A proposed low budget plan of lighting for the educational or local commercial television station

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Authors Hansen, Donald Wayne, 1928-

Publisher The University of Arizona.

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Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/319153 A PROPOSED LOW BUDGET PLAJ'T OF LIGHTING FOR THE EDUCATIONAL OR LOCAL COMMERCIAL TRUEVISION STATION

by Donald W. Hansen

A Thesis submitted to the faculty of the Department of Dramatic Arts in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in the Graduate College, University of Arizona

1 9 ^

Approved:

This thesis has'heen suhmiited in.partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at the University of Arizona and is deposited in the Library to be made available to borrower a underrules;; of ;the Library=- Brief quotations' - from this thesis are; allowable, without special permission5 provided - that- accurate acknowledgment of source, is made, > p Bequests' for permi ssibii for extended quotatioh'\f rom'' or' r epr oi duction of this manuscript in whole or in part may- be ■granted by ;the head of the major department.'.or, the dean' of the •-fyf■>. Graduate College when in their judgment.the proposed use-of - the material' is ih: the interests of, scholarships In all. v ’ other instanceshowever, .permission must be obtained from' - the author,, ; : t ff- ■ . ' ; , ' : : f . - " " ;

SIGNED s;- mBLS OF GONTBKS Chapter -

INTROmCTlOH, o * .,.•» , » o . o. . V o o „ o

I, THE HISTORY. OF T1L1VISI0H -LIGHTING „ » . »

IIW • TUB TWO BASIC TYPES OF TELEVISIOM BIGHTIHG

THE LIGKTIHG DEMMDS OF TELEVISION I Wo. A PROPOSED LOW BUDGET PEAH FOR TELEVISION ' LIGHTING ol o o t> o o o <$ o ' o o o d o o o

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The purpose o f . this thesis, is-, to define? describe and illustrate the two basic types of teleyislon . lighting as . - .applicable to the educational or local commercial television, station oh a"'low budgetc- lelevision. lighting today, is surrounded by an almost impenetrable veil of mystery, no one yet knows its. liinita» tions or its potentialities» to the present ..everyone has been, concerned with the electronics., involved0, Only recently has there been any research into the proper methods of light­ ing ° for .television Most of this research has been done by , individuals, such, as- the- author, and is not readily avail­ able , if at all ? to . the • general industry.o-, y These individuals have not had the time or the inclination to put down on paper their findings about the intricacies of television . . lightingc, - - . . . ih /l: - This thesis, then, should prove helpful to the many new, stations, both commercial and. educational, that "are opening all over the country. So often .these new stations, as soon, as., they get their construction permits, are besieged by ^lighting - experts.d In many cases they are misinf ormed - by . inc.onipetent personnel as to the needs, and reqniremsnts for. efficient and effective television lightings Several commer­ cial lighting companies' have lighting etnlpment plans''avali^ .: able, but "unfortunately, they are much too expensive for ' - v v ; the average stationFor this reason many stations-have . gone to .the extreme to achieve efficient, economical light- , .ing . and by doing this, have sacrificed eff ective lighting 0' ’ ' A Southern California station is a good example .of this-type-.; • of lighting. All lighting at this station emanates from. • banks of fluorescent tubes in the ceiling» This does give. very efficient lighting but all of. their programs :look. exactly, alike in light and shadow, or contrasts They .have the. same ' appearance as a flash bulb photograph, which is flat.and the result, of such lighting.*,. ■ : . This station is correct, though," inT one:respects ; .The; ' most important function of - light in television is to ,ailbw;;vi :: the viewing audience to see comfortably the things the pro-, ducer wants them to see*,;. Adequate visibility is the" primary . objective of the television lighting director ;dr. technician:«r Efficiency in lighting ' does not attain its goa.i, .however» . until it is. also effective0, ' ' . '/p-i.,-. V;- : V i - V- A -knowledge-;'of-.the lighting, demands .of a -television;;pro- • gram and a knowledge of the lighting: demands, of the camera necessary for a good: signal will help in achieving this effec­ tive and efficient lighting,, The- author proposes such a . . method In this thesisa:- A low budget plan by which .both the V program^ and the camora demands can be met and also achieve some .very effective lighting*/ CHAPTER.I

CHE HISTORY OP TELEVISION' LIGHTING

^Telectroscopyg11 n teles copy ?tE and ".telautography55 were among the many words .used as titles of tiie process we now Imow as • televisiono By 1911.a number.of possible transmission. ■ methods had. been proposed, the first of Importance' being that of Paul Niplcow, whose original patent was taken out in iSS^fo His apparatus consisted of a disc which had been perforated .. with a series of holes arranged in a spiral0 The object to be transmitted, was- so placed and illuminated that an image of it would appear on a rectangle marked on the disc0 Ifhen the disc rotated, light from each part of the image in turn" passed through one of.the perforations to a selenium cello Photo-electric action then enabled a signal to be transmitted to a receiving station comprising a disc similar to that at the transmitter'and synchronized with ito This system was basically satisfactory and many long'years later John Lo Baird used a similar* principle to effect the first true .television., 1

2-F:0 ¥ 0. Eellaway, Television for Everymang History and Practice (London, John Crowther: Publications, lioD6}, •p.,; ii*-ri3, . - . ;.. ' r ,

In 3-906«, Lee cie ;Forest, "invented/bhe . '^three element" ' radio tube6 ' if the camera is the: 11 eye" of television,. :and the micrbphone' the' flear?n' then the de Forest' invention is the "heart11 of. radi for it 'pumps out the elec­ tronic; bloodstream^^- -v; " h : i;: . V. : < ' '

; In IQ 07 5 hEo r i s. Rob ing , -and : A A =- :C amp bell Swint on inde-. 'pendently,. proposed the use of a. "cathode-ray tube0 At the .. ■ ■ : time this proposal f ailed to materialise: Into anything prac- : V tical, yet5 like Hipkow^s revolving disc, it was the fore— ^ " runner of. a perfectly /successful raethodo-^ " ; ‘ h

