UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Los Angeles Marianne is Watching: Knowledge, Secrecy, Intelligence and the Origins of the French Surveillance State (1870–1914) A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in History by Deborah Susan Bauer 2013 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Marianne is Watching: Knowledge, Secrecy, Intelligence and the Origins of the French Surveillance State (1870–1914) by Deborah Susan Bauer Doctor of Philosophy in History University of California, Los Angeles, 2013 Professor Caroline Cole Ford, Chair “Marianne is Watching” presents a history of the institutionalization of professional intelligence and counterintelligence services in France from 1870 to 1914. As the practice of secret politics, once exclusive to the domain of royal authority, gave way to calls for greater transparency in the nineteenth century, the acceptable exercise of state secrecy shifted from leadership to professional surveillance teams. This process, which notably took place during a period of peace, not war, highlights the enduring tension between surveillance, secrecy and national defense within an ostensibly open, democratic society. Interrogating these concerns in the French case, the Third Republic appears as a regime that ultimately valued security over transparency and other freedoms. Led by the army’s administration, with contributions from services within the police and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, espionage and counterespionage teams became an integral part ! ""! of the French state. They carved out important roles in determining France’s international policy, in policing domestic populations, and in regulating speech and expression. What began as a reconnaissance service to achieve military parity with enemies like Germany thus grew to be a professional domestic surveillance apparatus with considerable autonomy in identifying threats to the nation. The embedding of institutions devoted to secrecy had a significant effect on French fin- de-siècle society and culture by contributing to fears of competition, weakness, and decline, as well as popular ideas of citizenship and belonging. The atmosphere created by the perceived presence of foreign spies in turn gave rise to a shared mindset of desperation, paranoia, and yearning for honor and heroism. As understandings of the reality of international espionage changed, views of spies changed, facilitating the popular acceptance of the notion of raison d’état, or the idea that the state has the right to act by whatever means necessary. This study of the origins of bureaucratized intelligence shows the extent to which regimes rely on the perception of real or imagined enemies to justify the establishment of legal and social structures that permit secret state actions, even in the most open society. ! """! The dissertation of Deborah Susan Bauer is approved. Debora L. Silverman Lynn A. Hunt Gail Kligman Caroline Cole Ford, Committee Chair University of California, Los Angeles 2013 ! "#! To my grandparents: Alex and Frizzi Bauer Sam and Bea Tolmach Teachers of history and of life. ! #! TABLE OF CONTENTS Abbreviations and Terms vii List of Annexes ix Acknowledgements x Vita xiv Introduction 1 Chapter 1. Intelligence in History 63 Chapter 2. Intelligence in Theory: Planting the Espionage Tree – 107 Intelligence from the Franco-Prussian War through the Dreyfus Affair Chapter 3. Intelligence in Practice I: Secrecy, Intelligence Practitioners, 160 and the Construction of the Enemy (1830–1886) Chapter 4. Intelligence in Practice II: Targeting the Enemy (1886-1914) 209 Chapter 5. Intelligence and the Law: Defining Secrecy, Repressing Spies, 274 and Limiting Liberties Chapter 6. Intelligence in the Nation: Identifying Spies, Defining Loyalty 338 and Uniting Citizens through Participation in National Defense Chapter 7. Intelligence in Perception: From Criminal to Patriot – 395 How Emotions Dictated Perceptions of Espionage Epilogue 480 Annexes 499 Bibliography 515 ! #"! ABBREVIATIONS AND TERMS Abbreviations AM Archives départementales des Alpes-Maritimes (Nice) AN Archives Nationales de France APP Archives de la Prefecture de Police of Paris MAE Archives de la Ministre des Affaires Etrangères (Foreign Affairs Ministry) MM Archives départementales de la Meurthe-et-Moselle (Nancy) SHD Service Historique de la Défense SR Service de renseignements1 or Section de Renseignements SRT Services de renseignements territoriaux SS Section de Statistiques/Statistical Section Terms: Intelligence Services Bureaux arabes – Teams of army officers charged with learning about native Algerians during the French conquest of Algeria. They were established in 1844 by Marshal Thomas Robert Bugeaud. Commissaires spéciales – police commissioners in the local departments who often worked alongside the Statistical Section in gathering intelligence, and especially performing counterespionage duties for the army during the first few decades of the Third Republic. Dépôt de la Guerre – Reconnaissance arm of the army under the Second Empire. