance of flax to pasmo’,Phytopath, 52, 1-34.  Decanniere R (1989), ‘Flax, an Alternative Crop in the EEC ?’, Proceedings of the EEC Flax Workshop, held in Brussels, Belgium, 4-5 May, 1988, 149-154.  Dempsey J M (1975), Fiber crops, Gainesville, University of Florida Press.  Dodd R, Foulk J and Akin D (2000), ‘Flax as winter crop in the south-eastern United States’, Proceedings of the 58th Flax Institute of the United States, March 23-25, 192-199.  Easson D L (1989), ‘The agronomy of flax and its effect on fibre yield and quality following glyphosate desiccation’, Proceedings of the EEC Flax Workshop, held in Brussels, Belgium, 4-5 May, 1988, 61-70.  El-Hariri D M, Hassanein M and Ahmed M (1998), ‘Effect of different NPK rates productivity of flax’, Nat FibrSpec Ed, Proceedings of the hemp, flax and other bast fibrous plants – production, technology and ecology symposium, 20-27.  El-Hariri D M, Hassanein M S, and El-Sweify A H M (2004), ‘Evaluation of some flax genotypes straw yield, yield components and technological characters’, J Nat Fib, 1,2, 1- 12.  El-Hariri D M, Al-Kordy M A, Hassanein M S and Ahmed M A (2004), ‘Partition of photosynthates and energy production in different flax cultivars‘, J Nat Fib, 1,4, 1-15.  El-Shimy G H, Mostafa S H A and Zedan S Z (1997), ‘Studies on yield and yield components, quality and variability in some flax genotypes’, Egypt Agric Res, 75, 697-715.  Endres G, Hanson B, Halvorson M, Schatz B and Henson B (2002), ‘Flax response to nitrogen and seeding rates’, Proceedings of the 59th Flax Institute of the United States, March 21-23, 196-198.  Evans N, McRoberts N, Hitchcock D and Marshall G (1995), ‘Screening for resistance to Alternaria linicola (Groves and Skolko) in Linum usitatissimum L. using a detached cotyledon assay’, Ann Appl Biol, 127, 263-271.  Fernandez-Quintanilla C, Quandranti M, Kudsk P and Barberi P (2008), ‘Which future for weed science?’, Weed Research, 48, 297-301.  Fouilloux G (1988), ‘Breeding flax methods’, Proceedings of the EEC Flax Workshop, held in Brussels, Belgium, 4-5 May, 1988, 14-25.

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 Francis C A, Poincelot R P and Bird G W (2006), Developing and Extending Sustainable Agriculture, New York – London – Oxford, HFAPP.  Friesen G H (1988), ’Annual grass control in flax (Linum usitatissimum) with quizalofop’, Weed Technol, 2, 144-146.  Gheorge M (1987), ‘Aspects concerning the ecology and control of the flax thrips Thrips linarius Uzel. (in Romanian)’, Analele Institutului de Cercetari pentru Cereale si Plante Technice Fundulea, 54, 355-361.  Gheorge M, Brudea V, Bigiu L and Popescu F (1990), ‘Elements of integrated control of diseases and pests of flax (in Romanian)’, Analele Institutului de Cercetari pentru Protectia Plantelor, Academia de Stiinte Agricole si Silvice, 23, 203-207.  Grant C A and Bailey L D (1989), ‘The influence of Zn and P fertilizer on the dry matter yield and nutrient content of flax (Linum usistatissimum L.) on the soils varying in Ca and Mg level’, Can J Soil Sci, 69, 461-472.  Harwood J, McComrick P, Waldron D and Bonadei R (2008), ‘Evaluation of flax accessions for high value textile end uses’, Ind Crops and Products, 27, 22-28.  Haydock P J and Pooley R J (1997), ‘Evaluation of insecticides for control of flax beetle in linseed’, Tests of Agrochem and Cultiv, 18, 4-5.  Harris D and Hossel J E (2001), ‘Weed management constrains under climate change’, The BCPC Conference – Weeds, 91-97.  Heller K (1992), ‘Concentration of segetal weeds on flax plantation and the possibilities of combating them by chemical methods’, Nat Fibr, 35/36, 23-28.  Heller K (2001), ‘Monitoring and prognosis of weed infestation on fibre flax in Poland’, Nat Fibr, Spec Ed,1, 286-288.  Heller K (2005), ‘The technologies of fibre flax growing in sustainable development agriculture’, J Agr Sci and Forest Sci., 4, 141-145.  Heller K, Andruszewska A, Grabowska L, Wielgusz K (2006), ‘Fibre Flax and Hemp Protection in Poland and in the World’, Prog in Plant Prot, 46,1, 88-98.  Heller K and Rolski St (2001), ‘Ecological Aspects of Utilization of Herbicides in Fibrous Plant Cultivation’, Chem for Agr, 2, 96-99.  Jankauskiene Z, Gruzdeviene E and Endriukaitis A (2004), ‘Protection of fibre flax crop against flea beetles and seedling blight using compound seed-dressers’, J Nat Fib,14, 37- 57.  Mankowski J and Szukala J (1998), ‘The influence of agronomic factors stimulating obtaining of homomorphic flax fibre with refined utility features’, Nat Fibr, Spec Ed. 1, 47- 55.  Marchenkov A, Rozhmina T, Ushapovski I and Muir A D (2003), Cultivation of flax in: Flax The Genus Linum, Saskatoon, ed. Muir and Westcott.  Marshal G, Hack C M and Kirkwood R C (1995) ‘Volunteer barley interference in fibre flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), Weed Res 35, 51-56.  Muir A D and Westcott N D (2003), Flax The Genus Linum, Saskatoon, ed. Muir and Westcott.  Rashid Y K (2003), Principal diseases of flax in: Flax, The Genus Linum, Saskatoon, ed. Muir and Westcott.  Rolski St, Andruszewska A, Grabowska L and Heller K (2000), ‘Breeding and cultivation of fibrous crops’, Nat Fibr, Spec jub ed, 31-41.  Sharma L C and Mathur R I (1971), ‘Variability in first single spore isolated of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. Lini. Rajasthan’, Indian Phytopath, 24, 698-704.

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 Saharan G S and Saharan M S (1994), ‘Conidial size, germination and appressioral formation of Oidium lini Skoric, cause of powdery mildew of linseed’, Indian J Mycol Pl Pathol, 24, 176-178.  Singh N D and Chauhan Y S (1988), ‘Genetics of resistance to Alternaria lini in linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.)’, Indian J Agric Sci, 58, 550-551.  Sultana C (1983), ‘The cultivation of fibre flax’, Outlook of Agric,12, 104-110.  Šmirous P (1989), ‘Weed Control in Czechoslovakia’, Flax in Europe – Proc Euro Reg Work on Flax, 71-77.  Witzenberger A (1991), ‘A uniform decimal code for growth stages of crops and weeds’, Ann Appl Biol, 119, 561-601.  Xinwen L (1997), ‘Analysis of ecological adaptation of flax in dry and cool areas in China’, Nat Fibr, Spec ed, Proceedings of the flax and other bast plants symposium, 43-48. Logistics  Baraniecki P., Kaniewski R., Mankowski J. 1996. The Technology of Flax Processing for Production of Long Fibre Pulp. Proceedings of Niches in the World of Textiles. Tampere, Finlandia.  Baraniecki P., Cierpucha W., Mankowski J., Rynduch W. 1997. Proecological Utilisation of Natural Fibres (Flax and Hemp) for Clothes Production. Proceedings of Natural and Natural Polymer Fibres. Huddersfield, Great Britain  Baraniecki P., Kaniewski R., Mankowski J., Rynduch W. 1997. Versatile Line for Homomorphic Flax and Hemp Fibres (Retted and Raw Ones). Proceedings of Flax and Other Bast Plants. Poznan. Poland  Kaniewski R., Mankowski J., Rynduch W. 1998. Modern Technology of Flax and Hemp Processing for the Textile and Cellulose-Paper Industries. Proceedings of Hemp and Other Fibrous Plants-Production-Technology-Ecology. FAO. Poznan. Poland Yields  Kozlowski R1, Heller K. 2, Mankowski J.2, Kolodziej J.2, Kubacki A.2, Grabowska L.2, Mackiewicz-Talarczyk M.1,2, P. Baraniecki2, Praczyk.2, Burczyk H.2, Kolodziejczyk P.2. 1ESCORENA Focal Point, 2Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants, Poznan, Poland. (2009): Yielding Potential of Bast Fibrous Plants in Europe. SCIENTIFIC BULLETIN OF ESCORENA, Vol.1, pp. 27 – 44, ISSN 2066-5687 (Publications of results project 4FCROPS, Partner: the Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants, Poznan, Poland)  El-Shimy G H, Mostafa S H A and Zedan S Z (1997), ‘Studies on yield and yield components, quality and variability in some flax genotypes’, Egypt Agric Res, 75, 697- 715. Quality  Kozlowski R.1, Mankowski J.2, Kolodziej J. 2, Mackiewicz-Talarczyk M.1,2, Baraniecki P.2. 1ESCORENA Focal Point, 2Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants, Poznan, Poland. (2009). Bast Fibrous Plants Raw Materials Characteristic and their Applications. SCIENTIFIC BULLETIN OF ESCORENA, Vol.1, pp. 53 – 63, ISSN 2066-5687(Publications of results project 4FCROPS, Partner: the Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants, Poznan, Poland)  Harwood J, McComrick P, Waldron D and Bonadei R (2008), ‘Evaluation of flax accessions for high value textile end uses’, Ind Crops and Products, 27, 22-28. Praca zbiorowa pod redakcja A. Chocianowicza Poradnik brakarza wlokna lnianego i konopnego. Instytut Krajowych Wlokien Naturalnych. Poznan 1987.

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 Zylinski T. Nauka o wloknie. Fibre Knowledge. Wydawnictwo Przemyslu Lekkiego i Spozywczego. Warszawa 1958. Polish standards regarding flax raw materials quality • Polish Standard - Polska Norma PN-P-80104. Surowce wlokiennicze. Wlokno lniane dlugie trzepane i czesane biologicznie. Wymagania. • Polish Standard - Polska Norma PN-P-80105. Surowce wlokiennicze. Wlokno lniane krotkie. Wymagania. • Polish Branch Standard - Norma Branzowa BN-85/7522-02. Wlokno lniane krotkie biologiczne. • Polish Standard - Polska Norma PN-P-80102. Pazdzierze lniane i konopne. • Polish Standard - Polska Norma PN-P-80103. Sloma lnu wloknistego. • Polish Standard - Norma branzowa BN-78/7511-17. Sloma lnu wloknistego surowa. • Polish Branch Standard - Norma branzowa BN-80/7511-01. Sloma lnu wloknistego biologiczna. • Polish Branch Standard - Polska Norma PN-R-65023. Material siewny. Nasiona roslin rolniczych.  Mankowski J., Cierpucha W., Kolodziej J., Mankowski T. – Cottonized Flax and Temp Fibre as a Raw Material for the Production of blended Yarns, Renewable Resources and Plant Biotechnology, Nova Science Publisher Inc. 2006, 63-68.  Cierpucha W., Czaplicki Z., Mankowski J., Kolodziej J., Zareba S., Szporek J. „Analysis of properties of rotor-spun cotton and blended yarns, Fibres & Textiles in Eastern Europe No. 5/2006, 80-83.  Kozlowski R., Mankowski J., Kubacki A. – Efficient Technology for the Production of Decorticated Hemp and Flax Fibres and Linseed as a Raw Material for Different Industries. Journal of Naturals Fibers vol. 1, nr 2/2004, 107-108.  Mankowski J., Kaniewski R., Kubacki A. – Composite Elements for Automotive Industry – Natural Fibres – Special Edition 2001/1, 430-431. Factors restricting growth and yielding potential  Allen P (1993), Connecting the social and the ecological in sustainable agriculture. In: Food for the future: Conditions and contradictions for sustainability, New York, John Wiley & Sons.  Mankowski J and Szukala J (1998), The influence of agronomic factors stimulating obtaining of homomorphic flax fibre with refined utility features, Nat Fibr, Spec Ed. 1, 47-55.  Mertz U O and Callaghan M (1997), Towards sustainability: an essential development for European agriculture. Proceedings of the Fiftieth New Zealand Plant Protection Conference, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand, 18-21 August, 493-497. Research gaps  Dempsey J M (1975), Fiber crops, Gainesville, University of Florida Press.  Easson D L (1989), ‘The agronomy of flax and its effect on fibre yield and quality following glyphosate desiccation’, Proceedings of the EEC Flax Workshop, held in Brussels, Belgium, 4-5 May, 1988, 61-70.  El-Shimy G H, Mostafa S H A and Zedan S Z (1997), ‘Studies on yield and yield components, quality and variability in some flax genotypes’, Egypt Agric Res, 75, 697- 715.  Fouilloux G (1988), ‘Breeding flax methods’, Proceedings of the EEC Flax Workshop, held in Brussels, Belgium, 4-5 May, 1988, 14-25.

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 Francis C A, Poincelot R P and Bird G W (2006), Developing and Extending Sustainable Agriculture, New York – London – Oxford, HFAPP.  Gheorge M, Brudea V, Bigiu L and Popescu F (1990), ‘Elements of integrated control of diseases and pests of flax (in Romanian)’, Analele Institutului de Cercetari pentru Protectia Plantelor, Academia de Stiinte Agricole si Silvice, 23, 203-207.  Harwood J, McComrick P, Waldron D and Bonadei R (2008), ‘Evaluation of flax accessions for high value textile end uses’, Ind Crops and Products, 27, 22-28.  Heller K (2005), ‘The technologies of fibre flax growing in sustainable development agriculture’, J Agr Sci and Forest Sci., 4, 141-145.  Heller K and Biskupski M (2002), ‘Fiber flax – the crop especially predisposed for sustainable agriculture?’, Proceedings of the 59th Flax Institute of the United State, March 21-23, 192-199.  (http://www.sustainabletable.org/intro/whatis/)  Kotler P, Armstrong G, and Wong V (1996), Principles of Marketing - European Edition.  Kozlowski R, Manys S and Mackiewicz-Talarczyk M (1998), ‘Present situation and future prospects in the field of flax and hemp production/processing’, Nat Fbr Spec Ed, 2, 22- 31.  Kozlowski R and Manys St (1994), ‘Flax 2000 - the renaissance of the oldest fibrous Plant ?’, Natural Fibres, 38, 71-75.  Mankowski J and Szukala J (1998), ‘The influence of agronomic factors stimulating obtaining of homomorphic flax fibre with refined utility features’, Nat Fibr, Spec Ed. 1, 47-55.  Marshall G, Morrison I and Nawolsky K (1988), ‘Studies on the physiology of Linum usitatissimum L.: The application of mathematical growth analysis’, Proceedings of the EEC Flax Workshop, held in Brussels, Belgium, 4-5 May, 1988, 39-47.  Mertz U O and Callaghan M (1997), ‘Towards sustainability: an essential development for European agriculture. Proceedings of the Fiftieth New Zealand Plant Protection Conference, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand, 18-21 August, 493-497.  Zika-Prandl V (2008), ‘From subsistence farming towards a multifunctional agriculture: Sustainability in the Chinese rural reality’,J of Environ Manag, 87, 236-248.

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3 GIANT REED (Arundo donax L.)

3.1 Plant anatomy

Arundo donax is a tall, perennial C3 grass that belongs to the subfamily Arundinoideae of the Gramineae family (Perdue 1958, Tucker 1990).

Figure 3-1 Arundo donax plantations at early stages of growth and at flowering stage (source: CRES).

It grows in dense clumps; the stems can reach a height up to 8-9 m, exhibiting growth rates of 0.3 to 0.7 m per week over a period of several months during the vegetative stage when conditions are favourable (Perdue, 1958). Stems are arising during the whole growing period from the large knotty rhizomes. They do not all emerge at the same time and later emerging shoots fail to grow well and often die off, probably due to shading. The fleshy, almost bulbous, creeping rootstocks (rhizomes) form compact masses from which develop tough fibrous roots that penetrates deeply into soil. The rhizomes usually lie close to the soil surface (5-15 cm deep, maximum 50 cm), while the roots are more than 100 cm long (Sharma et al. 1998). The root system has two functions: to hold the plant in a stationary position and to absorb the water and nutrients from the soil. The culms reach a diameter of 1-4 cm and are commonly branched in plantations that are two years or older. They are upright, stout, glabrous, and hollow, with walls 2-7 mm thick and divided by partitions at the nodes. The nodes vary in length reaching up to 30 cm. The outer tissue of the stem is of a siliceous nature, very hard and brittle with a smooth glossy surface that turns plane golden yellow when the culm is fully mature (Duke, 1983; Tucker, 1990). Inflorescence appears from August to November but not all shoots flower in the same year.

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3.2 Domestication and area of origin A. donax is thought to be originated from Asia (Boose 1999, Rossa et al. 1998) but also considered as a native species to the countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. It is currently found growing in India, Burma, China, Southern Africa, Australia, America, and regions adjoining the Nile River and in the Mediterranean area (Veselack and Lisbet, 1981).

Figure 3-2 Distribution of giant reed in the USA (Source: http://plants.usda.gov/maps/large/AR/ARDO4.png

In the 1980’ it was introduced in the USA as an ornamental and for erosion control but recently it is reported there as invasive species that crowds out native species; causes fire and flooding problems (http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/aquatics/giantreed.shtml)

3.3 Growing conditions A. donax tolerates a wide variety of ecological conditions. It prefers well-drained soils with abundant soil moisture. It can withstand to a wide variety of climatic conditions and soils from heavy clays to loose sands and gravelly soils (Perdue, 1996) and tolerates soils of low

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quality such as saline ones, too (Singh et al. 1997). A. donax is a warm-temperate or subtropical species, but it is able to survive frost. When frosts occur after the initiation of spring growth it is subject to serious damage. It has a broad photosynthetic temperature optimum between 24o and 30oC. The establishment is the most critical point of A. donax cultivation and has strong influences on productivity and economical viability. The two main factors determining establishment success and costs are the propagation material and the planting density. Because of seed sterility only vegetative propagation is foreseen for the commercial production of A. donax. Planting of rhizomes, whole stems and stem cuttings have been tested but appropriate machinery for these operations is not yet available (Pari, 1996; Veccheit et al. 1996). In the tests done so far the rhizome establishment turned out most promising. The planting of large rhizome pieces with well-developed buds directly into the field early in spring in Southern European areas had nearly 100% success (Christou et al. 1995). However, this is a very costly labor-intensive method as this includes digging the rhizomes, transporting them to the site, keeping them wet for a certain period, cutting them in smaller pieces and then planting them in the new field.