. .In 1 9 1 2 it was'discovered:that the tube invented by de Forest was . capable of "'‘oscillation.®" -This meant that the y amplification of an 'electrical impulse had. become . possible. . With this discovery the forgotten dreams, of many inyen tors Y-

were made possible3. Nlpkow^S disc transmitter became possible03 By April, 1.925, Baird 'had; developed his ;n tele vision"; ap— ' paratus to the point where he was able, to give public demon- . strations. of the transmissioh, by wireless, of the outlines

of simple objects o .- In Baird8 s own. Words.v'h /- ; ■; ;. The apparatus' consisted of cardboard discs around .which

r-. aichard W 0 : Hubbellj. ^-OO.O. Years of television -.ihewylork^- - -: VG».. p 6 .Butnam^s. Sons: p.osy 7ffo;:: . :

- ; 2lCellaway, p., 1 3 o. y ' ■ . .h:;yyV"-!, ,. 1 .--y I h :: 1 ; v y V.' y’-';;

:h \ .^Eubbell:,' Boi 8 &;. ^ ^ y :: ;h ' ; •; -iu. y^ 6

were arranged lenses .'in a spiral formst:ion0 At the I. t2?ejisrjii:tteir'thq ^object trangmitt.ed was brillieiitly \ Diinated, and as the lens disc revolvM a site cession of ' linages passed over an aperture5 .thtis dividihg- the image - I. into a number of strips.o The strips were farther'Snb- ' divided by means' of a disc with a spiral slot, which revolved in front of the aperturec , At"the receiver, a 1 similar device. reproduced the image el . ; n - /-.I - Jenkins, .an:'American experimenter, also effectively demonstrated the transmission; of shadow, in gtmep. l^Sg. y On:: : '

January :2 7 th, 1 9 26, Baird exhibitedt an•'improvedpapparatust tot ■ members of the Royal. Institiition of bohdon,: Images, crnde, , but recognizable, of models and human faces'-Vere obtained on a portable receiver .in a ,room remote from the transmitter unlto - . - .. ; : - . ... , ■ ; , • - Prom then . on things, moved steadily onward.. In May, 1927, Glasgow received images;of objects from Bondon and in February,

I.9 2 S , reception" in: Hew Tork, .was. obtained from London by wire­ less from Baird 0 8 . .. . ■ ; ; ' -.,. ' 1 ' Mechanical, methods of: scanning were improved in the next few years„. By the year 1929 9 pictures of ninety line defi­ nition were being produced mechanieally0. A few years more and it was possible: -to obtain two hundred-, and forty line definition with, the use of -mechanical scanners« Ihis was about the greatest definition engineers were able to get'

' . ^Kellaway, b» . 1 3 * ; :.y. 1 ; : , 1 ' ; v I b i d .p-o- 13; - iN-ov. .. - ; . , . / : ; . 1 " with the Nigkow disc and its , descendahts In June of I928 9 Baird took' the itrst outdoor pictures Using sunlight forv±lliyninatlon0; In July, Bell;lelephone ' engineers duplicated this f eat* g . ■ , • - ^ ; ' ' The first "remote" pipktip Was accdmp 1 ished. by the engi- : neers of 'the ■ General Electric Company■ .. They took their cam-i ' eras’ to Albany, Hew Yoik; . to; watch Goyernor Alfred E 0v /Smth . ' ‘ accent the Democratic, nomination -for ^nesldento,' rti •. ' .. ■: . At the sane. time Baird wasdemonstrating: the possibil-. itie-s of color television and also a three dimensional, ster­ eoscopic effect, at the Boy at Institution, of London 0,^ In June

- of 1,9293 Dr. Herbert Ives, of the Bell Telephone Laboratories

also demonstrated a color television method0 1 9 2 9 also saw ’; the'beginhlng of television in Germany .by the. German Beichs- post .using Baird-type equipment.p: -: : ; : Vladimir Kosma. Sfrorykiny of ; the Hadio Gorp oration of; America, demonstrated his new cathode ray television ieceiv- :

ing set in Hovember, 1 9 2 9 » He • called it a "kinescope”'.-- from the Greek word "kineo.” meaning movement, and the Greek word

""scope11 meaning observationo - .g , \ *

^Hubbell, pi 1 , ' : .This kinescope' .became- s.taiidarci v/±th the Radio, Corpora- ytlon of America when they •‘began mannfactnrijag television re­ ceivers for general use; The receiving sets made with the

./kinesGppe'-had no moving parts and was easily, controlled by ' 1 the viewer,, It was noiseless, had plenty of brilliance., did .not flicker, and, most important, it gave.a goodvpictuney

At the end of March, 19309 „both .picture and sound were telecasted together for the first time by: the>BrltishSroad--' : castihg 'Corporation, and John Baird-,-^.y: By .1931 ? atvleast f if “. tteenyeOmpahies had: ■regulaf' .broadcasting' schedules in the , 3 ihnited Stales alone, - - •. , y- ... f -y : , The Jenkins Television Corporation went on the~ air "In. , 'April, and, that June in England, John Baird took:his portable equipment to Epsom Downs and.televised England1s famous Derby y - The. Columbia Broadcasting System put its experimental - . Station, W2XABj on the air on July 21, 1931» In Chicago, - the Western Television Corporation and. the Chicago Daily Hews had television stations on the. air. The Don Lee Radio Broad­

casting COmpany was pioneering in television in Los Angeles:02 -, " - By 1933, though, -television had retreated from-its place, ' of prominence and gone into a period of doldrums. Television was stopped by the lack of money., It remained :in-- almOst a

-"Eubbell, p.. 9 3 o . - . . ' ’ ’ ; : .

.2 lbid.:« n.o 93o. -;- y . : . . " . c omato s e. state until VI adimir - Zworykin and the RCi, -introduced; ' a-new cajnera : thah reyived televisionc,! . It was.: called the "iconoscope^"' A name 'derived: from the'Greelc words "icon 911 meaning image and "snope"- meaning ohservationo. 1 At the same time Zworykin and the JiOA were .perfecting -. - the iconoscope camera, Philo ParasWr til ms; develtipihg > - another type of cathode ;ray oamerav: He .called his the.. .