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! $!%&'('!")!*")+(',-.+/!".!('0'('.+')!12!1&'!3('.+&!4'.'("+!1'(5!02(!".1'66"4'.+'!)'(#"+')7!8&'1&'(!1&'! ),'66".4!")!!"#$%&"'("'#")!"%*)"+"),!'2(!!"#$%&"'("!'#")!"%*)"+"),!9!!:!&-#'!+&2)'.!12!;)'!1&'!02(5'(7! '<+',1!8&'.!=;21".4!21&'(!)2;(+')!1&-1!'5,62/!1&'!,6;(-69! ! #""! Deuxième Bureau – One of the divisions of the French état-major, or high command, it was charged with anything related to information – its collection, analysis, publication, and more. Gendarmerie – Militarized police forces responsible to the Ministry of War; often conducted policing in local departments. Section de Statistique (Statistical Section) – The Statistical Section became the official name of the espionage and counterespionage service around the end of 1886. Section de Renseignements – The name that was given to the former Statistical Section by decree of Sept 12, 1899. Service de renseignements – General term for “Intelligence Service.” Services de renseignements territoriaux – Smaller intelligence outposts located on the frontier zones: Nancy, Belfort, Nice, Chambéry, Briançon, Epinal, and Remiremont. They were small offices run by the local army high command, whose intelligence officers often received information from and reported back to Paris. ! #"""! LIST OF ANNEXES A. Letter displaying the use of invisible ink 499 B. Carnet B for Louis Stocker 500 C. Torn documents from the Germany Embassy, taped together 501 by the Statistical Section D. April 18, 1886 Law Regulating Espionage (French and English) 502 E. Tables breaking down court cases against espionage suspects 506 F. Images of foreign spies on the cover of the Petit Journal, 508 Supplement Illustré G. Portrait of Adelaide Triebel, expelled for espionage 510 H. Image of traitors Ullmo and Burton, Petit Journal, 511 Supplement Illustré I. Anonymous denunciation card 512 J. Portrait of Guillaume Schnaebelé form the Journal de Paris, 513 April 29 1887 K. Caricature of Captain Lux escaping from German prison 514 ! "<! ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation marks the culmination of many years of research and reflection. It has been a fun, challenging, and intellectually stimulating process, and I am grateful for the help and support of so many wonderful mentors, colleagues, and friends, along the way. First and foremost, I want to thank my advisor, Caroline Ford. Caroline has been a teacher and mentor from the very beginning, guiding me through seminars, comprehensive exams, research trips to Paris, and of course, this dissertation. She helped me weave my way through the often confusing and convoluted details of the French intelligence services, pushing me to make important connections – from the crucial colonial dimension, to the surprising uniformity of opinions about developing intelligence services – which I might have otherwise overlooked. She encouraged and supported me throughout this entire process, and has been there to turn to through the unexpected bumps in the road. I could not have done this without her. Second, I would like to extend thanks to my dissertation committee members, Debora Silverman, Lynn Hunt, and Gail Kligman, whose guidance and encouragement has helped me to arrive at this point. Throughout my years in graduate school, Debora Silverman has served as a guide to the cultural and intellectual world of fin-de-siècle Europe, introducing me to interpretive modes and methods that have shaped not only this dissertation, but also the way that I consider the past. Lynn Hunt has provided crucial intellectual and moral support and inspiration over the years, bringing colleagues together for reading groups and introducing me to new means of historical inquiry. Her always-astute comments on my chapters have guided me throughout the process, helping me to streamline ! <! my arguments and to look for the whole picture of politics, society, and culture in each and every question that I posed. That all three committee members have taken the time and effort to read through and provide insightful comments on my lengthy manuscript is most appreciated. In addition to this core of readers, there have been several other faculty members to whom I offer my sincere gratitude for their support and assistance throughout this process. Thanks go to Professors Russell Jacoby and Muriel McClendon for their encouragement, friendship, and guidance along the way. I would also like to thank Professor Peter Baldwin for his reading and comments on