3.4 Logistics: harvesting/handling Arundo donax can be harvested each year or every second year, depending on its use. Two harvests per growing period are feasible but repeated clipping could not sustain high growth rates and the total production declined (Sharma et al. 1998). For energy production purposes, in southern EU regions harvesting is recommended to be carried out in late winter in order to reduce the moisture content of the stems.

3.5 Production-Yields The production potential of Arundo donax can reach up to 100t fresh matter year-1 ha-1 in the second or third growing period under optimal conditions in a warm climate and by supplying it with sufficient water (Shatalov and Pereira, 2001). According to Morgana and Sardo (1995) in Sicily a mature plantation of giant reed yielded over 40 t DM ha-1 indicating that this high potential for dry matter production brings promise of even higher production if cultivation’s limitations would be overcome. Yields reported in Spain showed 45.9 t DM ha-1 on average, ranging from 29.6 to 63.1 t (Hidalgo and Fernadez, 2001). In Greece, the recorded average DM yields, estimated from 40 giant reed populations, for the first, second third and fourth growing periods were 15, 20, 30 and 39t ha-1, respectively, on irrigated small plots. Stems constituted the largest part of the harvested material and amounted, on average, for 67, 87, 83 and 86% of the DM, for the first, second third and fourth growing periods, respectively. The results show increasing yields from the first to the third year. Since from the third year on stable, increasing and decreasing yields were measured no clear conclusion can be drawn on when the maximum yields of giant reed are achieved.

3.6 Applications: current/potential Giant reed can be used as a fiber and energy crop.

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The calorific value of different aerial parts, for a number of A. donax populations grown in Greece, ranged from 17.3 to 18.8 MJ (stem) and 14.8 to 18.2 kg-1 DM (leaves) depending on the population and the growing periods. Leaf samples of plants grown without irrigation had statistically higher calorific value (17.2 MJ kg-1 DM) in comparison to the irrigated treatments (16.1 MJ kg-1 DM). Because of lower ash contents of the biomass irrigation slightly increased the contents of volatiles in stems, too; they ranged from 75-77 % of DM. The contents of ash and fixed carbon contents ranged, in dependence of the population and the growing period, from 4.8 to 7.4 % and 17.7 to 19.4 % of DM, respectively. Apart from the physical attributes of stems the high measured values for ash should be attributed to the contribution of sheath as well as of impurities such as sand, which raise the ash content. At the February harvest the N content in stems ranged from 0.2-0.4% and reached 1 % of DM in the leaves. Compared to the plants that received 60 kg N ha-1, the highly fertilized plants (120 kg of N ha-1) had significantly higher nitrogen content in stems 94 days after fertilization and in leaves 30 and 60 days after fertilization. The higher nitrogen content in stems and leaves of the highly fertilized plants remained until the end of the growing season, though it was not statistically significant. The fuel characteristics of Arundo such as calorific value (4119-4489 and 3526-4346kcal/kg odm for stems and leaves, respectively), nitrogen (0.2-0.4 and 1% on odm for stems and leaves, respectively), volatiles (75-77% on odm), ash (4.8-7.4% on odm) and fixed carbon (17.7-19.4% on odm) content of stems can be considered satisfactory for energy production. The rather high ash content found in giant reed samples indicates the probable need for automatic ash removal equipment in combustion systems. Calorific value has been estimated to 18.27 MJ/kg on dry basis, which is considered as quite high.

3.7 Restricting factors and research gaps Because high yields were obtained from unimproved wild populations and by using conventional cultivation methods future breeding efforts and optimized production methods will probably lead to an increase in biomass yields from A. donax. Giant reed has been investigated in two EU projects: a) FAIR CT86 2028 “Giant reed” and b) ENK CT 2001 00524 “Bioenergy chains from perennial crops in South Europe”.

3.8 References [1] Boose AB, Holt JS. 1999. Environmental effects on asexual reproduction in Arundo donax. Weed Research. 39: 117-127. [2] Christou M, Mardikis M, Alexopoulou E. 2001. Research on the effect of irrigation and nitrogen upon growth and yields of Arundo donax L. in Greece. Aspects of Applied Biology 65, Biomass and energy crops. p 47-55. [3] Duke, J. A. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops (http://www.hort.purde.edu) [4] Hidalgo M, Fernandez J. Biomass production of ten populations of giant reed (Arundo donax L.) under the environmental conditions of Madrid (Spain). 2001. In: Kyritsis S, Beenackers AACM, Helm P, Grassi A, Chiaramonti D, editors. Biomass for Energy and

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Industry: Proceeding of the 1st World Conference, Sevilla, Spain, 5-9 June 2000. London: James & James (Science Publishers) Ltd, p .1881-1884. [5] Morgana B, Sardo V. 1995. Giant reeds and C4 grasses as a source of biomass. In: Chartier P, Beenackers AACM, Grassi G, editors. Biomass for energy, environment, agriculture and industry: Proceedings of the 8th European Biomass Conference, Vienna, Austria, 3-5 October 1994. Oxford: Pergamon, p. 700-706. [6] Pari L. 1996. First trials on Arundo donax and miscanthus rhizomes harvesting. In: Chartier P., Ferrero G.L., Henius UM, Hultberg S, Sachau J, Wiinblad M, Chartier P, editors. Biomass for energy and the environment: Proceedings of the 9th European Bioenergy Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, 24-27 June 1996. New York: Pergamon , p. 889-894. [7] Perdue RE. 1958. Arundo donax - Source of musical reeds and industrial cellulose. Economic Botany, 12: 368-404. [8] Rossa B, Tuffers AV, Naidoo G, von Willert DJ. 1998. Arundo donax L. (Poaceae) - a C3 species with unusually high photosynthetic capacity. Botanica Acta, 111, 216-221. [9] Sharma KP, Kushwaha SPS, Gopal B. 1998. A comparative study of stand structure and standing crops of two wetland species, Arundo donax and Phragmites karka, and primary production in Arundo donax with observations on the effect of clipping. Tropical Ecology 39(1), 39. [10] Shatalov AA, Pereira H. 2001. Arundo donax L. (giant reed) as a source of fibres for paper industry: Perspectives for modern ecologically friendly pulping technologies. In: Kyritsis S, Beenackers AACM, Helm P, Grassi A, Chiaramonti D, editors. Biomass for Energy and Industry: Proceeding of the 1st World Conference, Sevilla, Spain, 5-9 June 2000. London: James & James (Science Publishers) Ltd, p. 1183-1186. [11] Singh, C., Kumar, V. and Pacholi, R.K. 1997. Growth performance3 of Arundo donax (reed grass) under difficult site conditions of Doon valley for erosion control. Indian Forester, 73-76. [12] Tucker GC. 1990. The genera of Arundinoideae (Graminae) in the southeastern United States. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 71(2), 145-177. [13] Vecchiet M, Jodice R, Pari L, Schenone G. 1996. Techniques and costs in the production of Giant reed (Arundo donax L.) rhizomes. In: Chartier P., Ferrero G.L., Henius UM, Hultberg S, Sachau J, Wiinblad M, Chartier P, editors. Biomass for energy and the environment: Proceedings of the 9th European Bioenergy Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, 24-27 June 1996. New York: Pergamon, 654-659. [14] Veselack MS, Nisbet JJ. 1981. The distribution and uses of Arundo donax. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci., 90-92.

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4 FIBRE HEMP (Cannabis sativa L.) Fam. Cannabinaceae

Figure 4-1 Cannabis sativa

4.1 Fibre hemp morphology and anatomy Seed The fruit of hemp is a nut, commonly called a seed. It has spherical-oval shape slightly flattened from both sides, gray-green with a characteristic, marble-like pattern on the shell. Hemp nut consists of lignified ovary, seed shell, and embryo with cotyledons, apical bud, radicle and endosperm. Main chemical components of a seed are: fats – 25-38%, protein – about 25% and carbohydrates 25%.

Figure 4-2 Hemp nut Figure 4-3 Hemp seeds

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Stem

A stem of hem grown for fibre – at higher sowing densities – does not branch and has about 6-13 mm of diameter. At low sowing densities, on seed plantations and especially in case of single plants, the stem strongly branches. The height of plants varies from 150-200 cm till 400 and even more cm. Anatomy of hemp (Fig. 3) stem is characteristic for this species. Hemp stem is built of a cortex, parenchyma, a ring of primary bast and rings of secondary bast and wood. A layer of bast in hemp, that becomes fibre after proper processing, lies directly under the cortex. It is arranged in bundles of tidily adhering cells of bast glued with a pectin and joint with so called anastomosises.

Figure 4-4 Hemp stem cross and longitudinal section

The fibre is not distributed regularly in a stem. The highest concentration of fibre is found in the middle part of the stem. At the very bottom of the stem, at so called root neck, it is strongly lignified and has no technological value. Going to the top of the stem, the concentration of fibre decreases and in the middle of the inflorescence it is so low that the top of the stem can be easily broken. Therefore, the section of the stem from the root neck till the middle of the inflorescence is called a technical length to distinguish it from the total length of a hemp plant. The fibre in the stem is arranged in form of rings of primary and secondary fibre. The latter can be found mainly in the bottom part of the stem, while there is no secondary fibre in the top part of the stem. The highest concentration of primary fibre can be found in the middle part of the stem. The secondary fibre is formed later in the development of the plant and decreases the technological value of the fibre while it is strongly lignified, stiff and it is difficult to divide. The quality and amount of fibre in the stem is an effect of numerous natural and agricultural factors, mostly on the cultivar (genetic potential), type of soil and fertilizers supply, sowing density, time of harvesting, etc.

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Leaves The internodes on the stem produce one pair of leaves. The palmatipartite leaves grow on leaf petioles and are divided into lancet-shape sections. The number of sections (5-11) differs, depending on the location on the stem. The closer to the top of the stem, the number of section is lower. On the top of the male plant, the leave consists only of the one single section. I the bottom and middle part of the stem, the leaves are arranged opposite, while within the inflorescence – alternately. The leaves fade gradually and fall off the plant as the plant matures. Root system Hemp has a strong tap root system, reaching 1.5-2 m deep into the soil. Till 80 cm of depth the roots branch strongly into following side branch levels, spreading perpendicularly reaching about 1 m from the main root. The main root mass is located about 20-40 cm from the top of the soil. The development of the root system depends, among others, on the level of ground water level, hence the depth of root system forming of hemp growing in peat soils is only 50-60 cm [8]. Flower The inflorescence of hemp is a panicle. Hemp, being naturally a dioecious species is characterized by a clear dimorphism of sex. Male plants form loose, strongly branched panicle with very low number of leaves while female produce compact panicles with lots of small leaves. A male flower has five stamens: anthers set on long filaments and five sepals. A female flower is located in a green, rolled in the form of sheath bractlets and has a single-chamber ovary. The stigmas reach out from a narrow slit during flowering.

4.2 Area of origin and current cultivation Hemp origin is Middle Asia, at the feet of Himalaya, from where it migrated to Eastern and Southern Asia. Hemp has been first grown in China 5000 years ago and from there it was spread to the whole world. Hemp was grown and still is grown mainly for fibre and seed but also as a source of narcotics (9tetrahydrocannabinol). It is or was grown in recent past on all continents except Antarctica from tropics till Northern Europe (as far as 70° north altitude).

Today, hemp is grown for fibre mainly in China, Europe (Russia, France, Ukraine, United Kingdom, Germany, Poland, Spain, Italy, Czech Republic, Romania) and also in Canada. The area of cultivation, however, is much smaller than other crops.

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15000

11326

10000

5000

1197 886 0 142 58 136 0 40 452 307 0

Belgia Dania Łotwa Litwa Francja Austria Polska Czechy Niemcy Holandia

Wielka Brytania

Figure 4-5 Current hemp cultivation area in EU

4.3 Fibre hemp growing conditions – input requirements Varieties registered in EU (February 2011)

Variety name/country of origin

Asso IT Beniko PL Bialobrzeskie PL Cannakomp HU Carma IT Carmagnola IT Chamaeleon NL Codimono IT CS IT Delta-llosa ES Delta-405 ES Denise RO Diana RO Dioica 88 FR Epsilon 68 FR Fasamo FR Fedora 17 FR, CH Fédrina 74 FR Felina 32 FR Félina 34 FR Férimon FR Férimon 12 FR Fibranova IT Fibrimor IT Fibrol HU

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Finola FI Futura 75 FR Futura 77 FR KC Dora HU Kompolti HU Kompolti hibrid TC HU Lipko HU Lovrin 110 RO Monoica HU Red petiole IT Santhica 23 FR Santhica 27 FR Santhica 70 FR Silesia PL Silvana RO Szarvasi HU Tiborszállási HU Tygra PL Uniko B HU Uso-31 UA Wielkopolskie PL Zenit RO Soil requirements

Hemp has high soil requirements. The soils must be fertile, structural, with stabilized water conditions. Mostly the soils suitable for hemp cultivation are black earths, chernozem, alluvial soil, less, lime soils reach in humus and well meliorated peat. Hemp is very sensitive to the pH of the soil. The optimum pH for hemp is 7.1-7.6. Therefore, the soil should be limed when the acidity drops below those values. Hemp should not be grown on soils where the pH is below 6.0.

Soil cultivation

The hemp has no special requirements for the preceding crop. Hemp grows well after root crops grown on manure, legume crops, it even can be grown for few years on the same field. When growing for seeds, a special attention should be pain to weeds, especially to Elymus repens (L.) Gould. Hemp, especially when grown for fibre (at high sowing densities and sown in narrow row spacing), is very competitive to weeds, giving no chances for any weed to grow. It also improves the structure of the soil (deep root system) and leaves a very good stem for the fallowing crops.

In tillage, a special attention should be paid to conducting a deep ploughing before winter and applying lime if necessary. To avoid problems with weeds at the beginning of the vegetation before winter ploughing, a shallow ploughing should be done and afterwards the field should be harrowed few times to kill the weeds. The tillage before sowing is usually limited to harrowing and dragging.

Generally the inputs connected with soil bed preparation are similar like spring cereals.

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Fertilizer application

The optimum fertilizers doses are N 90-120 kg/ha, P2O5 70-100 kg/ha, K2O 150-180 kg/ha. However hemp uses very well an old fertilizing force of the soil, namely fertilizers accumulated during cultivation of preceding crops. Therefore, when growing hemp after crops grown on manure or legumes, a special attention should be paid to doses of nitrogen. They should not be high. It is especially important when growing hemp for seeds. Too much nitrogen available to the plants results in delaying of generative stage of hemp development. The plants begin to flower later and they mature very late. Additionally, and this refers to both purposes of cultivation – for fibre and for seeds – plants will tend to lodging and this worsens significantly the quality of fibre and yield of seeds. Additionally harvesting very tall plants and especially lodged plants is very difficult.

When growing hemp for fibre especially important is potassium and calcium, which are important for plant cell formation, while when growing for seeds – phosphorus, which is taking part in seed formation. The N:P:K ratio in seed production should be 1:0.8:1, while in fibre production – 1:07:1.5.

Sowing

The hemp can be sown when the average air temperature stabilizes at 8-10oC, in Poland this is usually at the end of spring cereals sowing time. In case of monoecious hemp only certified seeds must be used as every single multiplication causes monoecious cultivars to split and produce male and female plants. Another words, the monoecious cultivar tends to come back to its initial, natural, dioecious form. The phenomenon increases with every next multiplication and after several years the male/female plant ratio reaches 50/50.

Depending on the purpose of cultivation (fibre, seeds) the sowing density is usually 60-70 kg/ha (for fibre or both seeds and fibre) or 10-15 kg for (for certified seeds). The row spacing should be 12.5-25 cm or 50-70 cm, respectively. The seeds should be sown 3-4 cm deep.

Post emergence treatment

In Polish conditions hemp is highly competitive to weeds and usually is not attacked by pests or diseases. Sometimes no post emergence treatment is required, especially when hemp is cultivated after crop where intensive plant control treatment and proper tillage were carried out. However, if the stand is poor, especially for seed plantations it may be necessary to use a linuron (e.g. Afalon) right after sowing and before seedling emerge (1- 1.2 kg/ha). In seed plantations, sown at wide row spacing, post emergence tillage between rows can be conducted to control weeds.

If, after sowing, the soil tends to produce crust, it should be destroyed with light harrow or spiked roller.

Pests and diseases in hemp.

Some authors suggest that the presence of essential oils in hemp, especially α-pinene and limonene are responsible for it or stipulate that it is the cannbinoids content, especially

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in narcotic type hemp, which keep the bugs away. Some experiments show that insects forced to feed on hemp slow down their development or are even killed. Another explanation for treating hemp as a pathogen free crop may by also the fact that for decades it was a marginal or non–existing commercial crop in farming. This situation may change dramatically when hemp will be grown in bigger acreage. Geographical differentiation of pathogens can also has a lot to do with opinion of hemp as pathogen–free crop.

Some authors claim as many as 272 insects associated with hemp and this is not only one of six arthropod classes depending on hemp to a higher or lesser extent. Among insects the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) and the hemp borer (Grapholita delineana). These insects, or actually their larvae, feed inside main stem and inside branches causing breaking the tops and wilting of distal plant parts. These pests are especially dangerous as they destroy stem and automatically a fibre which is currently the main purpose of hemp cultivation. Another dangerous stem-boring pest in hemp can be the budworm (e.g. Heliothis armigera and Heliothis viriplaca). They can be a problem in hemp grown for seeds as they feed on flowering buds but have no effect on hemp grown only for fibre.

Other insect threatening hemp, especially in germination stage is hemp flea beetle (Psylliodes attenuata). This insect feeds on cotyledons and first true leaves. In year of heavy infestation it can destroy the plantation in not controlled.

Hemp can also suffer from fungi, the diseases like Fusarium wilt, septoriosis and gray mildew are found especially in weather conditions promoting these diseases.

Sometimes, especially if hemp is grown several times on the same stand, in may suffer from a parasitic plant – branched broomrape (Orobranche ramosa L.). Also virus diseases may sometimes attack hemp.

4.4 Fibre hemp logistics (harvesting, handling) until industrial plant gate Harvesting

Time of harvesting depends on the purpose of cultivation of hemp. Hemp grown only for fibre should be harvested in the beginning of flowering. This allows for obtaining delicate and quite strong fibre suitable for textile production. Delaying of harvest makes the fibre yield to increase. Also its strength is increasing when time of harvesting is delayed it is, however, also connected with stronger and stronger lignification of the fibre and such fibre is not suitable for textile production. It can only be used for technical purposes and for pulp production.

If hemp is grown for both fibre and seeds or only for seeds it should be harvested at full maturity phase, when seeds in the middle part of panicle are mature. The fibre obtained from hemp harvested at that time has no value for textile application. It can be used for production of twine and for other technical non-textile application, including pulp. Seeds harvested at that time reach their biological application and can be used for any industrial purpose or as a sowing material. The latter requires all measures needed for this type of cultivation (mentioned earlier).