"dissector" tube 02 .. - ' ."'i , ' h / ' :

'By 1935? Zworykin8 s:iconosodpe and Parnsworth8s dissec­ tor. had hecome the most important / television cameras in the

•world 0 All hover -the world, .television systems were based on . the fmdamehtal systems of one or hoth /of : these meno .

"/ Of the twe., Zworykin'8 s was the -first»/ it was/;the most widely used method and also -the mos t Important:for the tele­

vision audiences, of the / late 1 9 3 0 $ s; and the 1 9 ^-0 8 s oP On .September 1st, 19^0, teleyislon .-stations were granted the right to begin limited commercial operations Ihe Federal Communications .Commission stressed that .emphasis, on the com- . mercial; aspects of •programs at. the expense of program research Was: to be a v o i d e d - ' /. .' . / .

•^Hubbell, po, .1000. 1 2 ^ , ; ’ 1 ™ ■ / ■■ ■■■ // W '/ 10

In the winter of 191+0 - i5-Kl standards 'were raised by the FCC for black and white televlsiono, . All tele casting was to be done on a basis of 5-25 lines of definition and at a rate of thirty pictures a secondqA The advent of World ¥.ar. II stopped television's progress again« Its engineers and soientlsts_were all needed for war­ time dutieso Television.suffered, also, because materials needed in receivers and transmitters were -being used in the development and manufacture of radar units 6, .• - ' In 191A the FCC asked the entire television, industry to get together and submit a working piano- The Radio Technical Planning Board, consisting of the outstanding electronics men:in the country, was formed and their findings were used by the FCC as the basis of television operations^2 During the next four years, television revived again and continued to advance until in 1952- there were over one hundred stations in the United States 0. Fifty per cent, of these stations were on a. network connection and there were over seven million receivers in Jbnerican homes 03 . Most performers will remember the early Mhottr lighting f.

%iubbell, p o, i5-2o- ' ; y ■ ^Thomas' In- Hutchinson, Here is Television .flew York, Hastings House., 1950), p 0 3^0° - ' . . - . ^Ibido^ Po. 35lo : . ' r . . : ' 11

of television in the late ttilrties..: and ‘the early, forties«- . ' which made acting and other working conditions so uhcomfor-' ...

table0, • With ^tbeypost war iaibetns in television9 cool fluor­ escent lighting-^jDegan to :t>e: substitutedo.^- The development of the image-orthicon tube, .has: also helped in the matter of “hot”' lighting» ' Not as. imch fight risnnoeded to provide a satisfac­ tory signal with the imagefdrthicon tube as - was needed with

:Zworykin-!is iconoscope0 f - - Television continued .fp " grow even though the PCC had •

suspended the granting of .nex< licenses .until - a decision was reached over the higher frequencies, which if released for . ' television stations would meanthe possibility of thousands of stations via UHF, or ultra, high frequency» Meanwhile ' color tests were being -made . and in ' October, !9f 0, the PCC authorized the Columbia. Broadcasting System to. start color f - .television' : - - - This announcement created a controversy, of major pro­ portions in the entire industry0I. ..Both RCA and Color Tele- „

vision9 Incorporated had demonstrated methods of color trans- ' mission before the PCCo, Dealers were worried because the CBS' system :was not compatible with the sets already in use across

. ^William C0. Hodann , The Television - Manual (New Yorks V Visual Arts Books, Farrar? Straus' and Young, 1953.) ? P-o 105&

; ^Hutchinson, P=.. 351. ' . ' .- . ■ . - 12

the : country*: Adapters would have to be installed to receive' either color or black and - The inevitable result was :a legal challenge- before: a Federal Court in Chicago, RCA"charged that the Commission*s order approving CBS color was illegal? void and beyond the

power9 authority and jurisdiction of that. body., , The court - p . immediately issued a restraining order pending further consid­ er a tioiio On December 21, 19^0, a three-man tribunal rendered a decision in favor of, the ,FCCr s. approval, of the CBS system. '--

At the,same time 5 though? it prohibited the CBS from engaging . in'icbmrercial/operations uhtil April 1 ? 1951? or imtil such time as the: Supreme. ,,Court might . resolve the restraint. This . ruling; was supplanted."by" an .eight-to-one opinion' of the XT. S* Supreme Court# the decision was an important one. It affec­ ted the interests of nearly thirteen million owners of black- and-white television sets who would be unable to get CBS color .programs without installing, converters that would cost about

one hundred dollars 0 ^ . All of" that Is history, now-o RCA has .developed a, com- patible color system that can be received in black and white with the old sets without; using adapters of any kind. They

1 Hutchinson«, p 0 3)1. . . ^Charles Frederick hindsley. Radio and Television Communication.: (Hew- York. McGraw-Hill"" Book Company,., inc. , - 354* V i, y: , have allowed the other systems to use the patents: ■ln,':.de!V'elc).—

- nlng ’ their, own color transmission systems0 Although at :pi*e- sent, color receiving sets are expensive, this too will he-, coiti'e history in a few'yearso, ' .. 'V ' V : ' V r Television in .th© .hast;, few ..yeans has demonstrated def­ initely just, what; a wonderful medium of ‘communication it . really is* The successful advertising results . to sponsors, 'T the financial success‘of dealers, the,increased, revenue to .1 stock holders have,removed the limitations that seemed for a while to be almost insurmountablee , o.Television is still very young. but :it is swiftly emerging, in. the minds' of everyone as the wonderful medium "It really is* Nothing. ..can . stop tele-1 c vision*1 ‘ " : - ‘ . : V:

•^Hutchinson j p* 35.1.6 CHAETEE:_1I

. . $H6 I¥0. eS$c types of television lighting '

