The Syn Alia Series on Animal Training
VOLUME I: AN INTRODUCTION TO BRIDGE AND TARGET TECHNIQUE
by Kayce Cover, B.S. Animal Science
Assistant Editor Jenifer Zeligs Hurley, Ph.D.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] Copyright November 1991, Kayce Cover 1st Revision August 1993, 2nd Revision January 1996 Copyright January 1996 Kayce Cover Revised January 2000, Copyright January 2000 Kayce Cover
Syn Alia Animal Systems 1719 D Kingston Avenue, Norfolk, VA 23503
757-630-2000 [email protected]
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] This revised manual is dedicated to the excellent trainers who are working toward being certified by Syn Alia.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] Volume I: INTRODUCTION TO BRIDGE AND TARGET TECHNIQUES -
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction...... 7
Chapter One:. The Basics of How to Train Any Kind of Animal...... 8 Two Requirements Increasing Your Significance
Chapter Two: The Bridge and Target...... 18 The Bridge - Time...... Four Aspects...... Pinpoint Instant in Time...... Bridge the Gap Between Completion and Reinforcement..... Secondary Reinforcer...... Increase Trainer's Significance...... The Target - Location...... Four Aspects...... Pinpoint a Critical Location...... Focuses the Animal's Attention...... Foundation of All Motion Based Behaviors...... Forms a Cooperative Attitude......
Chapter Three: How to Train...... 25 The First Signal, the "Bridge"...... Teaching the Bridges...... The Target...... Teaching Your Animal to Target...... Basic Targeting Skills...... Targeting on the Target Pole, or Extension...... The Remote Target or Target Station...... Target Hierarchies...... The Power of the Target...... Introduce Concepts...... Fix Broken Behaviors...... Direct Feedback from the Animal...... Recognize a Point of Behavior...... Demonstrate Willingness to Cooperate...... Connecting the Dots...... "Comfortable Animals"...... "Uncomfortable Animals"...... Completing the Target Concept......
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] Chapter Four: Planning Behaviors...... 39 Distractions and Parameters...... Planning Behaviors...... Define the Behavior...... Goal...... Limits...... Analyze the Behavior...... List the Components by Priority......
Chapter Five: Analysis of Behaviors...... 43 The Target Point...... Components...... Modules...... Behavior...... Behavioral Chain...... Time and Frequency...... Comparison of Bridge and Target with Other Communication Systems...... Revised Chain Axiom......
Chapter Six: Creating the Global Training Plan...... 50 Stress Management - the Time Line...... Lifetime Behavior Priority List...... Identify and List Essential Behaviors...... Analyze and Group the Components of the Essential Behaviors...... Prioritize the Components of the Essential Behaviors..... Integrate the Components into the Time Line......
Chapter Seven: The Individual Training Session...... 53 Make a Single Point...... The Longer Session...... General Suggestions ...... Vary Type, Length, Difficulty and Order...... Keep Session Concise...... End With a Success......
Chapter Eight: The Training Transaction...... 56
Appendix I: Terminology and Usage, by use...... 60
Appendix II: Working Notes...... 70
Appendix III: Terminology and Usage, by alphabetic order...... 77 Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] Appendix IV: Working Outline...... 85
Appendix V: Rules of Thumb...... 87
Appendix VI: Five Alternative Training Methods: ...... 88
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] Introduction:
The Syn Alia Series on Animal Training presents "AN INTRODUCTION TO BRIDGE AND TARGET TECHNIQUE," a guide to the easiest, most efficient way to teach animals. Scientists have worked to improve our understanding of how to train animals and communicate with them, making great inroads in the past 100 years. Professional animal trainers have tested and refined scientific theories in the field, developing our understanding even further. We are now working on two-way communication, allowing and encouraging animals to communicate directly to us, rather than just giving them signals to obey. When I was employed at the University of Maryland, I conducted a literature search to see what had been written about these techniques. More specifically on what had been written about the use of the target, versus just a bridge or a food lure for training, or a comparison of target training with the rather amorphous process of "shaping". After looking at about 4,000 papers from agricultural, biological, medical and psychological data bases, I found nothing describing this technique in scientific literature. There is also virtually nothing available in popular press. Hence, I wrote this manual, to try to document these techniques and explain what we know about how and why they work. My qualifications for this task are that I have been a research and development trainer of exotic and domestic animals for about 20 years, having trained and rehabilitated animals for research and special applications, such as helping people, participation in research, or working in theater and entertainment. I have had the delightful challenge of teaching monkeys to help handicapped people, pigeons to guide the sightless, chickens to be the sole stars of a wild-west show, cows to tell scientists if they wanted food or a five-minute date with a bull, pigs to voluntarily stand while we stuck them with a 4-inch needle in order to collect blood, sea lions to breathe on cue, bears to come into transfer cages for examination.... I have