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Due to its exceptional productivity and high bulk volumes of biomass to be harvested, hemp is a crop quite difficult to harvest. Currently there is no modern and efficient technology available for hemp, especially for fibre. Harvesting is done either manually (Asia) using simple tools or mechanically using quite out-dated machinery (East Europe). There are numerous trials in many research centres to develop efficient harvesting technology, but with no major success.

Logistic of hemp harvesting, primary processing up to industrial plant gate:

Figure 4-6 Hemp harvesting and primary processing scheme

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Figure 4-7 Hemp harvesting and primary processing – appropriate machines & devices

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Figure 4-8 Logistic of hemp processing

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4.5 Yields

Table 4-1 The survey of average fibrous hemp straw and fibre yields Specification Austria Finland France Hungary Italy Nether. Poland Romania Turkey Ukraine UK

Hemp harvested n/a n/a 57.571 3.121 1.571 5.871 0.231 3.141 178.211 30.053 10.051 straw, [1000t]

Straw yield[t/ha] n/a 0.11 7.181 6.401 4.501 6.581 7.77 3.201 12.581 2.162 4.581

Hemp fibre yield [t/ha] 1.13 1.39 1.66 1.75 0.48 3.00 1.80 n/a n/a 0.412/ 0.81 (based on yield 2004/2005) Sources of data:1 EUROSTAT 2/ Ukraine: Institute of Bast Crops, Glukhov, Sumy, Ukraine, Tel.: /Fax: 3805444 22643, E-mail: ibc@sm. ukrtel. net 3/ calculated data 4/ Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Poland, Warsaw. 5/ Steering Committee on Natural Fibres of the European Commission.

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Table 4-2 Production and yields of hemp straw and fibre in countries of European Union. Campaign 2008/2009 CZ DE FR IT LV NL AT PL UK RO Total/ mean Cultivation 518 896 6187 263 5 274 52 987 1362 n/a 10545 area [ha] Production 3500 5741 51000 650 40 1563 690 11061 3406 n/a 77651 of straw [t] Mean yield 6.8 6.4 8.2 2.5 8.0 5.7 13.3 11.2 2.5 n/a 7.4 of straw [t/ha] Hemp fibre 600 1861 18000 260 12 457 230 2022 1135 n/a 24578 Mean yield 1.16 2.08 2.91 0.99 2.40 1.67 4.42 2.05 0.83 2.33 of hemp fibres [t/ha] Source: Document of EC: AGRI. C. 5

Table 4-3 Production and yields of hemp straw and fibre in countries of European Union. Campaign 2009/2010 CZ DE FR DK LV NL AT PL UK Total/ mean Cultivation 142 1203 11326 58 136 886 40 452 307 14550 area [ha] Production 1100 9981 80000 433 779 7371 1200 3871 768 105503 of straw [t] Mean yield of 7.7 8.3 7.1 7.5 5.7 8.3 30.0 8.6 2.5 7.3 straw [t/ha] Hemp fibre 120 2929 28000 95 205 2098 400 1181 256 35284 Mean yield of 0.85 2.43 2.47 1.65 1.51 2.37 10.00 2.61 0.83 2.43 hemp fibres [t/ha] Source: Document ofEC: AGRI. C. 5

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4.6 Quality

Industrial processing the fibres demands homogeneous and good quality raw material. The expectations regarding flax and hemp fibre quality features depend on the final destination of fibre. Below the qualitative parameters for the basic features of hemp fibre are given:

Hemp long fibre for combed yarns

Table 4-4 Scutched and hackled hemp fibre parameters.

Raw material Fibre length [mm] Fibre thinness [tex] Long hemp scutched fibre 800-2500 8.0-12.0 Long hemp hackled fibre 350-800 3.0-5.0

Hemp short fibre for carded yarn

Table 4-5 Characteristics of hemp tow

Raw material Fibre length [mm] Fibre thinness [tex] Scutched tow 250-400 8.0-10.0 Matted tow 200-400 9.0-12.0

Hemp homomorphic wool-like fibre for blended yarns. Hemp noils should display the following basic parameters: - average length of fibre 100-250 mm - average thinness of fibre 6.0-8.0 tex.

Hemp cotton-like fibre for blended yarns. A raw material for production of hemp cotton-like fibre can be different hemp fibre e. g. noils, tow of homomorphic fibre. Hemp fibre used for disinfection mats. For disinfection mats based on natural fibres, the hemp tow of lower quality can be used (Ns).

4.7 Application: current – potential Hemp is often mistakenly taken as a crop grown exclusively for its fibre, despite the seeds and even the woody matter surrounding the fibre (shive), show many other applications. Hemp yields three kinds of useful raw material: seeds, fibre and shive. Hemp seed gives precious oil and cake. Seeds are very rich in phytin used in treatment of hysteria, neurasthenia, scoliosis and anaemia. Hemp seed is also a component of medicine for stomach disorders. It is worth mentioning that extracts from hemp seed show strong antibacterial properties. The composition of hempseed (15% of cellulose, 18% of nitrogen compounds , 21% of non-N compounds, 9% of water, 32. 5% of fats [oil] and 4. 5% of ash) makes it a valuable source of oil. The chemical composition of hempseed oil and its properties are also affected by climatic and cultivation conditions. Hempseed oil is a plant fat belonging to a fast drying oils. It can be used as food component and for production of

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technical products such as: detergents, varnishes, paints, lamp fuel or an emulsifying medium in pharmacy. Hempseed oil is composed in 70% of polyunsaturated fatty acids. As a food component it reduces the cholesterol level. So called hemp nuts – the fruits of hemp – contain eight amino acids indispensable in human diet (globulin protein). Hempseed flour (25% of purified protein) can be a good supplement of wheat flour. Hempseed oil is described as desired raw material for production of so called greasy soap (grey soap). This soap is called also green soap in many counties from the colour given to it by chlorophyll contained in the soap. Hempseed oil is used in cosmetic industry as an addition to body lotions or oils used for massage, recommended for oily skin with acne, skin suffering with inflammation. It spreads well on the skin and is absorbed quickly. It enhances the resistance of skin. Due to short shelf life the hempseed oil should not be used for long shelf life cosmetics. If to be used as body lotion it should be mixed with other vegetable oils (jojoba) which will contribute to stability and durability. Hempseed is used in some countries as a feed for animals. Sometimes seeds are burnt and produced soot is used for production of inks (China). It is worth mentioning that hemp essential oil, a different substance extracted from hemp is used for a medium repelling parasites found e. g. on horse skin. It also displays properties similar to many other essential oils – bacteriostatic, repellent to pests. The primary use of hemp is connected with the fibre contained in hemp stems which yield the following products: 1. Long hemp fibre – for hackled yarns 2. Short hemp fibre (tow) and homomorphic fibre for: - carded yarns - wool-like yarns - cotton-like yarns - strings, cords, twine - for non-woven 3. Decorticated (green) fibre for: - nonwoven - for pulp & paper production - disinfection mats.

Hemp is a fibrous plant which is a very good source of 1/ fibre for ropes (due to the strength of the fibre) and 2/ spinning fibre (used similarly like flax fibre). The resistance of hemp fibre to rotting processing makes it specially useful in applications exposed to biological degradation in moist conditions (fire hoses, nets, shoe maker twine, filtration paper, surgical thread and tea bags). Raw hemp straw is a source of so called green fibre obtained by decortication process. This fibre is a good raw material for further processing in paper, upholstery industries, mat production, insulation materials. The best quality hemp fibre can be processed by hackling. This process yields long hackled fibre and hemp tow. The latter, after processing on tow producing units is used for production of carded years. Hemp yarns, fabrics, twine and strings find wide application due to their high strength, physical and chemical properties and relatively low production costs.

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It is well known that hemp fibre is composed mainly of cellulose (about 80% of elementary fibres weight) and also of lignin and waxes, simple sugars, nitrogen compounds, pectin and ash. About 30% of hemp stems is fibre which are one of the strongest natural fibres. This fibre, besides harsh hemp fabric can be also used for manufacture of delicate, durable, warm and air permeable underwear which is competitive to cotton products. Other example of using hemp fibre can be paper (reinforced with hemp fibres) which is used for production of banknotes, cigarettes tissue, or special bibliophile editions. The significant advantage of hemp is use in pulp and paper industry. Hemp potentially produces paper excellent quality compared to those of paper obtained from wood at much lower cost. Moreover, production of hemp paper requires less chemicals. Hemp fibre can also be use as an reinforcing component for recycled paper. Hemp paper can be bleached without dioxins production and is much more durable compared to paper produced from trees. The analysis of utilization of hemp fibre covered also novel composite materials where fibrous reinforcing material in form of glass or asbestos fibre is replaced with hemp or kenaf fibre. Another scope of research in hemp application today to modify fibre chemically and physically. An interesting technological developments in this area are a/composites based on hemp fibres obtained by the action of fungi or b/ enzymatic hydrolysis of hemp biomass. The non fibrous matter of hemp stem consist about 70% of stem biomass. This matter, known as shive is a part of plant left after removal of fibre, in 50-77% composed of cellulose which makes it useful as natural pseudo polymeric raw material for manufacture of paper products. In is worth stressing that one hectare of hemp produces as much pulping biomass as 4 ha of forest. Moreover, hemp as annual plant delivers the raw material every year and mowing plantation of hemp causes no harm to the environment unlike in case of woods, especially natural ones. Another example of hemp shive is particleboard obtained by thermal pressing of shive in presence of different resins like phenolic ones. Such particleboard can be fire and water resistant provided additional processing is applied. High content of cellulose (hemicelluloses) in hemp means also good biodegradable source of raw material for production of cellophane and celluloid. Hemp can have many more applications from particleboards used in furniture to industrial alcohol propelling environmental friendly engines. Hemp is also a raw material for producing strong fabrics used not only for sacks and sails but also durable garments. Jeans made of hemp fibre are ten times more durable from those available in stores. They would not worn out for years of use and can be washed more than hundred times. Hemp fibre is obtained similarly like flax fibre. Manual removal of fibres from the stem, the torn hemp is made. Due to its hardness it requires stronger friction for breaking and in factories – use of special machinery. Only 3% of pure product is obtained which means three times less than in case of flax. More delicate fibres is used for spinning. Of these thicker fibre is used for shoe maker twine and strings. The most delicate hemp fibre is Italian hemp, especially Bologna type hemp fibre which are characterized by light colour and gloss, and is mainly used for woven fabrics. In clothing industry hemp is used in relatively small scale as only the most delicate fibre is useful for weaving. The main application of hemp fibre is manufacture of ropes, string, linings, cleaning of machines, sealing, etc.

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The results of thorough studies show that hemp have high potential in medicine. Marihuana, although characterized by very negative public reception, shows positive effects in treating asthma, sclerosis, muscle crumps and insomnia. It can also be used as gentle pain reliever. The psychoactive substance contained in hemp (THC) reduces the pressure in the eyeball, which makes it useful in glaucoma treatment. Marihuana also prevents nausea and vomiting, which are typically found in patients suffering form AIDS. The most recent research shows that administered in low doses and in a proper way, it stimulates the memory centres in the brain improving learning. Naturally, used excessively it is harmful causing addiction. Today, the biofuel market is dominated from ethanol obtained from sugar cane and biodiesel obtained from rapeseed oil. Many countries make considerable investments in development of this sector. The search is on to find the best energy crop to standardize the cultivation in the world. The crop must be fast growing, and have low input requirements. When people in many places all over the world are forced to grow only one plant they choose hemp. This should be well taken into account when looking for the most efficient crops for biofuel standardization. Hemp grows well from tropical Africa to Siberia providing oil and biomass. Hemp is one of the most versatile crops grown by human. It provides many raw materials such as cellulose, fibre, seed, essential oil, cannabinoids and biomass. This is a reason of strong tides of hemp and different industries (pulp and paper, textile, energy, food, cosmetic, pharmaceutical and construction).

4.8 Factors restricting growth and yields  the main factor limiting yielding capacity of hemp in the EU is extreme weather incidents such as very low temperatures in spring, very dry weather in vegetation period, especially in spring, very high precipitation in summer, dry and hot weather during blooming,  the only cost effective and sustainable method of hemp straw retting is dew-retting which is time consuming and weather dependent,  un-uniform maturation and shedding of seeds,  low choice of herbicides for use in hemp,  lack of flax cultivation technology adapted to climate change (high temperatures, drought),  content of psychoactive substances, although harmless in cultivars grown in europe, still with negative perception from the society.

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4.9 Research gaps concerning technological aspects

 better utilization of co-products  concentration of cultivation and processing (to improve homogeneity and quantity of raw material lots and will allow for control of sowing material and mechanization on high areas  new harvesting and processing technologies (more efficient and controllable). concerning ecological aspects

 knowledge of genetic mechanism plants immunity to drought  breeding of new cultivars more resistant to drought and high temperature  research for improvement of dew retting process for different weather conditions  limitation of environmental conditions influence on raw material quality (biotechnology)  conduct of research concerning bio-stimulators. concerning social aspects

 education and PR for increasing knowledge about advantages of natural fibres and differences between drug and fibre cultivars  promotion of the own textile production in UE countries  market research for estimate hiding market segments for bio-product made from fibre crops  conducting research concerning possibilities of cost reduction in each period of processing and biological production (drop of price). concerning economical aspects

 yield improvement  breakthrough extraction and processing technologies (cost & volume efficient)  development of new/niche products  involving bast fibres and marketing specialists together in marketing activities.

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4.10 References

Plant morphology and anatomy  Dempsey J M (1975), Fibre crops, Gainesville, University of Florida Press. Area of origin  Kozlowski R, Heller K, Mankowski J, Kolodziej J, Kubacki A, Grabowska L, Mackiewicz-Talarczyk M, P. Baraniecki, Praczyk, Burczyk H, Kolodziejczyk P. ESCORENA Focal Point, Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants, Poznan, Poland. (2009), Yielding Potential of Bast Fibrous Plants in Europe, Scientific Bulletin of ESCORENA, vol. 1, ISSN 2066-5687 (Publications of results of 4FCROPS project , Partner: the Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants, Poznan, Poland), 27–44.  EUROFLAX Newsletter (2011), 1/2, ISSN 1429-8090, Poznan, Poland.  Data of the Polish Chamber of Flax and Hemp (PILiK), Secretariat, INF&MP, Poznan, Poland. Growing conditions  Beaudoin X (1988), Disease and Pest Control, Proceedings of the EEC Flax Workshop, held in Brussels, Belgium, 4-5 May, 81-88.  Harris D and Hossel J E (2001), Weed management constrains under climate change, The BCPC Conference – Weeds, 91-97.  Mostafa A.R, Messenger P.S. (1972), Insects and mites associated with plants of the genera Argemone, Cannabis, Glaucium, Erythroxylum, Eschscholtzia, Humulus, and Papaver. Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Berkeley, USA.  Heller K, Andruszewska A, Grabowska L, Wielgusz K (2006), Fibre Flax and Hemp Protection in Poland and in the World, Prog in Plant Prot, 46,1, 88-98.  Heller K and Rolski St (2001), Ecological Aspects of Utilization of Herbicides in Fibrous Plant Cultivation, Chem for Agr, 2, 96-99.  Maddens K (1988), Weed and Lodging Control Strategies, Proceedings of the EEC Flax Workshop, held in Brussels, Belgium, 4-5 May, 71-80.  Rolski St, Andruszewska A, Grabowska L and Heller K (2000), Breeding and cultivation of fibrous crops, Nat Fibr, Spec Jub ed, 31-41.  Šmirous P (1989), Weed Control in Czechoslovakia, Flax in Europe – Proc Euro Reg Work on Flax, 71-77.  Listowski A, Barbacki S, Birecki M (ed.) (1960), Szczegolowa uprawa roslin. PWRiL, Warszawa, Poland.  Poradnik plantatora lnu i konopi (Handbook of flax and hemp cultivation) (1994), PWRiL, Poznan, Poland.  McPartland J.M, Clarke R.C, Watson D.P, (2000), Hemp Diseases and Pests Management and Biological Control, CABI Publishing, New York, USA.  Szalkowski Z. (1967), Podstawy chemicznej technologii surowcow i wlokien lykowych, Warsaw, Poland. Plant logistics  Baraniecki P, Kaniewski R, Mankowski J, Rynduch W. (1997), Proceedings of Modernized Hemp Mower. Harvesting and Processing of Flax and other Bast Plants, Nat Fibr, Spec ed, Poznan, Poland.  Kaniewski R, Kubacki A, Konczewicz W. (2001), The Technology of Mechanical Harvesting of Hemp for Fibre, Allowing for Separate Harvesting of Hemp Tops and

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for Seed Production. Second Global Workshop Bast Plants in the New Millennium Nat Fibr, Spec ed, Poznan, Poland.  Kaniewski R, Mankowski J, Rynduch W. (1996), The Construction and Testing of the Prototype New Hemp Mower. Nat Fibr, vol. 40, Poznan, Poland.  Kaniewski R, Leuschner J. (1997), New, High Seasonal Capacity Harvesting Machine for Hemp. Proceedings of Flax and other Bast Plants Symposium, Nat Fibr, Spec ed., Poznan, Poland.  Kaniewski R, Mankowski J, Rynduch W. (1998), Technology of Hemp Harvesting by Using and Modernized Hemp Mower ZK-1,9. Proceedings of Hemp and Other Bast Fibrous Plants: Production-Technology-Ecology. Poznan, Poland.  Kozlowski R, Kaniewski R, Mankowski J. (1998), The Methods of Mechanical Harvesting of Hemp and Hemp Fibres Production. Proceedings of Commercial and Industrial Hemp Symposium. Vancouver, Canada.  Kaniewski R, Mankowski J, Rynduch W. (1998), The Concept of Mobile Decorticator for Hemp Against the Background of Solution Found Around the World. Proceedings of Hemp and other Bast Fibrous Plants: Production-Technology-Ecology. FAO, Poznan, Poland.  Kaniewski R, Mankowski J, Rynduch W. (1996), Technologia przerobu lnu i konopi dla przemyslu wlokienniczego i celulozowo-papierniczego. Nat Fibr, vol. 40, Poznan, Poland.  Baraniecki P, Kaniewski R, Mankowski J, Rynduch W. (1997), Versatile Line for Homomorphic Flax and Hemp Fibres (Retted and Raw Ones), Proceedings of Flax and other Bast Plants Symposium, Nat Fibr, Spec ed, Poznan, Poland.  Baraniecki P, Kaniewski R, Mankowski J, Rynduch W. (1997), Processing Technology for Hemp Grown in Poland for Fibre, Proceedings of the 2-nd Bioresource Hemp, Frankfurt, Germany.  Martinow M. and others (1996), Mechanizovanje zetwe konoplje. Naucznog Instituta za ratarstwo i povrtarstwo. Zbornik Radova. Novi Sad, Jugoslavia Yields  Kozlowski R, Heller K, Mankowski J, Kolodziej J, Kubacki A, Grabowska L, Mackiewicz-Talarczyk M, P. Baraniecki, Praczyk, Burczyk H, Kolodziejczyk P. ESCORENA Focal Point, Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants, Poznan, Poland. (2009), Yielding Potential of Bast Fibrous Plants in Europe, Scientific Bulletin of ESCORENA, vol. 1, ISSN 2066-5687 (Publications of results of 4FCROPS project , Partner: the Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants, Poznan, Poland), 27-44. Quality Polish standards regarding hemp raw materials quality: • Polish Standard PN-P-80102. Pazdzierze lniane i konopne. • Polish Standard PN-R-65023. Material siewny. Nasiona roslin rolniczych. • PN-P-80104:1997 Textile raw materials. Long, retted, scutched and combed fibre. Requirements. • PN-84/P-04961 MBSW. Flax and hemp straw and fibre. Organoleptical determination. • PN-87/7701-18. Flax and hemp fibre. Determination of efficiency and average number of combed fibre. • PN-86/P-04676 MBSW. Flax and hemp fibre. Determination of factors at static stretching.