Light Ts''''|5i^g:d;:"&toStwo;-::ha'sic': eat'eg.ories- ih: ieleY.isiono;.:' The first is; form revealing of .shadow "producing.. light',., This Is sometimes"referred to as arematic lightihg or,:by stage :

lighting technicians5 specific lighting. The other’is .shadpw- : less, light,, .ilhich: is c^ callech general,;il3.uminailon; : .It is also: referred tPvas "blending, . tonal;, base or-fill .light* , . f: Dramatic; lighting Is tachieYed with ■■the' use of focus able .. spotlights,: :.Theaev spotlights may he; used alone to achieve extreme contrasts or tbey maY be us ed in o on junction with the." fill light .for hlgh^ilghting’o : They range in’ size from twenty .flye:'watts', to five, thousand;' watts;#': There:..are larger spot- . lights,, ranging up to twenty, thousand watts, but television , t will probably newer' have, any use. for & spotlight -of/This sizee , The principle of . operation :Of ' .all; spotlights is basically the same„ The lamp hr arc.Is;located in a metal housing, in­ corporating a polished reflector and a simple lens,. so- that the distance ..between the light source and the lens may be - ’ varied; to permit, focusing from a wide to a narrow concert-->. tratod- beaiao-^ - „ : ' ' , ’ ■ y

.; ^HOdapp;y'p./;l^9» y : :/ \ ' ■ > 15

, ■ Fill-lighting, providing a minimum over-all illumination to satisfy engineering' requirements9 is usually a first con­ sideration when planning - for television, lighting„ . Floodlights, or nscoops,u as they are called in television, furnish this type of lighting in some:stations e The most common type of .scoop consists of a high-wattage lamp mounted in a fixed posi­ tion v/ithin a large parabolic or. ellipsoidal metal reflector0 This provides a source of light which may be generally di- rected to a large given area*^ : . b Some stations will prefer fluorescent lighting for their fill-lighting, although there are many more engineering'prob­ lems to overcome. One of the most important of these is - flickering, caused - by a drop in- the power, Also, the. ballast required for fluorescent lights has an 'audible buzz■which-will be picked up. by the microphones c ' ' v/ b' V’ ; : : b Many small stations are not. • e.eipipped. for anything biit general illumination, but proper placement and use of varying ' wattages in light sources can give a modeled and a-very well defined picture „b Dramatic lighting of any kind will be vir­ tually ■ an. impossibility,; thoughwith nothing but general, light sources, ; ' : ; The lack of personnel trained in lighting techniques is

. '^Hodaj 5 .. p«' 1 ^ 8 — l49o . another reason why mahy. small: - s tat ions' have no thing but g on­ ers! 'ilOhmiinatlon« . Men traihed in, molion picture iechialgues or theatrlcal'; teclmiques of . lighting are rar e and even these ;meh have to exneriment when approached Tilth television, light­ ing because ..of the many new problems 'which television presents» •r In the theatre ? the lights are set for the audience. . ; \ which is viewing the .play from one side only. . The main objec­ tive of theatre lighting is to create an overall effect that is pleasing to the. audience and to accentuate the principal actors; with -sufficient light to point, up their personalities or bring attention to various parts of the stage; . In motion picture lighting some of .the freedom of the ■ stage is .'lost due to the fact that the. film will not register . a scene •unless there is enough light, to affect the - emulsion*.; The lights are installed on a. heavy pisiform around the set hi and an electrician controls the lamps . from a. .catwalk*. Motion picture procedure , of photographing ’ short scenesallows the - lighting technicians to re-place the lights needed so that an- actor always has, perfect lighting,*^ , ■< - . Teleyision presents "a lighting problem peculiar only: to ' ; . •; Itself in that every light must be so placed that the picture the camera picks up Is - good regardless from what:angle it is

. Hutchinson, p* 7* ■ ‘ 17 takenD . - Once a live television program starts there is no possibility of stopping an# retaking a scene as there is in the. movies0■ The theatrical approach, that of.a sustained performance so that the best over-all results are obtained,- must.be followed01 ' ;inother reason.for the lack: ofdramatic lighting in the small station is the lack of any.written material on the "how" of television lighting I There are,.many good books on theatri­ cal lighting and these will form a. good basis but there., are many innovations and limitations in television., which one will never find in the theatre =. At present television lighting is still on an experimental basiso Too often the small commercial station will consider it too expensive to buy the necessary equipment so that they may achieve some effective lighting, and; by saving on this item, they sacrifice good, telecasting„ Proper and Sufficient . wiring is very often overlooked in the plans for.the tele­ vision studio and so. curtails any future improvements.that they might want to add0 • . v The local commercial station will not. have much call for dramatic lighting, it is true, but if it is available to sponsors, it can be used as an excellent selling point6 A

•^Hutchinson, pf 8 — ,9o: ’. f.' - : ■ product which is .spotlighted on :anjotherwise dark screen will look much better to the viewing audience and the sponsor than if it and the. background:: are receiving the. sane amount of / ; \ . ; - t u; jf

, fhe 'educational television station will probably have :; - more onll fofkdramatic lighting, especially:if.there is a •drama- department in connection with -the school or school \ system. There vwill be playshfO: bb presented and these pro- \ ' duetions/. wili h ^.acertain amount of dramatic lighting Of- course, with the .drama department,; there; will probably be - -someone- trained- in the techniques of theatrical lighting„■ -He will be' able ..to^ experiment and so, he will also be capable of •fulfilling, the needs, of the television station for dramatic . lighting in. other. productions.. Y -' ; ' ... - - C W I B R 1 1 1

' THE MGHTIHG DEMANDS OF TELEVISION

' / 'O'" ' ' -- ...... The, lighting :';demaiids of., the camera0. First and most ■impdrlaniv; the;vbelevision camera miust have enough light spread o. .all over the set or the pickup tube will not respond to the images focused upon it The. amount of light in each square ; foot of space: is raeasured: in foot-candleSo ' Some: one. thousand; foot-candles were 'required .for the early iconoscope tube . Early: lighting .requirementsthoughare a thing of the pastm . With improved- pickup tubes the required1-number of f oot-candles

- has . beeia dfppped to uiider three hundred, 1 \ ' . ' Bresent earnera tubes are almost uhbelievably sensitive' ., to lighto-. The - image-orthlcon. tube 'has.been used to. pickup . • the light from ,a. single, candle.0' The greater sensitivity, of . this tube is achieved-.by .increasing the picture signal elec- o tronleally. -within- the tubee It is said to- be almost one