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• BN-84/7501-06 MBSW. Flax and hemp fibre. Determination of impurities content. • BN-85/7501-03 MBSW. Flax and hemp fibre. Determination of carding sliver efficiency. • PN-P-80104:1997 Textile raw materials. Long, scutched and combed, biological (retted) hemp fibre. Requirements. • PN-84/P-80101 Textile raw materials. The principles of preparing, applying and storage of patterns of bast raw materials. • PN-P-80105:1998 Textile raw materials. Short hemp fibre. Requirements.  Wasko J, Mankowski J, Cierpucha W, Frach E. (2002), Opracowanie i wdrozenie ujednoliconych zasad standaryzacyjnych dla naturalnych surowcow lniarskich krajowych i importowanych w perspektywie wejscia Polski do Unii Europejskiej (Elaboration and implementation of the unified standardization rules for natural linen raw materials towards accession of Poland to European Union), Instytut Wlokien Naturalnych (Institute of Natural Fibres), Poznan, Poland.  Mankowski J, Cierpucha W, Kolodziej J, Mankowski T. (2006), Cottonized Flax and Hemp Fibre as a Raw Material for the Production of blended Yarns. In: Renewable Resources and Plant Biotechnology, Nova Science Publisher Inc, USA, 63-68.  Mankowski J, Kolodziej J. (2009), Pazdzierze lniane i konopne w energetyce (Flax and hemp shives for energy), Czysta energia 1/2009.  Cierpucha W.; Mankowski J.; Kolodziej J.; Mankowski T. (2007), Wykorzystanie lnu i konopi do produkcji kotoniny i zastosowanie jej w przedzeniu w mieszankach z bawelna i wyrobach (Utilization of flax and hemp to the cottonin production and its application in the spinning in blends with cotton and in products), Biuletyn Informacyjny PILiK Len i Konopie, 9/2007, 42-49.  Cierpucha W.; Mankowski J.; Mankowski T. (2007), Metody oceny i kontroli jakosci wlokna lnianego i konopnego (Methods of evaluation and quality control of flax and hemp fibre) Biuletyn Informacyjny PILiK Len i Konopie, 8/2007, 30-34.  Cierpucha W, Mankowski J, Mankowski T. (2006), Charakterystyka organoleptycznych cech wlokna lnu i konopi (Characteristic and organoleptic parameters of flax and hemp), Biuletyn Informacyjny PILiK Len i Konopie, 7/2006, 33-40.  Cierpucha W, Czaplicki Z, Mankowski J, Kolodziej J, Zareba S, Szporek J. (2006), Analysis of properties of rotor-spun cotton and blended yarns, Fibres & Textiles in Eastern Europe, 5/2006, 80-83.  Cierpucha W, Mankowski J, Mankowski T. (2005), Charakterystyka produkowanego w kraju wlokna lnianego i konopnego (Characteristic of domestic flax and hemp fibre), Biuletyn Informacyjny Polskiej Izby Lnu i konopi, no 4, Jan 2005, 27-30.  Mankowski J, Cierpucha W, Kolodziej J. (2005), Modyfikacja wlokien lnu i konopi do przedzenia w mieszankach z innymi wloknami, part I (Modification of flax and hemp fibres for spinning in blends with other fibres), Spektrum Tekstylno- Wlokiennicze, 23-24.  Mankowski J, Cierpucha W, Kolodziej J. (2005), Modyfikacja wlokien lnu i konopi do przedzenia w mieszankach z innymi wloknami (Modification of flax and hemp fibres

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for spinning in blends with other fibres), part II, Spektrum Tekstylno Wlokiennicze 4/2005.  Kozlowski R, Mankowski J, Kubacki A, Kolodziej J. (2004), Efektywny system dekortykacji wlokna konopnego i lnianego. Biuletyn Informacyjny Polskiej Izby Lnu i Konopi Len i Konopie, 2, 40 – 52.  Kozlowski R, Mankowski J, Kubacki A. (2004), Efficient Technology for the Production of Decorticated Hemp and Flax Fibres and Linseed as a Raw Material for Different Industries. J Nat Fib, vol. 1, 2/2004, 107 – 108.  Mankowski J, Kaniewski R, Kubacki A. (2001), Composite Elements for Automotive Industry, Nat Fibr, Spec ed, 2001/1, 430-431.  Kozlowski R, Mankowski J, Kolodziej J, Mackiewicz-Talarczyk M, Baraniecki P. ESCORENA Focal Point, Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants, Poznan, Poland. (2009), Bast Fibrous Plants Raw Materials Characteristic and their Applications. Scientific Bulletin of ESCORENA, vol. 1, ISSN 2066-5687 (Publications of results of 4FCROPS project, Partner: the Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants, Poznan, Poland), 53-63.  Zylinski T. Nauka o wloknie. Fibre Knowledge. Wydawnictwo Przemyslu Lekkiego i Spozywczego. Warszawa 1958. Applications  Burger H, Koine A, Maron R and Mieck K (1995), Use of natural fibres and environmental aspects, Inter Polymer Sci and Tech, 22, 25-34.  Baraniecki P, Cierpucha W, Mankowski J, Rynduch W. (1997), Proecological Utilisation of Natural Fibres (Flax and Hemp) for Clothes Production. Proceedings of Natural and Natural Polymer Fibres, Huddersfield, UK.  Kaniewski R, Mankowski J, Rynduch W. (1998), Modern Technology of Flax and Hemp Processing for the Textile and Cellulose-Paper Industries. Proceedings of Hemp and other Fibrous Plants-Production-Technology-Ecology, FAO, Poznan, Poland.  Kozlowski R, Manys S and Mackiewicz-Talarczyk M (1998), Present situation and future prospects in the field of flax and hemp production/processing, Nat Fibr Spec Ed, 2, 22-31.  Muzyczek M, (2008), Wykorzystanie lnu i konopi dla celow wlokienniczych (Utilisation of Flax and hemp for textiles), Seminarium technologiczne: Nowe metody uprawy i wykorzystania konopi wloknistych i lnu w warunkach zrownowazonego rolnictwa, 27- 28.03.2008, Poznan, Poland.  LaVoixEco (2009), L'information économique du nord-Pas-de-Calais 05.04.2009, Décathlon et Artengo lancent la première raquette de tennis à base de fibre de lin.  Libeco Lagae Press information, Meulebeke, September 2008.  Kozlowski R, Kicinska-Jakubowska A, Muzyczek M, (2009), Types of natural textiles used in interiors, In:Interior textiles: Design and developments, ISBN 1 84569 351, 5 Woodhead Publishing Ltd, UK.  Riddlestone S, Franck B, Wright J. (1996), Hemp for Textiles, Growing our own clothes, Edited by Pooran Desai,The Apparel Trust.  Zhang Jianchun (2008), Natural Fibres in China, Proceedings of the Symposium on Natural Fibres, Rome, Italy. Factors restricting growth  Allen P (1993), Connecting the social and the ecological in sustainable agriculture. In: Food for the future: Conditions and contradictions for sustainability, New York, John Wiley & Sons.

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 Mertz U O and Callaghan M (1997), Towards sustainability: an essential development for European agriculture. Proceedings of the Fiftieth New Zealand Plant Protection Conference, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand, 18-21 August, 493-497. Research gaps  Berenji J. (1996), Stanje i perspektive konopljarstva u Jugoslaviji. Naucznog Instituta za ratarstwo i povrtarstwo. Zbornik Radova. Novi Sad, Jugoslavia.  Goloborodko P. A. (1994), Sprawocznik konopliewoda. Gluchow, Ukraine. 73.  Kaniewski R. (1996), Arbeitsweise und Stand der Entwicklung der Hanferntetechnik. Proceedings of Hanf, Roggen, Holzstoffliche und Energetische Nutzung Nachwachsender Rohstoffe, Eberswalde, Germany.  Kozlowski R, Kaniewski R, Mankowski J. (1998), New Trends in Harvesting, Processing and Applications of Hemp used for Production of Textiles and Cellulose. Proceedings of: The 1st Nordic Conference on Flax and Hemp Processing. Tampere, Finland.  Krgovic M. and others (1996), Konoplja kao sirovina za proizvodnju papira. Naucznog Instituta za ratarstwo i povrtarstwo. Zbornik Radova. Novi Sad, Jugoslavia.  Praca zbiorowa (1975), Biologia, wozdielywanie i pierwicznaja obrabotka konopli i kenafa. Wypusk 37/1975, MCCH-CCCP, Gluchow, Ukraina, 180.  Timonin M. A. (1977), Sprawocznik konopliewoda. Kijow, Ukraina, 88.  EUROCROP Project Report Research Needs In A Crops Chains Perspective (2009) http://www.eurocrop.cetiom.fr/index.php?id=6979  EUROCROP Project Final Report with Annexes (2009) http://www.eurocrop.cetiom.fr/index.php?id=6979  www.hempfood.com/IHA/iha03201.html

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5 KENAF (Hibiscus cannabinus L.). Fam Cannabinaceae

5.1 Plant anatomy The flower consists of 5-part calyx, 5 petals of the corolla, the pistol and the stamen. Its diameter, depending on the variety, varies between 8 and 13 cm. The petals of the corolla are light in colour (white or cream-coloured). The middle part of the flower is maroon. Due high self-pollination the flowers open and close within a day.

Figure 5-1 Mature kenaf flower, seeds and stems The seeds are brown, of wedge-shape, average length of the seed is 5 mm, width 3-4 mm, and average mass of thousand seeds is 25 g. The anatomic structure of the kenaf seeds comprises seed coat, endosperm and hypocotyl. The seeds contain about 20% FAT and 20% protein. The stem reaches the height of 2 to 5 metres. His is linked to the variety, climate conditions and the method of cultivation. The anatomic structure of the stem comprises: epidermis, cortex, phloem, xylem and the pith. Two kinds of leaves are distinguished: pedale (resembling hemp leaves) and rhomboid (full)ones. The shape of the leaves is correlated with the cultivar. Genetically, the pedale shape is a dominant feature. The leaves are arranged along the main stem and its branching in an opposite arrangement.

Figure 5-2 Two kinds of kenaf leaves: full and pedale

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Kenaf plants are characterized with long tap root that grows deep into the soil. The main root mass is located at abort 30 cm below the ground level. These features make kenaf highly resistant to soil water deficit.

5.2 Domestication and area of origin Kenaf is a plant native to tropical climate regions originating most likely in South Asia. It requires mean day temperatures above 200C. It was cultivated in ancient Egypt more than 3000 years ago. At the beginning of the 20th century cultivation was established in the Southern Europe. Currently, the main centres of kenaf cultivation are located in Bangladesh, China and India. Apart from that, the plant is also grown in Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, South America, the Republic of South Africa, southern states of the USA, Cuba, and Japan, in southern Europe (Greece, Italy, Spain, and Portugal). Table 5-1 The total kenaf cultivation area and production of kenaf derived raw materials [source: http://apps.fao.org/]

Year Area harvested Production

1999 1,362,317 2,593,123

2000 1,391,036 2,651,030

2001 1,401,550 2,668,832

Table 5-2 Main producers of Kenaf [thousand tons] 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04

1 India 198,0 203,0 202,1 198,7

2 China 126,0 163,0 155,0 165,0

3 Thailand 29,7 56,0 41,0 57,0

4 Vietnam 11,3 14,0 20,5 12,5 5 Brazil 7,30 7,20 10,20 10,90

6 Indonesia 7,0 10,0 6,8 7,0

Source: Compendium of Statistics on Sisal, Jute, Kenaf, Abaca and Coir. Consultation on Natural Fibres, FAO.

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5.3 Growing conditions Kenaf is not a demanding plant in terms of soil requirements. The plantations may be established on various soils, from sandy soils to very fertile soils, rich in humus. The type of soil has profound effect on the quantity and quality of yield with better soils giving better yields. The neutral pH of soil is optimal for cultivating kenaf; the preferred preceding crops for kenaf are the plants enriching the soil with nitrogen (Leguminosae). Fertilization with manure is very effective for kenaf plantations. In case of using mineral fertilizers the ratio of N:P:K should be 100-130 kgN/ha: 35-50 kg P2O5/ha: 110-140 kg K2O/ha. Nitrogen fertilization is recommended in separate doses: 1/3 of the total amount is applied in pre-plant period, while the remaining 2/3 in later period in one dose. Kenaf seeds are sown in rows at distance of 20-30 cm. The optimal amount of sown seeds is 40-50 seeds/m2. The seeds should be placed in the soil 1.25 to 2.5 cm below the soil surface. Under European conditions the best sowing date fall on late May or early June. In tropical countries the seeds are sown twice a year, namely, at the beginning of year and in late summer, with two vegetation periods per year. Kenaf is a plant very resistant to pests and diseases. The growth of weeds is inhibited by the Fast growth of kenaf plants. Herbicides, if applied, are used before the emergence. However, local pathogens may occur, most often Meloidogyne spp, and Colletotrichum hibisci.In many regions of Europe it is impossible to obtain seeds from kenaf. Kenaf is a plant from a subtropical climate, it requires an appropriate sum of temperatures during vegetation in order to complete ontogenesis and seed yield. In many regions of Europe kenaf can be grown only for straw, fibre and biomass however it is not possible to obtain the seeds. The main aim of breeding work should be obtain new kenaf cultivars, which will enable the plant to seed yield in cooler regions of Europe.

5.4 Logistics: harvesting/handling Retting and degumming Retting for Cordage Fibre Retting is the process, usually involving moisture with bacteria or chemicals, to remove the unwanted bark material from the kenaf fibre strands within the bark. Kenaf was retted by natural processes that use primarily aerobic (air loving) bacteria, unlike water-retting of flax that is carried out primarily by anaerobic bacteria and various fungi. The whole stalk kenaf (bark and core still attached), or only the bark portions, are tied in bundles and placed in ponds, canals, or slow-moving streams to allow the bacteria to digest the plant material around the bark’s fibre strands (bast fibres) The plant material status prior to retting influences the water-retting efficiency for kenaf. Removing the upper, non-fibrous portion of the plant, prior to the retting process increases the retting rate by decreasing the amount of leaf and plant material to be digested. This highly nutrient-laden portion of the plant can be either used as a high quality livestock feed or returned to the soil to maintain fertility. Even if the upper portion of the plant is not removed, the retting process can be increased if the plants are allowed to dry for 24 to 48

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hr after harvesting to promote defoliation. Removal of the bark from the stalk also makes the retting process more efficient. Kenaf bark material is retted at its ideal temperature, 34°C, dry ribbons of bark took 70 hours to ret, compared to green, moist ribbons of bark which took 29 hr. When harvesting kenaf for fibre use, moisture content and equipment availability are important considerations. Kenaf can be harvested for fibre when it is dead, due to a killing frost or herbicides, or when it is actively growing. The dry standing kenaf can be cut and then chopped, baled, or transported as full-length stalks. If the kenaf drying and defoliation process is dependent on a killing frost, the harvest date will vary according to the environmental conditions of the area, including the time of the killing frost and the time required for the kenaf to dry. Soil type and seasonal weather may delay harvesting and drying, especially on high clay soils in areas that receive excessive rainfall during harvest. Actively growing kenaf can be cut and then allowed to dry in the field. Once dried, the kenaf can then be chopped, baled, or transported as full-length stalks. The availability of in-field harvester/separators will add to the harvesting options. Harvesting and fibre extraction The harvesting method is determined by the location of plantations, accessibility of mechanical equipment, processing methods and the final use of the harvested raw material. Over the last 6000 years, since the original domestication of kenaf, the plant was harvested manually. After manual low cutting with curved machetes, the stems were tied into sheaves. The sheaves, or bundles, were about 3 m long and diameter of about 60-70 cm. The plants harvested with this method are then retted in ponds, canals and slowly flowing streams, all 1 m deep. To ensure complete immersion in water the plants are pressed with stones. To ensure complete immersion in water the plants are pressed with stones. The condition of the plant material before retting has effect on the efficiency of retting kenaf. Thus, the upper parts of the plants, which do not contain fibre, are removed to reduce the amount of material for retting. These removed parts can be used as high quality fodder for domesticated animals and natural fertilizers for maintaining the soil fertility. Even when the upper parts are not removed, retting can be improved nevertheless, if the plants are dried for 24 to 48 hours after harvesting for defoliation. Although traditional water retting (bacterial) is illegal in many parts of the world, it is still used. The research has shown that defoliated and decorticated plants could be successfully retted with the use of 7% and 1% sodium hydroxide. After taking out from water the bundles are placed on the field to dry. To protect from rain, the bundles are covered with a makeshift roof with a layer of fibre. As a result of renewed interest in kenaf observed in the USA, a harvester for kenaf with decorticating option has been developed and attempts to use machinery designed for other plants in harvesting of kenaf have also been made. Nowadays, kenaf after harvesting and drying is collected in cylindrical bales and transported to processing plants located within 40-50 km distance. A single processing plant can process the yields from about 1000 hectares of kenaf. The plant, after water retting (sometimes also after enzymatic retting) and drying is processed at the flax processing line. The fibre obtained is pressed into bales.

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Kenaf fibre

Harvesting time 10 % of the flowers are in bloom and the older flowers have already set their seed

before flowering seeds – lower yields and – harsh and coarse fibre weaker fiber difficult to extract from the plant

The way of harvesting

By hand Mechanical - are tied into bundles - leaves are removed

Extraction of fibre

Decortication:

Water retting: - by hand - pool - mechanical - river Takes 5-30 days and depending on the temperature of the water Extraction of fibre - by hand, than: - washing Bio-enzymatic Bacterial Chemical

- drying degumming degumming degumming NaOH - D1.2 Fibre crops 73/122

The kenaf fibre deriving from processing the bark of the kenaf plant is pale yellow in colour and is the most highly valued product coming out of our system.Only 10% of the fibre, that is the longest and thinnest part, is used in the textile sector producing at first yarn with a metric count of from 12,000 up to 25,000 and subsequently fabrics for both clothing and home furnishings.