: - hundrel'times more' sensitive thanlthe earlier tubes0 The im&ge-orthioon tube, has changed .the basic operational -needs

- ; 80 ''aad bas made artistically lighted pictures^ possibleo 1 . . /- ■ ’: . The lighting demands of' the television -program^ ' The lighting demancis of television jdrograms ane: as varied as are the different lighting, requirements for plays in the theatre : or in motion pictures o These requirements will become more >• complicated and more exacting with, the coming of color tele- •

vision.; ’ . It is'-possible now with-the greater sensitivity ■ of the - ■-imnge-orthicon tube to get- a certain amount of mood/lighting on television programs« Now, when.a script specifies a-night scene, lighting may be regulated:to; give such a feeling and still retain a. satisfactory telecast.-signal0 , - . - ’ ; / intense dramatic lighting is also.possible» '.Extremely / sharp black and- white contrasts can be. achieved and used : ■/ successfully where desired„ ^ Mr. Robert Montgoiery* s presen­ tation of "Machinale" on his program “Bobert ‘Montgomery _ ■ . Presents" is an excellent example= pramatic lighting; was- uSed to heighten the illusion of space and also to take the - place of sceneryo : It was also used to show conflict through extreme ,black and white contrast . This program was - an extreme example:of drainatic--lightihg, but it did - show •what could be;..; V accomplished on televl-sion with a, little'' imagination- and aaring./; -v /n" ' y / . .--//..' :>/:/ /;.::: / :

'-Hutchinson, pi 89 ~ 90* - , : 21

. General illmaination is' still .the ■most important facet - of television lighting. It is the most used:,of. lighting tech- nlques because in black and white television more moods can be. expressed' with it „ Comedy calls for a great amount of /light' to add to. the f eeling of ^lightnessU: which comedy is - suppose to .portray. General illumination will; be used, most frequently because it fits' more, types of programs 1 such as: ::int ef views ? ■ qui zig amesp audience participation, news, inf or-• . matiye -programs, most .commercials and .reviews, Bd Sullivan1 s l;lToast of the.. Town11 .is a good sxacqple; of a: review program -q . whoih uses general, lighting - with dramatic lighting used only ; on special acts^ I'.- v:-' v: a-' 1 ^ ; It is necessary for - the lighting director to Work close­ ly with: the .engineers, director- and. set designer to determine how the: stage"should be lighted to create the various moods and still -satisfy the requirements' of' transmitting light,1 . . . It is possible for the engineers an the - master control . panel to use a", "batting down operation,""' In which they coiq- : press, the gray scale., .eliminate some :pf the grays between black and white, so that an obj ect or person -appears to have" a- solid black background : and only ;they hre' lighted, - : -. Teleyislon .lighting is important, -not only from an ' : ,

1 1iiQdapp, p, io$o ; \ / - ■■ ' .. . " ; 22

.engineering 'S:fc8ndpDirit;:to ' a siiffi.cient amovnt of

light ;’to ’sustain' miniinmi signhl levels for the telecasting - system, hut also from an -artistic point of. view to produce "

'proper moods•and- realistic three-dimensional effects,^ .

•^Hodapp, p 0 l !'i-8 o- b M H E R IV

A PROPOSED LOW BUDGET PLAN FOB. TELEVISION MGHTIKG ,

; Siere '• ar&;;"biro:, tsrpes of spotlights which are- to. he used ' In the proposed, plan. The first is. the Fresnel spotlight?

so named hecanse of. the"3.ens 0 . It was . developed by a French

• -physicist' 11 attte3 Fresnol and was later exploited frlpy; Hollywood, v It has concentric rings on the front and. either a stippled effect or parallel lines on the hack. For use in television', the parallel /lined lens is the "best because the lamp may be / moved farther from the lens without getting;a filament ; ' : "picture^ on the subject lighted, The short.focal length of. the Fresnel lens also allows the use of smaller housings, and' the.resulting spotlight is lighter .in-Weight and much easier - to handle.o i,s an. additional aid to; •efficiency the Fresnel ' spotlight is 'equipped/: with a spherical, ref lector, ; ;/': ‘ The. pool of light resulting from a Fresnel. spotlight asfc " ";even short distances' Is soft and .diffused at the edges, ; If • '

greater control of the beam.-of light:1s: desired, barn doors, or hinged./flaps,' may be placed/in the/ color frame holder on * ithe front of Whe spotlighti 'd . r •-r. .. . i . .

.23. V:v V-V % . A tube shaped, pre-focus lamp:with either a monoplane or a bipiaae filament isrroguired :for.this instrument, The lamp ,

' has a life exp e ctancyv :Of two iundred hours 6 .. The. re-lamping . of .a’lre'snei spotlight' is a simple process as the. front of the .spotlight drops down for. easy access, . ' - e"' v ' ' 1 These Spotlights .will .range- in size from seventy five ' '■ watts to five thousand wattsIn the proposed;plan only the five hund.red:: watt! size is to used for hanging and the floor :htand units fo he used;are.one hundred and fifty watt fresnel

spotlights #iate i )0 , ' ( : . ' ' :-t- ■' ' ; . The other type of spotlight to be used is. the ellipsoidal spotlight, so named because it uses an ellipsoidal, Alzalt "(spun aluminum) reflector. v/hich insures that .most of the ■ ■ ‘light is reflected to a- secondary focal point and then through .the lens; this minimizes the loss of light within_ the hood, p" The. light • source is,. neyBrf or foensing purpo ses as the

.•.instrument uses a, pre-focus, has e-up lamp 5 the Hbarrel'( or

• :lens housing is moved to .sharpen the, focus of .the.* spotlight 0 "Larger units, one thousand to two thousand - watts,. are usually equipped with ,an eight-inch plano-convex lens while smaller. units usually have a double plano-convex system, ; No" funnels, barn, doors or masks are needed, to. shape the- beam",of light a.s. V mo St ■ of these ;uni ts are equipped, witii .either -four special . beam shutters or an iris.' The ellipsoidal spotlight is" u : ■ 2 ?