Producers of kenaf fibre: - Malaysia (MARDI Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute) - USA (Mississippi) - China - Russia - Persia

Kenaf Processing Initial processing methods and equipment will be dependent on many factors, including the production location, equipment availability, the economic variables involved, and the available commercial markets. One of the first processing decisions is whether the whole stalk, either as an unmodified stalk or as a chopped stalk, will be separated into its bast and fibre components or left unseparated for use as a combined fibre source. For example, kenaf used in some paper products or processes can be pulped using a mixed fibre supply (unseparated bast and core), while certain processing applications involve separating the bast and core components. Several existing commercial kenaf facilities mechanically separate the two fibre components by different methods with distinct processing efficiencies, using a range of equipment with varying rates of throughput resulting in varying degrees of fibre separation. Each separation system also has unique economic ramifications based on their integrated production, harvesting, processing, and utilization systems.

Figure 5-3 Processing of kenaf fibres

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Plant Components The bark of the kenaf stalk contains a long fibre called bast fibre, while the woody core contains short core fibres. Whole stalk kenaf (bast and core fibres) has been identified as a promising fibre source for paper pulp. The kenaf fibres, bast, and core, can be pulped as a whole stalk or separated and pulped individually. Whole stalk kenaf pulps have been processed into high quality bond, surface sized, coated raw stock, and newsprint papers. Commercial presses have printed on kenaf paper using letterpress, offset, rotogravure, flexography, and intaglio techniques. The combined (bast and core) bleached fibre yield from chemical pulping is about 46% by weight. Whole stalk kenaf can also be used in corrugated medium, in building materials such as particleboard and for reinforcement in injection moulded and extruded plastics. Chemical bast pulp is well-suited for specialty papers. Compared to softwood pulp, bast pulp has a similar tensile strength, but greater tear strength and bulk fibre; thus it could serve as a replacement for softwood pulp. The kenaf fibres can also serve as a virgin fibre for increasing recycled paper quality and paper strength. The kenaf bast fibre can be used as a domestic supply of cordage fibre in the manufacture of rope, twine, carpet backing, and burlap. Additional potential uses of kenaf fibre in manufactured products include automobile dashboards, carpet padding, corrugated medium, as a “substitute for fibreglass and other synthetic fibres”, textiles, to reinforce concrete, and as fibres for injected moulded and extruded plastics. Kenaf bast fibres are presently in commercial use in other environmental friendly products such as fibre lawn mats impregnated with grass seed, and spray-on soil mulches to prevent soil erosion from water and wind along highway rights-of-way or at construction sites.

Figure 5-4 Different types of building materials from kenaf

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Due to the high absorbency of the core material, researchers have investigated the use of kenaf as an absorbent, as a poultry litter and animal bedding, as a bulking agent for sewage sludge composting, and as a potting soil amendment. In addition to the above core products, which are all now available in the market place, several kenaf core products have been successfully used for toxic waste cleanup, including oil spills on water, and the remediation of chemically contaminated soils.

Figure 5-5 Different plastic products with kenaf fibres

Although kenaf is usually considered a fibre crop, the entire kenaf plant, stalk (core and bark) and leaves, can be used as a livestock feed. Research indicates that it has high protein content. Crude protein in kenaf leaves ranged from 14% to 34%, stalk crude protein ranged from 2 to 12%, and whole-plant crude protein ranged from 6% to 23

5.5 Production-Yields Stem The average dry stem plant production of kenaf ranges from 20-40 ton/ha/year. Yield of fibre could be on level 1-3 t/ha (fibre content: 18-22%). Recently, it is reported that new kenaf variety has been developed with a yield of 12 ton/acre. In Europe, average yield is from 12 to 20 t/ha. It has big meaning in the paper production from Kenaf. An area of 1- acre (4,000 m2) of kenaf produces 5 to 8 tons of raw plant bast and core fibre in a single growing season. In contrast, 1-acre (4,000 m2) of forest (in the USA) produces approximately 1.5 to 3.5 tons of usable fibre per year. It is estimated that growing kenaf on 5,000 acres (20 km²) can produce enough pulp to supply a paper plant having a capacity of 200 tons per day.

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Table 5-3 Biomass data of harvested Kenaf [by Sameshima]

Year Cultivar Date of Date of Height Diameter Moisture Stem sowing harvest yield [m] [cm] [%] [t/ha]

1996 Zheijang 18th May 15th 2,83 0,94 69,7 15,77 Nov.

2000 Tainung 21st April 18th Jan. 3,07 1,34 49,4 30,34

Table 5-4 Examples of Malaysian kenaf yields

DM Yield (ton/ha)

Kenaf accessions Bast bark Core Total stalk

HC 2032 6.87 12.32 19.19

Tainung –1 3.10 12.48 15.58

Guatemala 51 2.86 11.93 14.79 G44 6.98 16.17 23.15

HC 3258 X 32356 3.10 16.6 19.6

HC 7579 4.13 11.45 15.58

HC 117 4.79 20.79 25.58

HC78 4.95 13.26 18.21 HC 15 2.96 16.8 19.76

SF 459 3.83 10.71 14.54

Everglades 41 2.90 12.86 15.76

Tainung –2 (USA) 2.78 10.97 13.75 Tainung –2 (Local) 3.22 11.96 15.18

Khon Kaen 60 3.25 15.75 19.00 HC 583 4.93 17.31 22.24

Myanmar 2.84 11.98 14.82

Mean 3.76 13.96 17.72

Source: M. D. Mat Daham and Dr. C.C. Wong - Challenges of sustainable kenaf production for forage and industrial fibres in Malaysia

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Oil Table 5-5 Average yields of oil from different plants for biofuels

No. Plant Oil yield [kg/ha]

1 Maize 145

2 Kenaf 230

3 Hemp 305

4 Linseed 402

5 Winter rape 1000

6 Oleic palm 5000

Table 5-6 Oil content and fatty acid composition of Kenaf and Hemp

Fatty acid Kenaf Hemp Oil content

Linoleic 45% 47% Kenaf

Alpha – linolenic 3% 21%

Oleic 28% 17% Hemp

Palmitic 19% 5%

Stearic 3% 3%

Quality The quality of kenaf is depended on several factors, among others:  Influence of variety on yield and quality of crop  Environmental conditions  Type of cultivation  The type of soil has profound effect on the quantity and quality of yield with better soils giving better yields. The influence of kenaf additives on paper quality: the kenaf fibres can serve as a virgin fibre for increasing recycled paper quality and paper strength. Kenaf could be made into high- quality book stock and other printing and writing papers with only slight modifications of existing processes using available equipment.

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Kenaf straw can be harvested, processed and decorticated on the equipment for hemp. The quality requirements are similar to those of industrial hemp.

5.6 Applications: current/potential Kenaf was grown in Egypt over 3000 years ago. The kenaf leaves were consumed in human and animal diets; the bast fibre extracted from stem was used for bags, sacks, cordage, ropes, nets and the sails for Egyptian boats. The kenaf bast fibre can be used as a domestic supply of cordage fibre in the manufacture of rope, twine, carpet backing, bean poles, and burlap. Kenaf is cultivated for obtaining fibre, oil pressed from seeds. Kenaf can be cultivated in southern countries for the following end uses: ropes, cords, strings, sacks, nets, cellulose pulp, building materials, sorbents, and fodder for domesticated animals. Russia started production of kenaf in 1902. In 1935 it was introduced in China. Studies and production of kenaf in the USA were started during the WWII as the army needed raw materials for ropes and the previous supply from the Philippines was impossible because of war. When the usefulness of kenaf had been confirmed, the research concentrated on improving the cost- effectiveness of American kenaf plantations. As a result, new varieties were bred – resistant and giving high yields. It was found that kenaf makes a very good raw material for production of cellulase pulp for various kinds of paper products (for papers, bonds, corrugated paper etc.). Processing kenaf requires less energy input and use of chemicals than processing traditional sources of cellulose. The most recent research projects run in the 1990’s in Malaysia proved the high value of kenaf for use in building materials (particle boards of various compactness and thickness), as absorbents, textiles, fodder and fibres for recycling plastics. paper pulp Whole stalk kenaf (bast and core fibres) has been identified as a promising fibre source for paper pulp. The kenaf fibres, bast, and core, can be pulped as a whole stalk or separated and pulped individually. Various reports suggest that the energy requirements for producing pulp from kenaf are about 20 percent less than those for wood pulp, mostly due to the lower lignin content of kenaf. Whole stalk kenaf pulps have been processed into high quality bond, surface sized, coated raw stock, and newsprint papers. Commercial presses have printed on kenaf paper using letterpress, offset, rotogravure, flexography, and intaglio techniques. The combined (bast and core) bleached fibre yield from chemical pulping is about 46% by weight. For example, kenaf used in some paper products or processes can be pulped using a mixed fibre supply (unseparated bast and core), while certain processing applications involve separating the bast and core components. Several existing commercial kenaf facilities mechanically separate the two fibre components by different methods with distinct processing efficiencies, using a range of equipment with varying rates of throughput resulting in varying degrees of fibre separation. Each separation system also has unique economic ramifications based on their integrated production, harvesting, processing, and utilization systems.

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Figure 5-6 Processing of kenaf fibres

One method of fibre separation adapts unused cotton gin facilities. The modified gin equipment and facilities provide excellent machinery for separating the kenaf core material from the bast fibres, similar to the method that cotton gins process separates cottonseed from cotton fibres. Since the number of active cotton gin facilities is decreasing with the decline in cotton production, unused gin facilities are available for converting to kenaf separation facilities. Chemical bast pulp is well-suited for specialty papers. Compared to softwood pulp, bast pulp has a similar tensile strength, but greater tear strength and bulk fibre; thus it could serve as a replacement for softwood pulp. The kenaf fibres can also serve as a virgin fibre for increasing recycled paper quality and paper strength. board and composite Uses of kenaf fibre include engineered wood, insulation, and clothing-grade cloth. Panasonic has set up a plant in Malaysia to manufacture kenaf fibre boards and export them to Japan, oil and liquid absorbent material, soil-less potting mixes, animal bedding, packing material, cut bast fibre for blending with resins for plastic composites, as a drilling fluid loss preventative for oil drilling muds, for a seeded hydromulch for erosion control and various types of erosion and environmental mats, such as seeded grass mats for instant lawns and mouldable mats for manufactured parts and containers.

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Whole stalk kenaf can also be used in corrugated medium, in building materials such as particleboard and for reinforcement in injection moulded and extruded plastics. Additional potential uses in manufactured products include automobile dashboards, as a “substitute for fibreglass and other synthetic fibres”, textiles, and as fibres for injected melded and extruded plastics. textile application The stems produce two types of fibre, a coarser fibre in the outer layer (bast fibre), and a finer fibre in the core. The yarns are woven, crocheted, and knitted into many different types of items-- everything from clothing and ceremonial accessories to fishing nets and bags. The fibres are processed and spun by hand. The resulting yarn has a natural and rustic appeal. These yarns have a texture similar to natural linen and like linen will soften with wear. others Kenaf bast fibres are presently in commercial use in other environmental friendly products such as fibre lawn mats impregnated with grass seed, and spray-on soil mulches to prevent soil erosion from water and wind along highway rights-of-way or at construction sites. Due to the high absorbency of the core material, researchers have investigated the use of kenaf as an absorbent, as a poultry litter and animal bedding, as a bulking agent for sewage sludge composting, and as a potting soil amendment. In addition to the core products, which are all now available in the market place, several kenaf core products have been successfully used for toxic waste cleanup, including oil spills on water, and the remediation of chemically contaminated soils. Although kenaf is usually considered a fibre crop, the entire kenaf plant, stalk (core and bark) and leaves, can be used as a livestock feed. Research indicates that it has high protein content. Crude protein in kenaf leaves ranged from 14% to 34%, stalk crude protein ranged from 2 to 12%, and whole-plant crude protein ranged from 6% to 23%. Kenaf seeds yield a vegetable oil that is edible with no toxins. The kenaf seed oil is also used for cosmetics, industrial lubricants and for biofuel production. Future: Other usage is still developing like kenaf seed oil paint, mushroom medium and kenaf charcoal. Bioremediation of soil contaminated by heavy metals and use of kenaf for wastewater treatment and as animal feed are being investigated. Kenaf is now widely recognized as a potential plant to fight against the environmental problems. Bast fibres like kenaf possess a natural high degree of variability. To introduce inhomogeneous agricultural raw materials into a modern production line, a number of preconditions must be given. The specific properties of the especially their dependence on agronomic-, processing- and refining conditions should be taken into account. Eco Mobile possibility: kenaf fibre-reinforced bio plastic. It is possible to add fibre from Kenaf to the main raw material of bio plastic. It has been used for a product casing, though there have been PC dummy cards made of this plastic, moreover, this is the world's first case of bio plastic being used in a mobile phone.

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Eco mobile contributes to preventing global warming. It is generally said that bio plastic made of polylactic acid emits one-half to two-thirds of the greenhouse gases that conventional oil-based plastic emits, from raw material extraction to disposal.

5.7 Restricting factors Ecological factors  Climatic requirements Kenaf is a plant of tropical and subtropical climatic region. For proper growth it needs average temperature during day above 200C. When the air temperature is too low, the plants do not flower and produce seeds. Moreover, the stems reach lower height. Kenaf is sensitive to photoperiods as the length of the day has significant effect on its proper growth. Thus, breeding of varieties of different maturing dates (from early to late maturing) is of high importance. Then a variety suitable to the conditions prevalent at the plantation can be selected.  Small diversity within the species As a self-pollinating plant, kenaf shows very small genetic diversity. This causes difficulties in traditional breeding works for improvement of usable features. Moreover the cultivation of kenaf is restricted to the countries of tropical and subtropical climate. Both factors result in small diversity of initial forms and hybrids. Social factors  Poor knowledge about the quality of products derived from kenaf (paper, textile products etc).  Poor ecological awareness and little emphasis on eco-friendly production.  Price – kenaf products (and others made of fibrous plants) are expensive. Focusing on cost reduction at all stages is recommended. The buyers make purchasing decisions mostly depending on the price and ecological considerations are still of much lower importance.

5.8 Research gaps Current investigations focus on effect of irrigation, time of sowing/harvest, nitrogen application, influence of variety on yield and quality of crop, influence on upland areas and in paddy cultivation Ecological factors  Conquest of knowledge of genetic mechanism plants adaptation to European climate conditions  Widen of genetic pool (interspecific crosses).  Optimization of kenaf paper production (genetic factors, agronomical factors, influence of environmental conditions)  Widen research concerns getting and using of bio plastic  Expanding the genetic diversity.

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Genetic studies of other species within Hibiscus genus as it comprises more than 200 species and is very diversified genetically. Trials on distant crossing in breeding works are recommended for introducing new features to Hibiscus cannabinus L.  Optimisation of paper production. Kenaf paper production should be better developed and implemented in a large scale. This is the most important application of kenaf. The estimated growth of global human population will require finding new sources of cellulase in order to protect forests. Studies on genetic factors influencing paper production and agro technical parameters should be taken up. Sociological factors  Education for increasing knowledge about advantages of natural fibres.  Market research for estimate hiding market segments for bioproducts made from kenaf fibre  Promotion of the kenaf paper production

5.9 References [1] Webber, C.L. III. 1996. Response of kenaf to nitrogen fertilization. p. 404-408.ASHS Press, Arlington, VA [2] Webber C.L. III, Bledsoe V.K., and Bledsoe R. E.: Kenaf Harvesting and Processing. Webber, C.L., III, V.K. Bledsoe, and R.E. Bledsoe. 2002. Kenaf harvesting and processing. 9. 340–347. In: J. Janick and A. Whipkey (eds.), Trends in new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA. [3] Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/kenaf [4] Princen L.H., 1982, Kenaf-promising new fiber Crop. In “THE HERBIST”,ed. Alexandra H. Hicks, 79-83 [5] Baldwin, B.S. 1996. Adaptation of kenaf to temperate climatic zones. ASHS Press, Arlington, VA [6] Robinson, F.E. 1993. Response of kenaf to multiple cutting. p. 407-408. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New crops. Wiley, New York. Phillips, [7] W.A., S.C. Rao, and T.H. Dao. 1989. The nutritive value of immature whole plant kenaf and tops of mature kenaf for growing ruminants. First Annu. Conf. Assoc. Adv. Ind. Crops. Pub. 63. [8] Robinson, F.E. 1988. Kenaf: a new fiber crop for paper production. Calif. Agr. 42(5):31-32. [9] John, MJ, Bellmann, C and Anandjiwala, RD. 2010. Kenaf-polypropylene composites: effect of amphiphilic coupling agent on surface properties of fibres and composites. Carbohydrate Polymers, Vol. 82(3), pp 549-554

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6 LOOFAH (Luffa cylindrica L.) Fam: Cucurbitaceae L.

6.1 Plant anatomy Loofah is closely related to cucumber and it has similar input requirements. It is an annual fast-growing climbing vine that produces fruits containing a fibrous vascular system (see figure).

1 3 Figure 6-1 Loofah: 1) Luffa cylindrica, 2) Sponges obtained from fruits, 3) Seeds.

The vine can get more than 9 m long and scrambles over anything in its path. The large leaves are lobed and have silvery patches on the topsides. The flowers are showy and conspicuous, about 5-8 cm across with five petals. The fruits are green, up to 60 cm long and 8 cm in diameter; they are cylindrical and smooth, and shaped like a club, slighter wider on one end. Fruits may weigh up to 1,5 Kg. On older fruits, the outer skin eventually dries and turns brown and papery.

6.2 Domestication and area of origin It is probably native to tropical Africa and Asia. It is grown throughout most of Asia for food and for pot scrubbers, and is cultivated commercially in the United States for export in Japan. There is a very little marketplace in Europe, mainly for natural sponge.

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6.3 Growing conditions Loofah is closely related to cucumber and has similar cultural requirements. It is a tropical plant, which requires a longer growing season than most cucurbits grown in Europe. Plants are trained to a single-curtain trellis and grown on raised beds with black plastic mulch and drip irrigation. Rows should be spaced 1.5 m apart, and 0.5 m apart along rows. Highest yields, earliest maturity, and largest sponges could be obtained when plants are transplanted and set early. To produce straight, well-formed, disease-free gourds, loofah must be grown on a trellis. A sturdy trellis that permits good light penetration and air circulation is required. Experimental trials held in North America have evaluated which is the best trellis system among three of the most common trellis used for Cucurbitaceae cultivation, namely a single curtain system, the Geneva double curtain (three wires formed a "V" at the top of the trellis) and the Lincoln system (four wires across the top of "T" posts). The Lincoln system was defined the most preferred because it provided the best support; the fruit hung free beneath the vines, resulting in a high percentage of straight fruit with few blemishes; and the fruit matured early (Davis and DeCourley, 1993). Days from fruit set to fruit maturity ranged from 53 to 88 days. A growing season of 188 days is too short to produce loofah seeds. To produce high yields of mature gourds in a short growing season, transplants must be set in the field as soon as all danger of frost is past (Davis, 1996). Loofah needs plenty of moisture while growing, and prefer a pH of around 6.0 to 6.8. Excessive water can result in poor growth and root disease. Damping off can be a problem with young seedlings if growing in cool wet conditions, and fruit rots may cause losses if the fruit are allowed to grow on the ground. Gourds are heavy feeders and require fertile soil. Nutrients and water may be reduced in late summer to slow growth rate and encourage fruits to harden off.

6.4 Logistics: harvesting/handling Harvest time is usually in late summer - early autumn. In order to get high-quality vegetable sponges, the fruits must be allowed to ripen on the vine and harvested when the skin has turned yellow or brown. The fruit must be left on the vine as long as possible, and must be removed after the first frost.

6.5 Production-Yields A big limit to maximize the productivity is the scalar maturity of loofah. Only fruits that appear on the vine early in summer will have the length of time required to mature.

Quality Morphological studies of Loofah fibers revealed that cells are non-spherical rather irregular in shape and cell walls are thick. The fibers show helical winding of microfibrils attach to each other by a binding material. The interior of these microfibrils shows longitudinal array in some cases. Thickness of this is very high in sponge gourd fibre, higher than that of

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banana fibre. Alike for banana, lacuna are absent in sponge gourd fibres (Guimaraes et al., 2009). Thermal stability of loofah fibers is found to be around 200 °C. Decomposition of both cellulose and hemicellulose in the fibres takes place above 300 °C, while the degradation of fibres takes place above 400 °C, as a result of the break of bonds of the protolignin (Guimaraes et al., 2009).

Table 6-1 Description of the fiber compounds of Luffa cylindrica (Sponge gourd), compared to those fibers obtained from Banana and Sugar cane (Bagasse), in Brazil. (Guimares et al, 2009)

Figure 6-2 Optical and scanning electron micrographs of cross-section of fiber of banana (Guimaraes et al., 2009).

6.6 Applications: current/potential The fibrous interiors of fruits from the luffa sponge gourd are used primarily as bath sponges but also as pot scrubbers, filters, packing material, and for making crafts. The mature fruits of Luffa acutangula are bitter and inedible, but the fibrous skeleton can be used as a sponge as well. However, the reticulated inner tissue is not as easily separated from the outer skin and inner flesh as L. aegyptiaca. Luffa aegyptiaca along with Lagenaria siceraria, probably has the most diverse uses of any of the cultivated cucurbits. Immature fruits of the non-bitter genotypes are eaten fresh,

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cooked, or in soups, although they are inferior to immature L. acutangula fruits. The mature fruits are the source of the spongy reticulated material known as the domestic loofah. These loofahs’ are used for sponges and filters, and for stuffing pillows, saddles, and slippers. They can also be used for insulation and are attractive sources for packing materials because of their biodegradability (Ng, 1993).

6.7 References [1] Guimaraes J.L. Frollini E., da Silva c.G., Wypych F. and Satyanarayana K.G. Characterization of banana, sugar cane and sponge gourd fibers of Brazil. Industrial Crops and Products. 30, 407-415. [2] Davis, J.M. and C.D. DeCourley. 1993. Luffa sponge gourds: A potential crop for small farms. p. 560-561. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New crops. Wiley, New York. [3] Ng, T.J. 1993. New opportunities in the Cucurbitaceae. p. 538-546. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), New crops. Wiley, New York. [4] Davis, J.M. 1996. Luffa sponge gourd production practices for temperate climates. Vegetable Production and Marketing. 6(7), 1-3.

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7 MISCANTHUS (Miscanthus x giganteus GREEF et DEU)

7.1 Plant anatomy Miscanthus is a woody rhizomatous C4 grass species belonging to the Andropogoneae tribe (Poaceae family) in the Graminaceae Order (McCarthy & Walsh, 1996).

Figure 7-1 View of miscanthus at early stages and at harvesting time (source: CRES).

Miscanthus is a monocotyledonous Poaceae looking like a bamboo or a reed. Stems are constituted of several strong ligno-cellulosic units (such as sugar cane). They are characterized by a rapid growth up to 3 meters during the third or fourth year of production (Walsh, 1997); Scurlock (1998) found the typical maximum canopy height at about 4 m or 2.5-3 m after over-wintering and leaf drop. Inflorescences are from panicle type where male and female flowers are disposed in spikes. Blossoming is quiet rare in Europe and if it does, the seeds produced are not fertile.

7.2 Domestication and area of origin Originated from Asiatic countries and firstly introduced in Europe in the 1930's as an ornamental plant, it has been spread out mainly throughout Europe due to some species better adapted to cooler conditions (Scurlock, 1998). Miscanthus x giganteus is a sterile (3n) naturally occurring interspecific hybrid which remains an unimproved plant like all Miscanthus species. It was collected in Japan, introduced in Denmark in 1935 and then distributed throughout Europe (McCarthy & Walsh, 1996). Firstly studied in Denmark in the 1960's for its considerable cellulose fibre yield

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potential under European conditions, Miscanthus x giganteus is, from the 1980’s on, also studied for energy production by diverse European countries.

Figure 7-2 Miscanthus sinensis distribution in the USA (Source: http://plants.usda.gov/maps/thumbs/MI/MISA.png) Miscanthus sinensis is frequently cultivated in the United States and southern Canada, and is now established in some parts of the United States. Approximately 40 forms and cultivars are available. This plant can be noxious weed or invasive (Herbarium.usu.edu).

7.3 Growing conditions Despite the fact that C4 species are best suited to tropical and subtropical climates where their growth rate is high and winter temperatures not freezing, some Miscanthus species naturally occur in a temperate climate. The results of the Miscanthus Productivity Network showed that their yields were nevertheless limited by low temperatures in Northern country (decreasing in rates of leaf expansion, canopy development, dry matter yields and length of Miscanthus growing season defined by the latest spring frost and the first autumn frost). Most of the yields were situated between 11 and 18.3t/ha while those obtained in South European countries were recorded at 24t/ha where water was not a limiting factor (Jones & Walsh, 2001). Miscanthus is relatively tolerant to different types of soil (pH between 5.5-7.5) (McCarthy & Walsh, 1996). The form of soil aggregate seems to have a more significant effect on productivity than soil type or pH (Jones & Walsh, 2001). At a practice level, Miscanthus technical management should start with the following land preparation: soil should be tilled in winter then mechanically cleaned at the end of winter using a cultivator-harrow in order to ensure a good soil physical structure and to enhance tap roots and rhizome development.

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The crop is established by rhizomes or rhizomes cuttings. Thus better results should be obtained with large pieces of rhizomes (>200mm length) which have not been stored before being planted at 200mm depth. Miscanthus has a high water use efficiency (272 L/kg DM) compared to the C3 species but also high water requirements due to its high productivity (between 750 and 800 mm). During the Miscanthus Productivity Network (McCarthy & Walsh, 1996), best yields were achieved with the highest irrigation treatment. Growth characteristics such as plant height, number of leaves, leaf area index and yield were found to be dependent on irrigation rates when Miscanthus was grown up in sites with low water table. Newly planted rhizomes establishment rates also appeared to be improved by irrigation under drier conditions (rhizomes were found to be less sensitive than micro propagated plants to summer drought) (Schwarz et al, 1998). Water requirements can be provided by rain falls, irrigation or underground reserves (McCarthy & Walsh, 1996). Irrigation is usually required in Southern EU sites (Walsh & McCarthy, 1998) but it can eventually be avoided if the water holding capacity of the soil is high (McCarthy & Walsh, 1996). It is worth noting that despite the high water requirements of the crop, doubling irrigation rates may increase dry matter yields by only 10%; then, it may be more economical and environmentally friendly to grow Miscanthus using moderate irrigation rates without dramatically reducing yields (Jones & Walsh-2001). Miscanthus rhizomes act as storage organs for nutrients which allow a rapid growth in spring by re-translocation processes; the nutrient store built up during the vegetative period and filled in at the beginning of autumn (Sept/Oct), is depleted during spring for the production of the above-ground biomass. The remaining nutrients are retranslocated to the rhizome at the end of the growing period (McCarthy & Walsh, 1996). Thus, on 4-9 year-old Miscanthus stands in Germany, the nutrient concentrations in the harvested biomass were found to be only 61% (N), 64% (P), 55% (K) and 50% (Mg) of the initial concentration at the end of the vegetation period (harvest period : February/March). It is explained by translocation of nutrients to the below-ground plant part and the nutrient losses due to pre- harvest losses (fallen leaves, shoot-tips) (Kahle et al, 2001). No clear conclusion can be made from the results of several trials on the interaction between N fertilization and yield: trials of the Miscanthus Productivity Network have revealed that the effect of nitrogen fertilization rates on biomass yield was generally small whereas some trials showed that plants were demanding more during the first year (60 to 120kg

N/ha, 15 to 100kg P2O5/ha and 70 to 140kg K2O/ha). Other Austrian trials have recorded significant effects of nitrogen fertilization rate on biomass yield in years 4th and 5th as yield increases (Schwarz and Liebhard, 1995). With regard to this wide range of observation, McCarthy & Walsh (1996) have concluded that responses to fertiliser applications appear to vary according to soil type and nutrient supply capacity ; N fertilization will be necessary on soils with low N contents and be avoided or limited to 50-70kg/ha/yr on soils with sufficient N mineralization (Lewandowski et al, 2003). Once the plants established, their ability to acquire and conserve large quantities of nutrients imply relatively low fertilizer applications to support growth. The amount of P and K exported in the biomass at harvest (i.e. 7.4 and 94.3kg/ha respectively in the third year) can be replaced by fertilizer applied at compensatory rates but with adjustments to support increased growth as the crop increases in maturity (Jones & Walsh, 2001).

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Thus, the internal cycling of nutrients allows harvesting Miscanthus with low nutrient contents but complicates the quantification and the optimisation of fertilizer applications (Jones & Walsh, 2001). Research is at present going on especially on interaction between N fertilization rates and irrigation rates because high yields were recorded in several trials (Austria, Greece, Italy) at sites receiving the highest N fertilization rates combined with the highest irrigation level (Schwarz and Liebhard, 1995).

7.4 Logistics: harvesting/handling In literature harvesting dates range from autumn to spring, depending on local conditions. Winter and early spring (before shoot regrowth) offer good harvest conditions and especially during a frost period: firm soil, homogenous harvest after leaves fell (better quality of product), low moisture of plants. In addition, the later the harvest can be performed, the more the combustion quality improves since the moisture content and the mineral contents decrease. However there is a trade-off since the biomass yield and the bioenergy yield decrease as well ; the biomass yield loss is about 30 to 50% of the standing biomass (Lewandowsky et al, 2003; Scurlock, 1998) and the bioenergy yield recorded as 187-528 GJ/ha for a harvest in December decreases with a delayed harvest by 14-15% between December and February and by a further additional 13% between February and March (but reduced total SO equivalent emissions of an energetic use of Miscanthus (LCA results) (Lewandowski & Heinz, 2003). In autumn, dry matter content is maximized but moisture content remains quite high (Miscanthus is a hygroscopic crop; its inner moisture is directly linked to the atmospheric moisture). Moisture content at autumn harvest was found to range from 25-40% in Southern European countries to 30-60% in more Northern countries and was also found to vary between genotypes (M. x giganteus moisture content was about 44-50%). Then, Jones and Walsh (2001) advise to harvest in early spring in Northern regions when the moisture content of the harvested material is lowest and in late autumn in Southern countries to avoid biomass losses caused by the adverse climatic conditions during winter. In any case, for economic reasons, a late harvest with moisture content lower than 30% is recommended because harvesting and drying costs increase with water content (Huisman, 1998).

7.5 Production-Yields Miscanthus estimate productive time life is about 10-15 years. The results of the main European trials have shown ceiling yields ranging from 15 to 25 t/ha at the end of the growing season in northern Europe. In central and southern Europe a higher productivity has been recorded (from 25 to 40 t/ha) but irrigation was required (Jones & Walsh – 2001). Nevertheless, according to Scurlock (1998), large-scale semicommercial trials suggest that a yield above 7-9t/ha (dry weight) is a more reasonable estimate over large areas. Their first results suggest that yields of up to 25t/ha /year (DW) may be obtained at the time of harvest (February) under conditions from central Germany (lat. 50 N) to Southern Italy (lat. 37 N).

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7.6 Applications: current/potential One of the potential end uses is as a fuel energy production by combustion in farm heating plants or co –combustion with coal for example. In this last case, Miscanthus is comparable to straw (18.2MJ/kg) (McCarthy & Walsh, 1996). This energy can then is transformed in electricity, heat, etc. (Walsh & McCarthy, 1998). 20t Miscanthus is equivalent to 12t of hard coal or 8,000 litters of oil on an energy basis (Lewandowski et al, 1995). The quantification of avoided fossil fuel-derived energy depends on several factors such as the cultivation method, biomass yield, biomass water content, biomass loss in storage and the electricity generating technology (Bijl, 1996 ; Kaltschmitt et al, 1996). Miscanthus is reported to have a high net energy balance compared with other energy crops (Karltsmitt et al., 1996). Miscanthus has a low impact on soil and water quality due to its low requirements of pesticide and fertilizer and also on soil erosion. It may have a beneficial impact on wildlife and biodiversity compared to other high input arable crop. (Walsh & McCarthy, 1998) ; Jodl et al (1998) found that Miscanthus stands contains more large animals than other herbaceous crops (corn or reeds) probably because of the greater diversity of canopy structure providing greater range of ecological niches. It is worth noting that these environmental benefits will only occur if production and conversion processes are carefully managed and guidelines are fully adhered to (James & Walsh, 2001).

7.7 Restricting factors and research gaps Miscanthus has been investigated in several EU projects such as: FAIR CT97 1707, FAIR 1392, AIR1 CT92 0294, etc.

7.8 References [1] Bijl G.van der. 1996. Sustainability of production and use of biomass for European energy supply. In Biomass for Energy and the Environment, Proceedings of the 9th European Bioenergy Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, June 1996. Pergamon/Elsevier Publishers, 1 : pp 387-92. [2] Biofuel Technology handbook, 2007, WIP. [3] Girouard, P. and R. A. Samson. 1998. The potential role of perennial grasses in the pulp and paper industry. In: Proceedings of the 84th Annual Meeting of the Technical Section of the Canadian Pulp and Pulp Association, January 1998, Montreal, Canada, pp. 125-133. [4] Hanelt P., Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK Gatersleben) (Eds.) 2001. Mansfeld’s Encyclopedia of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops. Springer-Verlag. 1-6, 3716 pp. [5] http://herbarium.usu.edu/webmanual/info2.asp?name=Miscanthus_sinensis&type=tre atment

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[6] Huisman W. 1998. Harvesting and Handling of PRG Crops. In: I. Lewandowski, Editor, Production and use of perennial rhizomateous grasses (PRG) in the energy and industrial sector of Europe, Intitut fur Pflanzenbau und Grunland, Stuttgart, pp.42-47. [7] Jodl S., Eppel-Hotz A., Marzini K. – 1998 – Examination of the ecological value of Miscanthus expanses – faunistic studies. Pp. 778-779. In Biomass for Energy and Industry, Proceedings of the 10th European Biomass Conference, Würzburg, Germany, June 1998. C.A.R.M.E.N. Publishers, Rimpar, Germany. [8] Jones M.B. and Walsh M. 2001. Miscanthus for energy and fibre, James & James, 192 pp [9] Jung, G. A., J. A. Shaffer, W. L., Stout, and M. T. Panciera. Warm-season grass diversity in yield, plant morphology, and nitrogen concentration and removal in Northeastern USA. Agro. J., 1990, 82, 21-26. [10] Kahle P., Beuch S., Boelcke B., Leinweber P., Schulten HR.- 2001 – Cropping of Miscanthus in Central Europe : biomass production and influence on nutrients and soil organic matter – European Journal of Agronomy - Elsevier Sciences BV, Amsterdam. [11] Kaltschmitt M., Reinhardt G.A. and Stelzer T. – 1996 – LCA of biofuels under different environmental aspects. In Biomass for Energy and the Environment, Proceedings of the 9th European Bioenergy Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, June 1996. Pergamon/Elsevier Publishers, 1: pp 369-86. [12] Lewandowski I., Heinz A. - 2003 - Delayed harvest of Miscanthus – influences on biomass quantity and quality and environmental impacts of energy production- European Journal of Agronomy - Elsevier Sciences BV, Amsterdam. [13] Lewandowski I., Kicherer A., and Vonier P. – 1995- CO2-balance for the cultivation and combustion of Miscanthus. Biomass and Bioenergy, 8 : pp 81-90 [14] Lewandowski I., Scurlock J.M.O., Lindvall E., Christou M. – 2003- The development and current status of perennial rhizomatous grasses as energy crops in the US and Europe. In Biomass and Bioenergy. In press (available online at www.sciencedirect.com) [15] McCarthy S. and Walsh M. - 1996 - Miscanthus Productivity Network : AIR- CT- 92- 0294 final report – Hyperion :Cork. [16] Schwarz H. and Liebhard P. – 1995- Fertilization effects on production of Miscanthus sinensis giganteus. In Chartier Ph., Beenackers, A.A.C.M and Grassi G (eds) Biomass for Energy, Environment, Agriculture and Industry – Proccedings of 8th E.C. Conference. 3-5 Octobre, 1994, Vienna, Austria Elsevier Science Ltd., Oxford, 1 : pp 523-9. [17] Schwarz K.U., Kjeldsen J.B., Munzer W., Junge R. – 1998- Low cost establishment and winter survival of Miscanthus x giganteus. Pp. 947-950. In Biomass for Energy and Industry, Proceedings of the 10th European Biomass Conference, Würzburg, Germany, June 1998. C.A.R.M.E.N. Publishers, Rimpar, Germany. [18] Scurlock J.M.O. – 1998 – Miscanthus : a review of European experience with a novel energy crop. ORNL/TM – 13732. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 26 pp.

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[19] Stritzlet, N. P., Pagella, J. H., Jouve, V. V. and C. M. Ferri. 1996. Semi-arid warm- season grass yield and nutritive value in Argentina. Journal of Range Management 49:121-125. [20] Turnhollow, A. F. 1991. Screening herbaceous Lignocellulosic energy crops in temperate regions of the USA. Bioresource Technology 36, 247-252. [21] Walsh M. - 1997 - Miscanthus handbook. EU project FAIR 3-CT96-1707. Hyperion: Cork.