PLATE 1 FHESNEL SPOTLIGHT

1. Screw feed focus knob. 2. Color frame holder. 3. Universal adjusting knob* 4* Yoke. 26

. extremely sturdy and - two. or three times as' efficient as ..the > older'type spotlights' (Plate 2}>, ' . 1 : Care must he taken "In .ordering spotlights to specify television _instruments rather than theatrical Instruments, ' The reason for this is .that the lens in a spotlight-for tele^ visioh: has'.a .lohgefifocal. plane than does a theatrical -spot-; . light: of the same. wattage and sine ^ - . i. . - One of■the most satisfactory."scoops" for use in tele- visioh is-: the."-chimney type," or ellipsoidal floodlight (Plate 3) ° It "has an ellipsoidal reflector made of aluminum, and offers a wide spread of light. ;a;t. high efficiency. A pear- shaped,' inside frosted lamp is":used as; the light source 0 . In; the proposed plan there are three different sizes used; a ; four hundred watt, a fiye.'.hundred watt and a one thousand . watt lamp. The efficiency of the instrument is its selling j •oo in to However, regular .aluininuiiT,. '-outdo or floodlights may .'- he used, but higher wattage lamps - are necessary to get the. '; - amount of light needed for a good: telecasting signal, .; . Operation of ’'cameras and booms .make clear floor space ' desirable,;.; so that .flexible overhead lighting is- actually '; more cmvehiento - -The .addition of ilmlted'floor stand unitsIp;' when necessary-to provide low-level lighting,; gives I a. work-, i able combination „- . ' . . ' . ' " .: t - . . ; " ' -

^Hodapp , p., 1491 27

PLAT^ 2 BLLIPSOIJJAL SPOTLIGHT

Lu

1 2

1. Yoke.

2. Beam shapers. 3. Focusing knob. 1+. Color frame holder 5. Universal adjusting knob. ^LLIPJOJDAi

Yoke.

universal adjusting knob. Color frame holder. 29

; :..felev-i6:±ori :llgktzrig: equipment is, for the. most part,■- Jmmg :from the' ceiling or from'permanent catwalks built overt ahd . afomici. the studio« It is impractical to attach ; the' large;; ' . number o f 'lights' required to "the top of the set as is done in Hollywoad because .of the lightness of the : sett and .quick change- requirements of television sbehery.l ; i'-'t;, , : t There are many methods of -.installing television lighting .

equipment „ Overhead catwalks eepb good because, the lights, maytt be moved by - electricians as needed 0. . The disadvantage . of this i method is, of course, the added personnelo... For a." small sta­ tion they would be out of tho question if for no other rea-• son than a monetary one 0. : - : ■ : One of the most satisfactory methods is to install a - permanent overhead gridwork of two inch pipes oh; This may be . Installed at the height the instruments, are to be hung or it h; may be .placed much ■higher =, Where the grid is installed higher than, instrument level, there are three methods' of placing. the instruments at. the level desired0 Thelfirst umUld be.;:the 'in-1:

stallation of a ;counterweight system as is used in a theatre0 Pipes, or battens ,- are - attached by means of lines and pulleys ' to this system so. they may, be .raised and lowered at willo A. -simple.tie-off method could be instailed in place of the ex-- .

■ pensive counterweight systemo-, : ' : . . . . : 1 - ... "

^Hutchinson,' pi 9° • . ■' . . ; . .-i.. . - - ■. Another method would he to install- “I"15 hangers direct­ ly to. the grid (Plate 4) o. These HTt$: hangers may be raised or lowered by loosening a clamp system;and sliding it up or down as desired. This method allows the use of lights; f rom 'every " conceivable angle because these hangers" can be placed any­ where on the grid. Also, they may be made very inexpensiveiy from a piece of two inch pipe5. a .. length of one' inch pipe as needed to extend from the grid to instrument'level, welded at right1 angles to the middle of the two inch pipe;' a clamp;: and a short length of one and a half inch pipe welded to the "C" clamp and equipped with large '.wing: bolts so that when; the one inch pipe is passed through It, may be clamped at the ■ ;; ' height desired., a ' ',' , y- (_ . Floor units should be mounted on stands with rubber cas­ ters to facilitate movement and quietness in the.studio during telecasting. • These stands should telescope to give a wide ; . v range - of availability to the "extra" light as required for- high-lighting - or just low-level fill-in. The "boom":microphone is one of the greatest problems ■ in' television. . Improper .lighting will result in b:: "boom" I shadow on the' ■ background9. or even worse on,the actors face.

Cross-lighting9 good: background; llg#ing, and. action which -l . takes place at least three feet in front of the back wall ; y of the set will help solve this problem. ' PLATii 4

N

Pipe cap. Wing bolt. MCn clanp.

1&" pipe

I11 pipe

2 " pipe .All ins'teuinents: should be placed at a inlnimum height of fourteem f Oet.. ;ihls ls; to providO^':h: good., olearmce vf or the hoora microphone to pan from one are'a of a set to another;^wfth.. .comparative ease. There is nothing harder for a hoom opera­ tor to do than to try ahd pan . the # ,the a.ction of' progra% #ien lighting: instruments are placed. too - low. p: This will also- result in flat lighting oh: a person on - ‘1 the set - .(Plate .. At the same time,, lights should; not he :o placed too high or uhdesirahle shadows - on the faces of the •

actors will be the.result (Elate 6).0-v ; - . . : ; , With the instruments at a height of fourteen to' six- ",- teen • feet ? they should b e . placed at least sixteen, feet from the back wall of the set. This will, give a good 'angle ■ of .; ■

light; for the front. l i g h t i n g 1 .. : . . - ‘ .. . '. The/ proposed plan may be divided into 'three parts and,. if ;'so desired, the instruments needed for. each of these parts may be purchased at different times ? thus spreading the cost ;

.over, a period of time0. ; h , , ... 1;' ;;1 ; . '-o The first part of the plan concerns general..illumination. . only. For an area sixteen to., twenty feet in width,; three V'' •' ; 1,000 watt, scoops are placed:.,sixteen, feet from, the back Wall • and fourteen to sixteen feet high. These will .provide good overall front lighting= Next, four $00 watt scoops are placed two on each side of the' set. (Plate 7).. instruments numbered 3^

PLATIj 6 OVERHEAD LIGHTING

Light sources in this photograph are placed too high resulting in undesirable shadows around the eyes, nose and under the chin. 33

PLATji 5 FLAT LIGATING

Light sources in this photograph are too low; the result being no contrast, no light and shadow to give the person depth and form. •PLATE 7 GENERAL ILLUMINATION Scale i" = 1 ' - 0"

2 0 '-0 " c;

1 6 '-0 "

Numbers 1, 2 and 3: 1,000 watt ellipsoidal floodlights.