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8 Nettle (Urtica dioica). Fam. Urticaceae

8.1 Nettle morphology & anatomy

Flower Nettle is a dioecious, wind pollinating plant. Male and female flowers can be found on separate plants. Nettle flower is inconspicuous and green. Male flowers contain four anthers. Female flowers have one style with brush-like stigma. The anthers and the style are surrounded by corona with four sepals. The single flowers form a long raceme inflorescence growing out from leaves bases.

Figure 8-1 Urtica dioica, male and female flower

Stem Nettle stem can be up to 1.8 m tall. The stem is tetragon, covered with stinging hair producing venom (formic acid). Stem is usually straight, with no branches. Underground plant form strongly branched rhizomes with long internodes and secondary roots forming on the nodes. Anatomically, the stem cross section shows epidermis, primary cortex, phloem, xylem and core (parenchyma).

Figure 8-2 Nettle stalk, leaf and fruit

Leaves Leaves are arranged opposite on the stem, crosswise. Leaves are elongated and the blade is serrated. The surface of the leaf is covered with stinging hair. Nettle leaves are rich in Vitamin C, K and B. They also contain essential oil flavonoids and histamine.

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Fruit The nettle fruit is a non breaking nut. The nut contains only one seed. The nut is oval, with narrowing tip. Having reached maturity, the fruit falls off in whole from the plant. A special tissue makes it easier as the seeds are spread by wind.

8.2 Area of origin and current cultivation The stinging nettle grows in the wild conditions in Europe, Asia, North America, generally is growing generally almost everywhere except the tropical zones. Nettle is practically not grown commercially in Europe. The FAO statistics do not include any data about fibrous nettle. Existing areas cover experimental plots. The trails with fibre (fibrous) nettle have been conducted recently in Austria and Italy (Tuscany).

8.3 Growing conditions – input requirements

Climatic requirements: There are no precise information on water requirements and optimum temperatures for nettle. It known, however that nettle has high requirements for water, especially in the stage of intensive growth (irrigation is used). The precipitation should be evenly distributed throughout vegetation period. Plants are very sensible for dying effect of wind.

Crop rotation The best forecrops for nettle are crops with deep rood system (e.g. hemp) due to reduction of weed occurrence. Also, crops enriching soil in nitrogen are recommended to be grown before nettle (lupine, vegetables). In old literature nettle is recommended to be grown after potato and beets.

Sowing Nettle can be sown but it is difficult technically and causes high degree of heterogeneity of plants (especially in the first year of cultivation). This in consequence causes lower content and lower quality of fibre. Therefore, vegetative multiplication is used by planting rhizomes or planting clone seedlings. Young plants are planted in rows keeping the distance between plants of 50 cm. Row spacing also 50 cm. Young seedlings are planted in April or May.

Fertilization Main objective of nettle fertilization is ensuring high yields of biomass throughout all years of cultivation (nettle is grown as perennial crop). Especially important is nitrogen as nettle is extremely nitrophyllic plant. Different recommendation as to the nitrogen level and forms can be found in literature. Generally for conventional nettle plantations an intensive N fertilization is recommended. Most often N doses vary from 160-240 kg N/ha to 250-300 kg N/ha in form of CaCO3.

Post emergence treatment Nettle is highly resistant to agrophages. There is no literature based information on serious threat of nettle plantation by diseases or pests and if such information is available it

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concerns very local scale. Most often occurring disease is infection of Pernonospora debaryi and Pseudoperonospora urticae. From pests most common is Vanessa atalanta, Cynthia cardiu and Doralis urticaria. Weed control is important, especially in the first year of cultivation. It is recommended to use widely spaced rows and mechanical weed control. In interim periods (after harvest), the main problem in plantations is caused by monocotyledonous weeds.

8.4 Fibrous nettle logistic (harvesting-handling) until industrial plant gate

Processing of nettle fibres Nettle genus contains approximately 600 annual and perennial species yielding fibre. Nettle stems are 1.2-1.8 m tall. The fibre content is generally low and reaches 11%. In newly developed varieties it is not more than 13-16%. Nettle is most often harvested manually from nature during flowering time i.e. from mid August till beginning of September. Yields of dried stems are 3-8 t/ha. After harvest stems should be dried up to 15% moisture content. High amounts of leaves are the ballast that makes drying more difficult. Drying can be conducted in natural conditions by spreading them in a proper place or using any dryer they can fit in. It is a common opinion that nettle harvested in the second year give higher biomass than in the first one. The fibre efficiency in the first year reaches 335-411 kg/ha, while in the second year – 743-1016 kg/ha.

Table 8-1 Chemical composition of nettle fibre Parameter Before retting After retting Cellulose [%] 54 88 Hemicelluloses [%] 10 4 Pectin [%] 4.1 0.6 Lignin [%] 9.4 5.4 Wax and fats [%] 4.2 3.1 Hydro soluble substances [%] 18 2.1

Nettle fibre can be extracted from dry stems by decortication method. Technical fibre is soft, silky, resilient and grey-white. Its length is below 80 cm. As shortening of fibre is relatively easy during retting or chemical degumming, the best form for further processing is cottonized fibre. Recent studies showed that also steam explosion method can be used for nettle fibre extraction.

In common understanding nettle is usually considered a weed. It possesses, however, many precious properties and economical applications in medicine, food, feed, textile industries. It is also a habitat for numerous organisms. Nettle as the textile raw material has been known in Europe from medieval. It was gradually replaced by other fibres and today has no practical industrial application becoming a textile raw material especially in periods of crises. Nettle fibre can be obtained from several species of the Urtica genus.

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Extraction of fibre

Water and dew Decorticaton Stem retting explosion

Enzymatic Chemical retting degumming

Figure 8-3 Primary processing of nettle

FIBRE S

MAN-MADE FIBRES NATURAL FIBRES

PLANT FIBRES ANIMAL FIBRES

BAST FIBRES LEAF FIBRES WOOL AND HAIR SILK

SEED AND FRUIT FIBRES

FLAX, HEMP, NETTLE, etc.

Figure 8-4 Nettle fibre in fibre classification scheme.

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The best time for nettle harvesting is late summer and early autumn. After harvesting all leaves are removed from the stem and stems are selected leaving for processing only those that are strait and long. Fibre is extracted by the biological method (stem retting in flowing or stagnant water). Retting in flowing water produces bright, soft and glossy fibre while retting in stagnant water – dark gray fibre. Content of formic acid makes the retting process more difficult as it is an inhibitor of retting. Nettle can be processed in the form of technical fibre using spinning machines for bast fibres producing thick technical yarns used mainly for packaging (sacks, cases, etc.).

Figure 8-5 Nettle stems and removed leaves

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HARVEST OF NETTLE STEM

RETTING

BREAKING AND SCUTCHING

HACKLING AND CARDING

SPINNING

WEAVING

DYING

FINISHING

NETTLE FABRIC

Figure 8-6 Nettle processing scheme.

Mechanical processing is conducted using the same machinery as for hemp processing – scutching drums and short fibre processing units. The length of nettle technical fibre is 80- 120 cm. The structure of the stem is similar to ramie.

Elementary fibre of nettle is usually 5-55 mm long but sometimes it can reach 150 mm. The elementary fibre thickness varies from 12-120 μm, on average – 40-50 μm. Average metric number of the elementary fibre for stinging nettle is 2030-3440 (0.3-0.4 tex). Breaking length is lower than for ramie and is 26-29 km. Chemically stinging nettle fibre is similar to ramie.

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The main disadvantage of nettle as fibre source is low fibre content usually varying from 13 to 15%. Fibre properties make it useful for processing into cottonized fibre and spinning in blends with cotton or chemical fibres using cotton spinning system. The methods of preliminary processing and further cottonization of nettle fibre however, require further studies that would allow improvement of the processing. Nettle cottonized fibre is used for manufacture of thick fabrics: for sails, tents, sacks also for nets, cords, flour sieves, etc.

Nettle stem cross section.

Figure 8-7 Nettle stem cross section (on the left) and elementary fibre cross section (on the right)

8.5 Yields

In the trials in Italy the stalk mean dry mass obtained was about 15.4 t/ha with a mean fibre content of about 11% of stalk dry mass, and the resulting fibre yield was 1 696 kg/ha, comparable to or even higher than reported in literature.

Table 8-2 Yields of the most important functional traits

No. Trait Values Comments

1 Straw yield till 10 t/ha In 3rd year of cultivation. In 2nd year of (dry) cultivation up to 5 t/ha

2 Fibre content 2-16% In dependence of cultivation year, climatic conditions etc.

3 Fibre yield till 1.6 t/ha In dependence of cultivation year, climatic conditions etc. Average results from Austria and Italy [Vogl, Hartl oraz Bacii et al. 1997/99 and 2006/08]

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Table 8-3 Percentage content of cellulose, chemicellulose and lignin in fibre from different parts of stem

No. Compound Lower part of Medium part of Upper part of stem stem stem

1 cellulose 83.6% 79% 81.3%

2 chemicellulose 8.3% 12.5% 7.2%

3 lignin 4.4% 3.8% 3.5% First year of cultivation [Bacci i in. 2008]

8.6 Quality The trails with fibre (fibrous) nettle have been conducted recently e.g. in Italy (Tuscany). The physical-mechanical characteristics confirmed the potential of the fibres of nettle cultivated in Tuscany to be used for textile applications. The properties of the fibrous stinging nettle were similar to hemp fibres in diameter, lignin content and elongation, and similar to flax or cotton in tensile strength.

8.7 Applications: current – potential Nettle yarns have been used for centuries in Nepal. The yarns are woven, crocheted, and knitted into many different types of items – everything from clothing and ceremonial accessories to fishing nets and bags. The fibers are processed and spun by hand. The resulting yarn has a natural and rustic appearance. These yarns have a texture similar to natural linen and like linen will soften with wear. Clothing made from nettles is not a new idea; for the past 2,000 years people have worn fabrics made from these stinging plants. Nettle as a fibre yielding plant was known already in 12th century. The advantages of nettle fibre are: its low weight, strength, low water sorption and resistance to rotting. But nettles lost their popularity when cotton arrived in the 16th century, because cotton was easier to harvest and spin. Cloth has been woven from the fibres extracted from mature nettle stems for many centuries – frequently used for tablecloths and sheets in Scotland. The most interesting fact is that thousands of uniforms from Napoleon's Armada were woven from nettles. Being similar in texture to those materials produced by flax and hemp fibers, nettles made a brief comeback during the First World War, when Germany suffered a shortage of cotton and nettles were used to produce German army uniforms. The cultivation area of nettle in Germany and Austria in that time (1940) was ca 500 ha. Also in Great Britain nettle was cultivated during Second World War, although on much lower scale (ca 70 ha). Nettle is a natural moth repellent and is often used in Nepal for backing wool carpets. Nettle fiber is quite durable and can be twisted into very thin cord which is still quite strong. Nettle cord was often used for snares and fish nets. Prehistoric people also sometimes used nettle fiber for woven bags and pieces of cloth. The juice of the stems and leaves has been used to produce a permanent green dye, while a yellow dye can be obtained from boiling the roots. Both colours have been used extensively in Russia. Wild nettle (and wild hemp) yarn is not coming in regular color and regular yarn sizes because it is spun by hand and by natural process.

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Today, nettle fibre is occasionally used as a component to produce blended yarn with cotton, soybean, bamboo, linen and other natural fibers.

Figure 8-8 Main end uses are hand tuft knotted carpet and knitting wear.

Other applications of nettle: - for cosmetics: the leaves of the nettle consist chlorophyll up to 5%. Large application for creams, tonic and masks - in medicine: applied are leaves, roots and seed. Cures the inflammation of urine system, improves the digestion, supplement in curing diabetes, used for and treatment of skin and hair. The young leaves and buds can be used as additive to salads, spinach and soups.

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Future: Textiles made of nettle fibres are a useful alternative to other natural fibres such as hemp, linen and cotton and could play some role in the next 5 to 7 years. The fibres of the stinging nettle have a special characteristic in the fact that they are hollow which means they can accumulate air inside thus creating a natural thermal insulation. High yarn twist contributes to closing the hollow core and reducing insulation. In winter garments, with a low twist yarn, the hollow fibre remains open maintaining a constant temperature. Existing problems in the agricultural sector such as overproduction in the dairy industry, over-fertilisation of the soil, problems due to monocultures as well as the lack of financial opportunities underline the need for alternative crops. The stinging nettle is a perennial plant which thrives on nitrogenous and over-fertilised soil, making it a very interesting alternative that would add a completely new aspect to agriculture in central Europe (positive results of trials in Italy-Tuscany). Nettles are also resistant to diseases and pests so don’t need dangerous pollutants and also provide undisturbed cover and can support over 40 species of insects, some of which (such as Red Admiral and Small Tortoise Shell larvae) depend on them entirely for their survival.

8.8 Factors restricting growth and yielding potential

1. Biological factors Yields of nettle are limited by natural conditions (plant growing in shade, susceptible to water deficiency, nitrophyllic). Vegetative multiplication is limited by genetic factors and by itself excludes wide spectrum of genetic variability. Dioeciousness and high heterozygoticity make classical breeding difficult or even make it impossible. Additional factor limiting breeding is narrow gene pool (the genus is represented by only 33 species).

2. Social factors As in case of all fibrous plants, the main factor is low knowledge of society about products made of natural fibres. In case of nettle the problem is even bigger as in common knowledge the plant is not considered anything else but the weed. Wider utilization is also limited by physico-chemical properties of fibre which is difficult or even impossible to eliminate.

8.9 Research gaps

1. Ecological factors Conducting genetic research and breeding is a must to improve the nettle efficiency (increasing of content and yield of fibre). In order to increase efficiency of cultivation the research covering resistance of nettle against drought stress (genetic research and application of anti transpiration products). In order to improve alternative possibilities of raw materials offered by nettle a research on wider application of fibre should be undertaken and other products (e.g. water extract as bio-stimulating product for crops).

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2. Social aspects It is necessary to widen the society knowledge about profitable properties of products obtained from nettle. Nettle is well suited for cultivation in ecological farms. Intensification of agronomical research in this area may be a significant help in promotion of nettle as ecological plant. Novel solutions must be searched for in terms of physico-chemical properties of nettle fibre. An interesting idea is using nettle fibre as the additive to water proof clothes.

References:

 Bacci L, Baronti S, Predieri N, di Virgilio (2009), Fiber Yield and quality of fiber nettle (Urtica dioica L.) cultivated in Italy. Ind Crop Prod, 29, 480-484.  Bodros E, Baley Ch. (2008), Study of the tensile properties of stinging nettle fibres (Urtica dioica). Materials Letters, 62 (14), 2143-2145.  Dreyer J, Dreyling G, Feldmann F. (1996), Cultivation of stinging nettle Urtica dioica L. with high fibre content as a raw material for the production of fibre and cellulose; qualitative and quantitative differentiation of ancient clones. J.Appl.Bot.70, 28-39.  Dreyer J, Müssig J, Koschke N, Ibenthal W.-D, Harig H. (2002), Comparison of Enzymatically Separated Hemp and Nettle Fibre to Chemically Separated and Steam Exploded Hemp Fibre, Journal of Industrial Hemp, 7(1), 43-53.  Hartl A, Vogl C.R (2002), Dry mass and fiber yields, and the fiber characteristics of five nettle clones (Urtica dioica L.) organically grown in Austria for potential textile use. Am.J.Altern.Agric. 17, 195-200.  Hartl A, Vogl C.R. (2003), Production and processing of organically grown fiber nettle (Urtica dioica L) and its potential use in the natural textile industry: a review. Am.J.Altern.Agric. 18, 119-128.  Peterson R, Jensi N P. (1989), The role of bacteria in pH increase of nettle water, Plant and Soil, 113, 137-140.  Ruckenbauer P, BürstmayerH, Strütz A. (2002), The stinging nettle: its reintroduction for fibre production. IENICA (Interactive European Network for Industrial Crops and their Applications), Newsletter No.15.

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9 REED CANARY GRASS (Phalaris arundinaceae L.)

9.1 Plant anatomy Reed canary grass is a robust coarse perennial. The plant is a C3 pathway species. The last fifteen years the crops is being evaluated for fibre and energy production in Sweden and Finland.

Figure 9-1 View of the reed canary grass at flowering phase and at harvesting (Source: Presentation of Dr. Pahkala in the second 4FCROPS workshop in Madrid – 24/3/09 – www.4fcrops.eu). Its height varied from 60 cm to 2 m and has hairless light green or whitish green leaves 10- 35 cm long and 6-18 cm wide. Flowering is take place in June and seeds are ready in August. Reed canary grass spreads naturally by creeping rhizomes, but plants can be raised from seed. The plant frequently occurs in wet places, along the margins of rivers, streams, lakes and pools (www.ienica.net).

Reed canary grass is a large, coarse grass that reaches 2 to 9 ft. in height. It has an erect, hairless stem with flat, gradually tapering, rough-textured leaf blades. Single flowers, occurring in dense clusters from May to mid-June, are green to purple at first, changing to beige over time. Shiny brown seeds ripen in late June and are dispersed by waterways, animals, humans, and machines. Roots have short, stout rhizomes that root at the nodes and form a thick fibrous root mass. Reed canary grass can grow on dry soils in upland habitats and in the partial shade of oak woodlands, but does best on fertile, moist organic soils in full sun. It can invade most types of wetlands, including marshes, wet prairies, sedge meadows, fens, stream banks, ditches, and seasonally wet areas; it also grows in disturbed areas such as bergs and spoil-piles. Over time, it can form large colonies that spread throughout a wetland or floodplain. It also invades forested sites and limits tree regeneration. Few plants can grow in areas dominated by reed canary grass (Eastern Forest Environmental Threat assessment Center).

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9.2 Domestication and area of origin Reed canary grass is widely distributed across temperate regions of Europe, Asia and North America. It has been planted throughout the U.S. since the 1800's for forage and erosion control.

Figure 9-2 Reed canary grass distribution in the USA (http://threatsummary.forestthreats.org/threats/threatSummaryViewer.cfm?threatID=107).

Figure 9-3 Reed canary grass distribution in the USA (http://www.agroatlas.ru/en/content/related/Phalaroides_arundinacea/map/)

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9.3 Growing conditions It is established by seed and according to field trials that have been conducted in Finland can be productive after 15 years. The first harvest of the crop takes place two years after sowing and its root system needs two growing period to be developed. According to the trials the crop gives the best yields from the third growing period. It grows best in soils with soil type from moist mold to fine sand soils. Reed canary grass is sown like forage grasses and can not compete well the weeds. The crops should be fertilized each spring after harvest (60-80 kg N/ha).