Numbers \ 6 and 7: 500 watt ellipsoidal floodlights six and seven are placed f our feet f v cm the hack wall, / and - numbers four and five1are placed nine feet from the;back xmlli giving good side lighting. With the instruments .placed in, - : such positions and . the use of two, different wattage iarips in : -. the:scoops? a cortain- amount of modeling'and depth to the . picture will be obtained,: . The next part of the plan provides for front high-light- -- ing and background lighting ,v The front high-lighting Is rob-:,

tained by placing two 750-watt ellipsoidal spotlights four • feet on either: side of the. center one; thousand watt scoop:,:: If a- single pipe is used for all front lighting, any- changes - of light direction will be accomplished much easier, This .single pipe should be at least eighteen feet long for a- set twenty feet'wide and at least fifteen feet long .for a set .

sixteen feet wide (Plate 8):, . .. \ . .::l:/r - The background lighting is .achieved by using, fhree. 4-00 - watt scoops placed four - feet .froTa- the back wall; ande jtst ■ . slightly higher than theVset itself. One;should be placed- . . in the center .aiid,the others four, and a.: half feet' to either - -

side of the center scoop (Plate 8)., . . . ■ The last part of the proposed plan concerns dramatic- lighting, which is, form 'revealing or: shadow producing light, y Four 500 watt Ff eshel vbpotlights,:are th e : ihstfiraenta to be ■ ■ added, . Two are placed ■ oh, each: side . of the sety those numbered 37

PLATE 3 FRONT HIGH-LIGLTING AND BACKGROUi-m LIGLTING Scale i " = I'-O"

20i-0" l+i-O"

l6'-0"

1 Numbers 1 and 2: 7?0 watt ellipsoidal spotlights. Numbers 3? *+ and b-00 watt ellipsoidal floodlights. 36

three arid four are placed six and a half feet from the back wally and those numbered one and'tt-ro are placed eleven feet ..

from the back wall0 All four spotlights are to be placed sixteen feet high. (Plate 9]U .. A person or object placed in the center of the set, -about eight feet from the back wall) and lighted with spots numbered one and two will appear to be "pin spottedthat is? light is confined to his area* Spots numbered three and four are focused so that they highlight the shoulders and■

hair or the top of the object0 The person or object lighted in this way will appear to have a black background with three dimensional form (Plate 9)°

The same effect3 without the sharpness of using spots

alone5 can be obtained by using scoops numbered four and five (Plate A good silhouette effect can be achieved by using the background scoops, and spotlights numbered three and four

' (Plates 7 and 8) 0.

Last is the cost of this proposed pish0 As has been

stated before3 the lighting instruments proposed for this plan may be bought all at once or in three separate pur­ chases 0« The plan as set forth should not be misconstrued as a complete studio plan" but. for one area of the studioo. Two ;

studio plans 9 one for a studio twenty, four feet by thirty four feet and another forty feet by forty feet, will be found on plates ten and eleven» 39

PLAT-j 9 DRAI-IATIC LIGHTING

Scale i " = I 1-O”

3 C CD b

CD

Numbers 1, 2, 3 and k : ^00 watt Fresnel spotlights. Number 5i Position of person or object for "pin-spotting."

Univ.of Arizona Library PLATE 10 STUDIO PLAN (24'-0" X 34'-0") Scale 3/16" = I'-O"

/ * -O" 2 0 '-0 "

34 '-0

1. 1 0 0 0 watt ellipsoidal "scoops." 2 . 7 5 0 watt ellipsoidal spotlights 3 . 500 watt Fresnel spotlights 4. 500 watt ellipsoidal "scoops." 5. 400 watt ellipsoidal "scoops." h i 3 3 4 4 3 4

3 = : 8 3 8 5 1 > > > A / ? r ~ \

1 _ _

i°i 1 5 . . > > 1 1 y ' » A1 1 z^x m m

1 i i u V V V Q- 12121 12121 1 12121 \ j f f

5 5 -" ' ' -" 3 f A - - i i ? ? 5 3 : ] ( 3 C 3 3 4 < 4 4 PLATid 11 PLATid 1 1 11

Scale 1/811 = I'-O" 1/811 Scale U 5 5 5 31 1 1 ' STUDIO P L M (^-O'-O" PSTUDIO XlHD*-0M) L M (^-O'-O" u u r? ^ r? s-\ i?

\ w w ^ w - V v v 12 12 12 12 1 2 1 2 1

za za 1 watt ellipsoidal “scoops.u watt ellipsoidal spotlights. ^ A A 3

■ area desired0 /in adaptation of the .plan for a h ,-area-twelve feet in width will be found on Plate 12„ . , Cost estimates for an area twentyffset in width are :giten- in Figures 1 and; 20: , They are. based- on the catalogs of two h; . of the leading lighting equipment companiese For a cost esti- . mate 'of the -twenty four..- by , thirty four studio, .double--the est.imate. .for-.-'the, twenty fobt areat -.-.For; the forty - by forty - studio ;multijply - by four -for .a cost estimate. All of these

. prices 'are subject to change by the. companies withou.t notice0 PLATZ 12 STUDIO ARDA (12'-0" wide) Scale 3/8" = I'-O"

4'-0"

c .