9.4 Logistics: harvesting/handling In Finland and Sweden reed canary grass is harvested in spring after the snow melts because then the crop is dry and the fuel quality of the raw material is high. When the crop is harvested in spring the ash content is lower and the ash melting point is higher compared to the autumn-harvested crop. Also Cl, K, Ca, N and P contents have decreased during the winter. The ask content at harvest ranged from 2 to 10% depending on the fertilization and the soils. The ash content is lower in the stems compared to the leaves and at spring harvest the stems are the 70% of the harvested material. The harvesting takes places at a stem height of 15 cm and the moisture content of the harvested material is 10-15%.

Reed canary grass in Finland 100000 100 000? 80000

60000

Area haArea 40000

1720020400 20000 10500 4500 300 500 900 1600 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2015

Figure 9-4 Area of cultivation of reed canary grass in Finland (Source: Presentation of Dr. Pahkala in the second 4FCROPS workshop in Madrid – 24/3/09 – www.4fcrops.eu).

9.5 Production-Yields In Finland the production of reed canary grass has increased rapidly the last decade. In 2008 the production area of reed canary grass was about 20,000 ha in Finland, while in Sweden was under 1,000 ha. In the other EU countries is not cultivated with the exception of small experimental plots. It is a crop suitable in Nordic countries, where the winter is cold.

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In Finland the Ministry of Agricultural and Forestry has set a target to increase the field area of energy crops to 100,000 ha before 2016. The realistic yields of the crop in Finland varied from 4 to 7 dry tones/ha. The crop is mixed with peat or wood chips (Figure 4). It is reported yields of 11 t/ha in USA when the crop is harvested three times per year and 4.4 to 8.6 t/ha in USA when the crop is harvested one time. In Canada with three cuts the yields are 9.5 – 12 t/ha, in Sweden with two cuts 10 t/ha and in UK 4tn/ha for one harvest (Chisholm, 1994).

9.6 Applications: current/potential The chemical composition of the reed canary grass is 28% cellulose, 22% hemicellulose, 14% lignin, 8% ash (of which a high% is silica), 28% other. According to Anthony et al. 1993 its fibre length is 0.67 mm, the coarseness is 0.082 mg/m and the water retention 200. The crop removes nitrogen from the soil more efficiently than any other cool-season grasses and often analyses highest in percentage crude protein among grasses at similar stages of maturity (Anthony et al. 1993).

9.7 Restricting factors and research gaps Reed canary grass has been exploited in EU projects such as AIR 3 CT94 2465 “Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea). Development of a new crop production system based on delayed harvesting and a system for its combined processing to chemical pulp and biofuel powder”

9.8 References [1] Anthony, K.R.M., Meadley, J. and Robbelen, G. 1993. New crops for Anthony, K.R.M., Meadley, J. and Robbelen, G. 1993. New crops for temperate regions, Chapman and Hall, London. [2] Clisholm C. J. 1994. Reed canary grass. In Towards a UK Research Strategy for Alternative Crops. Silsoe Research Institute. [3] Eastern Forest Environmental Threat assessment Center (http://threatsummary.forestthreats.org/threats/threatSummaryViewer.cfm?threatID= 107). [4] IENICA: “Agronomy Guide, Generic guidelines on the agronomy of selected industrial crops”, August 2004. & www.ienica.net.

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10 YUCCA (Yucca gloriosa L.)

10.1 Plant anatomy

Figure 10-1 Yucca gloriosa Yucca plants range in height from 0.7 to 12 m depending upon the variety. Yuccas make great houseplants when young; they produce rosettes of rigid, slender, sword- shaped leaves and tall, candelabrum-like panicles of large, drooping, waxy, bell-shaped flowers. Y. gloriosa forms a fairly hardy shrub that reaches 2,5 m high. It has thick stem and few or no branches. At the limits of its range, it may not form a stem. The green, sharp- tipped leaves are covered with bloom and grow up to 0,6 m long and 7 to 10 cm wide. In Y. gloriosa from mid- to late summer, tall panicles arise covered with milk white flowers, which are produced even on young plants. They are produced in a compact, terminal head. From mid-summer to early autumn, panicles are produced. They are densely covered with large white or greenish white flowers, sometimes stained with red on the outside.

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10.2 Domestication and area of origin Yucca includes about 50 perennial, shrubby, and tree species renowned for their sharp leaves and their terminal clusters of creamy white flowers. The genus is native to woodland soils of North, Central, and South America's hot and arid climate regions.

Figure 10-2 Distribution of Yucca spp.

10.3 Growing conditions Propagation of Yucca plants are usually by offsets or cuttings. Short shoots can usually be taken off of the old stems in the spring and summer. These shoots are placed individually in pots or containers in propagating warm beds, closed frame where they will form roots quickly. Shoots can also be detached from the base of old plants. Pieces of old stems can be laid on sand or some other medium in a warm greenhouse; shoots that can be used as cuttings will grow from dormant buds. A head of leaves from a branch that has broken off a large plant can be rooted in a container filled with sandy soil. Cut the head from the branch just a few inches below the lower leaves and remove a few of the lower leaves before inserting in the pot of soil. Loosely tie the leaves together in an upright position and place the plant in a warm greenhouse, where roots should form in a few weeks.

10.4 Production-Yields Quality The roots and flowers of the yucca are rich in saponin steroidal glycosides consisting of a sapogenin and 1 or more sugars. Saponins are characterized by their bitter taste and their ability to foam when shaken with water. Most species contain sarsa-sapogenin, tigogenin, furostanol, and spirostanol (Piacente et al., 2004; 2005; Skhirtladze et al, 2006). Steroidal saponin glycosides from the stems, leaves, and flowers of Yucca gloriosa and related species have demonstrated antifungal effects against a number of human pathogens in vitro (Kemertelidze et al, 2009). Phenolic

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compounds (novel yuccaols and gloriosaols) and spirostane aglycones are numerous in yucca species.

Figure 10-3 Gloriasol (Bassarello et al, 2007)

Liquid chromatographic techniques for the identification of phenolic content have been described. Interest has centered on identification of stilbenes and reservatrol, a phytoalexin with antioxidant properties also found in the skin of grapes, mulberries, and peanuts (Piacente et al., 2004; 2005). In vitro antioxidant activity has been evaluated for extracts of whole plant yucca as well as for phenolic and stilbene constituents. Free radical scavenging assays and other techniques have demonstrated antioxidant activity greater than the reference quercetin (Piacente et al, 2005). Inhibition of lipid peroxidation and nitrogen oxygen generation has been demonstrated (Piacente et al, 2005; 2006).

10.5 Applications: current/potential Yucca extract is a natural foaming agent ingredient and a mild non-ionic surfactant rich in saponins. This product is perfect for replacing synthetic harsh surfactants. It is known for its gentle as well as its cleansing properties and may be used as an ingredient in mousses, bubble baths, depilatory creams, soaps, facial cleansers shampoos and other foaming. In the beverage industry, Yucca extract is used to prepare root beer, slush products, frozen carbonated beverages, foamy cocktail mixes, beer, juice and wine coolers. This ingredient is especially useful for maintaining natural foaming in low alcohol and no-alcohol beers. Yucca extracts has long been used by the health foods (nutraceutical) industry in the USA. as a healthy nutrient raw material with prebiotic activity (Katsunuma et al, 2000). Yucca is also used in animal feeds for the reduction of waste odours and for increasing the absorption of nutrients. Yucca extracts can be used is in waste treatment. The natural saponins in Yucca support the bacteria that are necessary to break down organic wastes quickly (Wallace et al, 1994).

10.6 References [1] Bassarello C., Bifulco G., Montoro P., Skhirtladze A., Kemertelidze E., Pizza C., Piacente S. 2007. Gloriosaols A and B, two novel phenolics from Yucca gloriosa L.: structural

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characterization and configurational assignment by a combined NMR-quantum mechanical strategy. Tetrahedron. 63(1),148-154. [2] Piacente S., Montoro P., Oleszek W., Pizza C. 2004. Yucca schidigera bark: phenolic constituents and antioxidant activity. J. Nat. Prod. 67(5),882-885. [3] Piacente S., Pizza C., Oleszek W. 2005. Saponins and phenolics of Yucca schidigera Roezl: Chemistry and bioactivity. Phytochem. Rev. 4(2–3),177-190. [4] Skhirtladze A., Plaza A., Montoro P., et al. 2006. Furostanol saponins from Yucca gloriosa L. rhizomes. Biochem. Syst. Ecol . 34(11),809-814. [5] Kemertelidze E.P., Benidze M.M., Skhirtladze A.V. 2009. Steroid compounds from Yucca gloriosa L. introduced into Georgia and their applications. Pharm. Chem. J. 43(1),45-47. [6] Katsunuma Y., Nakamura Y., Toyoda A., Minato H. 2000. Effects of Yucca shidigera extract and saponins on growth of bacteria isolated from animal intestinal tract. Animal Science J. 71(2 ),164-170. [7] Wallace R.J., Arthaud L., Newbold C.J. 1994. Influence of Yucca schidigera extract on ruminal ammonia concentrations and ruminal microorganisms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60(6),1762-67.

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Conclusions Fibrous flax and oil flax (linseed), industrial hemp and nettle can be produced in all EU27 countries, due to the suitable climatic conditions and the long lasting tradition of cultivation, processing and utilization of the flax/hemp and derived linen products.. Kenaf, is a new crop in Europe, originating from tropics. It can be grown mostly in southern Europe. Bast fibrous plants mentioned above should be favourable and strategic industrial crops in Europe, especially in EU 27 countries. Fibre content is cá 32%. The cultivation area of industrial hemp in EU 27 was 14 544 ha in 2009/2010, while in the campaign 2010/2011: 15 014 ha. The tendency of increasing the hemp cultivation area in EU countries is noticed. The average yield of the straw is 7.3 t/ha and 2.43 t/ha of the fibre. Fibre content is cá 25%. As mentioned above, kenaf is a plant native to tropical regions. To grow and develop normally, it requires the air temperature above 200C. In Europe the crop is thriving only in southern countries preferably south of 45° latitude (Greece, Spain, Italy). Kenaf seeds are not harvested north of 35°. The dry mass yield is 20-40 t/ha in tropical countries and 12-20 t/ha in Europe. Yield of fibre could be on level 1-3 t/ha (fibre content: 18-22%). Nettle is the plant of the lowest significance among the fibrous crops discussed in the project. It is not grown commercially in Europe and it is the least domesticated crop among all discussed in the report. In fact it used to became of importance only in critical times when the supply of other fibre stock was in shortage, e.g. in Germany during the Second World War. Although some, mainly national research were conducted on nettle, it is not commercially used mainly becuse a small content of fibre in stalks of plants (11-16%) and consequently, the yields. Yields of a total dry matter are also low (3-10 t/ha). Several European research projects, co-financed by the EC and domestic ones, prove and confirm the multifunctional and diversified textile and non-textile applications of bast fibrous plants as well as the potential role to play as the strategic industrial crops in Europe e.g. projects BASTEURES, FLEXIFUNBAR, CORONA, NATEX, IENICA, EUROCROP, COST ACTION 847, COST Action 862 etc. All discussed fibre crops have very different and versatile applications however, majority of them focus in the same areas/industries. Therefore, when specifying the advantages and disadvantages of cultivation, processing and utilization one can summarize them emphasizing some differences in the following way. The advantages of bast fibrous plants cultivation, processing and utilization: • traditionally grown EU crops (except kenaf and nettle), • positive effect on environment, • can be grown in many regions in EU 27 (except kenaf), • positive effect on crop rotation, • low needs for fertilization and agrophags control (especially hemp and kenaf), • good effect on biodiversity, • reducing unemployment on rural area (farmers sell fibre – processed crop yields) • good crop for organic farming (especially hemp) • offer renewable, biodegradable raw materials for different industries

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• possible applications in not fibre related areas (food, cosmetics, pharmacy, medicine) • high biomass yields with still not fully used high potential (especially hemp and kenaf) • high content of fibre (except nettle) The disadvantages, constrains and problems in breeding, processing and utilization of fibrous crops: • difficult breeding (lack information about genotypic markers, high heterozygoticity – hemp, allogamy and wind polination – hemp) • global warming, • lack of cultivars resistant to drought and high temperature (especially flax) • poor fidelity of yield • poor fidelity of yield quality • lack of technologies for organic growing (especially flax – lack of suitable certified pest control products), • difficult to control dew retting • needs for special harvesting machines and primary processing • lack of efficient, cost effective processing machinery, • lack polices favouring good quality raw material /product • reputation of a narcotic crop (hemp) • low supply of EU grown feedstock • strong competition from natural fibres grown outside Europe • strong competition from fossil-based feedstock The major products on the EU markets made of bast fibrous crops: • clothing products, • biocomposites • insulation materials • construction materials • geotextiles • pulp • agro-fine chemicals • feed industry • pharmaceuticals The major needs of the improvement in the scope of research, policy, etc.: • genetic determination of yield and its quality, • breeding for resistance to abiotic stress (drought) and high good quality yield of fibre (especially flax),

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• methods for organic farming (weed control in flax), • cost efficient and controllable methods of fibre extraction, • modernization of harvesting and processing technology, • polices favouring good quality raw material/product • increasing the knowledge about advantages of fibrous crops in European society

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Summary Tables

Fibre Origin Area of Plant Yields Products/ Pros (+) Cons (-) Needs Perspective Crops EU nature Markets (Research, s cultivati policy, etc on (ha)

Banana Canary EU27:15 EU27: Fibres Exploitation High soil Resolve Industrial (Mussa Isle 14 of the waste requirements problems of applications 365399 Food spp L.) stream from (fertile, good fertility should Greece:1 Greece: Feed the food structure, come only 70 Extend the chain water) from 194118 Chemicals area of Italy:15 cultivation High water cultivation Italy: Biofuels residues Spain: requirements (e.g. stalks) 9900 226667 All the Portugal: Spain: European 380505 Market is for 1200 food Portugal: EU cultivable 286667 area too small. Yield Fertility Hg/Ha)

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Fiber Middle 73 029 ha Annual West – Clothing Traditional Difficulty in flax Breeding for flax Asia, (2010/20 spring EU products, EU crops, breeding (lack resistance to (Linum 11) crop information biotic and Mesopot Straw – industrial positive usitatissi about abiotic stress a-mia 84 070 ha 6,5 (technical) effect on mum L.) genotypic and high Etruria, materials, environment, (2011/20 Fibres – markers) good quality Egypt 12) 1,67 Biocompo can be grown yield of fibre, lack of cultivars sites in many East - EU resistant to methods for regions in EU insulation drought and organic Straw – 27, materials, high temp., farming 4,4 positive (weed building poor fidelity of Fibres – effect on crop control), materials, yield 1,1 rotation, modernizatio geotextile and its quality, n of low needs s, pulp, processing with lack of technology, agro-fine fertilization technologies polices chemicals, and for organic favoring good agrophags growing, feed quality raw control, good industry, difficult to material effect on control dew /product pharmace biodiversity, retting, uticals reducing needs for unemployme special nt on rural harvesting area (farmers machines and sell fibre - primary processed processing crop yields)

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Giant Native of Perenni 15-40 Fiber Low inputs Expensive Breeding Used as reed Asia and al t/ha dry establishment efforts for solid Paper and Soil (Arundo Mediterra grass matter of rhizomes improved biomass for pulp protection donax L) nean yields CHP plants Adapte 50-55% against Ash content Constructi India, d in moisture erosion similar to straw More on Burma, warm content research on materials Drought High moisture China, EU mechanical resistant content at S. Africa, regions Insulation planting and harvest Australia materials Can be grown harvesting , in arid and Energy America, marginal Egypt lands

Fibre Midle 14 550 ha Annual Straw: Clothing Traditional Marginal crop Modernizatio hemp Asia (2010/20 spring products, European in Europe, n of 7.3 t/ha (Cannabi 11) crop crops, processing industrial competition s sativa Fibres : technology, (technical) highly from tropical L.) polices 2,43 materials, productive, fibres, favoring good t/ha biocompos positive difficulty in quality raw ites, effect on hemp breeding material environment, (allogamy, /product insulation heterozigosity), materials, can be grown in many poor fidelity of building regions in EU yield materials 27, and its quality, geotextile positive s, pulp, difficult to effect on control dew biofuel, biodiversity, retting, feed no needs for Needs special industry, plant machines protection, pharmace primary uticals, good effect

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animal on processing, bedding. biodiversity, yield price very good crop for balanced organic farming, small input requirements, reducing unemployme nt on rural area (farmers sell fibre - processed yields)

Kenaf Midle 1.4 mln Annual Fibre: Paper, Positive Marginal crop Breeding of In EU (Hibiscus Asia, ha spring biocompos effect on in EU, difficulty new cultivar commercial 1-2 t/ha, cannabi- (world), crop ites, biodiversity, to grow for for colder EU cultivation nus L.) very Biomass: seed in the regions, area industrial no needs for small 12-18 majority of EU modernizatio practically 0 (technical) plant area in t/ha countries, n of materials, protection, Europe difficult to processing pharmace high crop control the technology, uticals, efficiency process of polices biofuel, (biomass) retting favoring good feed quality raw

material /product.

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Loofah Europe 0 70000 Fibres Tolerates Trally system Yield Interesting (Luffa gourds/h drought for cultivation improvement for the cylindric Africa Spounge a extraction a L.) Low input Limited yield Mecchanical Polymers of chemicals (experim requirements cutlivation Non uniform ental) Chemicals Oil from harvest seeds Biofuels Hand made Pharmace cultivation uticals

Miscanthu Native in 4500 ha Perenni 10-30 Fiber Low inputs Needs Breeding Used as s South in al t/ha dry irrigation efforts for solid Paper and Soil (Miscanth East Asia Europe grass matter improved biomass for pulp protection us yields CHP plants China, Adapte 30-45% against giganteus Constructi Japan d in of erosion ) on Europe cold moisture materials Drought and content resistant warm Insulation EU materials Mechanical regions planting and Energy harvesting

Nettle (Urtica dioica)

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Reed Europe EU: Perenni 10-30 Fiber Low inputs Breeding Used as canary 27,000 al t/ha dry efforts for solid Paper and Soil grass ha grass matter improved biomass for pulp protection (Phararis yields CHP plants Finland: Adapte 30-45% against arundina Constructi 20000 d in moisture erosion ceae L.) on ha cold content materials Drought and Sweden: resistant wet EU Insulation 7000 ha regions materials Mechanical planting and Energy harvesting at very low costs

Yucca Central 0 A tree 0 Fibres, Highly Infestant Domesticatio Extraction (Yucca America, competitive n of saponins Pharmace No gloriosa to weeds. Introduce uticals domestication Mechanical Extraction L.) d in Pests cultivation of Feed Europe resistant resveratrol Genetic seed (XVI Beverages Highly bank Century) productive Food

Low inputs Chemicals Tolerates Antioxidan drought t Phenols Saline Steroids resistant Cosmetics

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