1 6 '-0 "

4 c

1 2 1

1 . 1 0 0 0 watt ellipsoidal "scoops." 2. 7 ? 0 watt ellipsoidal spotlights 500 watt Fresnel spotlights e: 500 watt ellipsoidal "scoops.u 5. 1+00 watt ellipsoidal "scoops." FIGURE 1

• COST SHEET ' ' CENTURY LIGHTING, IHCQREQBATBD

PART I. - GENEEAE: ILLUMIMTION

3 - : #131^ 750-2000, :^att .Elllp.spIdaX : ^ : ; : 'I -- ■

■ 3 Flood;;-: A l z & k . . : € |^-*00 " ,■ 1132^00 . , V - #1312 IV 300-500 watt Ellipsoidal „ ' ' t' - ; Flood - Aluminujn $2^ 620 : " 96.80 ^ % - ■'v • • . ■ TOTAL COST -PART I ■ $228c M

PART Ii: - FRONT HIGH-UIGUTIIG AND mGSGROUND LIGHTI1 G

3 - #.32% - 10" 250-100 watt "Scoop" ' - : ■ Jm lo r -.JAlumin'Uin |13>20 - "

2 - #1 5 8 FTV - 250-'750 U^mtt lekolite 1 , " • - ' . . ■ : # :$Wz.3Q :.; - 9W o ' • 2;' : ; 10TA1: GOST PART II. 7 T E W . 2 0

PART III DRAMATi0 LIGHTHG

h - #520 - 6 " 250-75O: watt. Frosnelite : i ; 3 .. . .: © $23=:6o , : . $iiv0m

h - # 5 2 B Sf1::75~i50;;i^ ' ’-f. \ i': o Junior # $16 0 60, • 6 6 a k O , 4- — #2580— Four Door Barn Door ' ; . v X'':. : .I- for #520 . X; @ &15.X0 . xx ' 6 I 0.6 O ' • :: ■■■ ' : TOTAL: COST:; PART 1 1 1 :^ "rH W ^ !0

GRAUD TOTAL OF PROPOSED PLAN .Prices, effective as of August' I, 3 Prices subject to Change without notice0 - 45

FIGURE 2

. COST SHEET KLIEGL BROTHERS

PART I - GENERAL ILLUMINATION

3 - #TV1155 - 1 8 “ Scoop - 750-2000 watt. . @ $40»00 $120*.00 4 ~ #171122 - 15“ Scoop - 300-500 watt

@ $34o,00 . . TOTAL. COST PART

PART II - FRONT HIGH-LIGHTING AND BACKGROUND LIGHTING

3 - #TV1122 - 15“ Scoop - 300-500 watt . # $34*00 $102c00

2 - #13651 - 6“ - Kllegllght - ' 2 5 0 - 7 5 0 watt. @ $45.00 90.00 TOTAL COST PART II

PART III - DRAMATIC LIGHTING

4 - #44n 6T¥ - 6“ - Fresnel spotlight # $30.00 $120*00 4 - #44N3TV -■ 3“ - Fresnel spotlight . t $19.00 : : 76^00 4 - #1080A - Four Door Barn Door for #4416117 @ $16.00 TOTAL COST RARl.il 1260.00

GRAND TOTAL COST PROPOSED.PLAN Prices effective as of January 4, 195^., Prices subject to change without notice. 0WCLWS10S'

. This ;."bh6sd.S- ^has shovm the b|;elEgroimd-- of television ■ from Banl. {H'ipkows revolving^ -disc to the development of the -images orthicon tube and the part lighting has played in that back- grpundo lt: has described and illustrated' the two. basic types, of television lighting .and, enmnerated .'the lighting, require- • ' ■•ments of the 'cainefa and the television program, ' / V: •' :- -■ :It has been written with the purpose of helping the - ;' ■: local' oominerclal and', educational television, stations. that are limited, in budget so that, they -might have both:efficient and .effective lighting on an;economical scale,- ' . ' '. ,-f i The' lighting plan thatthis thesis 'proposes is a basis 'by ■ which a station ma^ -,stairt its telecasting operations and, . with .a little. experimehtation;,; discover its own. requirements' - and so supplement " this - planv The author! s, own experiments have shewn- this to be a .good basic working plan. -Hot all of the equipment is.- necessary to start telecasting that is re- 'commended by some of. the commereial lighting companies. The .extra equipment can be added as is oohvehient. and necessary - - for. thetLparticulif,;station1 s reqdirements.-1:1 ' ;:: : ; . \ 1 With the :exceptlon'. of only "a-.few television -programs to datei: "lighting1 hast been-.seriously ..'neglected" :as a, means of -y; improving the telecast 'q.uality„ There is still much experi­ mentation ahead in television lighting before it reaches the potentialities of theatrical or motion picture lighting => When color television arrives at. the educational and local commercial Station level:, .all of Ihe present concepts of lighting will have to be changed, and .adapted to this new medium.In color television the lighting technician will be able to reach; even greater heights in.artistic presentation of programso . . ; ' . - ■ B i B L i a c m i W

Be Forestg Lee* : Television Today and. Tomorrow^, '• New 'York .. . (Dial Pr e 8 s , ' .v: ■ • : ' : Dupuy9 Judy6 lelevisioii Show Business0 • Scheneciady (General Electric) 9 l ^ W T -™ " Hodapp, William C« 'The Television Manual0. New York (Farrar 9 ■ Straus and Young )'9 1953« ; Hubbell 9 Richard 4000 years of Television a New1 York ; ■ ; (Putnam) 9 19li-2„ / ( 5 . : "

Hut chins on 9 Thomas Ho .Here, is Television 0 lew York .(Hastings . House) 9 1950. ‘ ■ ■ . ■■■' . y ' Hell away 9 F. Tele vi si on For Everyman; History and Practice. London (John Orowther)'; I.: D% ' " . 1 Lindsley9 Charles Fredericke/ Radio and. Television Communicationo lew York (McGraw-Hill), 1952° : : McCandlessStanley6: 'A- Method of Lighting the Stage0 Hew York (MacGregor) 9 19^9. -Sarnoff9 David. Pioneering in Television.' New. York (RCA)5