implemented training and demonstration programs at the Smithsonian's National Zoological Park, the University of Maryland, and a number of private zoos and ranches. My animals have entertained two presidents and their wives, numerous foreign dignitaries, governors, legislators, scientists, celebrities, audiences at the Kennedy Center and numerous other theaters and events, and more than 2.5 million visitors and audience members at educational demonstrations. However, my most significant contributions were related to protecting the quality of life, the health and the dignity of the many wonderful animal friends and colleagues with whom it has been my privilege to work. It is time that this technique be available to all animal people - scientists, animal trainers, and pet owners. Many animals that are not effectively trained by more traditional methods and end up being destroyed could be saved. The family life of pets and owners can be happier and easier. We can safeguard the health of animals by reducing the necessity of anesthesia and teaching the animals to cooperate in their own health care and management, and by teaching them to understand what is going on in the world around them, so that their stress is reduced. We can heighten the quality of our communication and working partnerships with our animal colleagues, whether for obedience, equitation, search and rescue, or other specialty work. I firmly believe that the introduction of these techniques into the general human/animal community will revolutionize animal training as most people know it today, and drastically redefine what we expect of human/animal partnerships in all arenas. If you are an animal caretaker, owner, researcher, trainer or lover, who wants to employ the most humane and efficient training methods known, this manual is for you.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] Chapter One:
The Basics of How to Train
Any Kind of Animal
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -9- The Two Requirements of Training
To train an animal, you have to do two things: 1. Tell the animal what you want; 2. Convince the animal that he wants what you want.
In other words, you must: 1. Communicate to your animal what you want him to do; 2. Motivate your animal to do that thing.
If you can do these two things, you can accomplish amazing results with almost any animal on earth. Not only can almost any animal learn, but almost every animal can be trained and in many cases they learn just as quickly as humans do, although sometimes they are faster and better, but we will not go into that now....
Every animal, including humans, does some things especially well, and other things not so well. Our goal is to be able to teach animals to help us in those areas where they are better than we (e.g., drug searches) and to live in our society successfully. In turn, we help them in those areas where we are more advanced than they (e.g., veterinary medicine) and guide and care for them in our human dominated world.
There are two big differences between teaching humans and teaching animals. For one thing, animals do not talk as we do - they are nonverbal. They can learn to understand many words, but only if you teach them carefully and even then they will not usually be able to use those same words to tell you anything in return. Also, animals have different lifestyles or culture than we do. This means that they may think humans do some pretty strange stuff and have some stupid ideas and customs. Imagine what your dog thinks when you want to clip his nails. This is not something that his mother recommended he have done. Neither is getting a bath. Here you come along and want to make him smell like a bunch of flowers just after he finally got a great stink going by rolling in a bunch of cow manure (no bear will ever smell him now...). What is wrong with you? Don't you know anything about masking your scent? The way humans operate, you would think that the only thing their noses are good for is keeping those weird glass things from sliding off their faces. Sheeeeshhhh!
To return the favor, we think animals are pretty weird too - what is this preoccupation dogs have with sniffing genitals, peeing on every vertical object they pass and rolling in dead things. Why does my monkey like to part my hair and pick at my scalp? What does a pig get out of rooting? Why do fish fade their color back and forth? Every time you think of something you want an animal to do, the odds are he thinks it is a very stupid idea - that is, if you can find a way to make him understand your idea in the first place. Perhaps the best policy is to decide to respect all the things your animal does, and figure out a way to tell him all about your great ideas in a way that will help him gain an appreciation for our needs. Once you figure out how to communicate your ideas to an animal, then you re going to have to figure out how you will PAY HIM for going along with your plans. This is the basis for any working relationship, Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -10- whether with humans or with animals. I am quite aware of the cautious stance scientists take with interpreting animal thoughts and motivations, however, I state with great confidence, that the similarity between animals and people is much greater then the disparity, and the most effective approach when working with animals is to extend the same courtesies and considerations that you bestow on human colleagues. For example, treat animals with respect, allow them to save face whenever possible, praise lavishly for successes, ask them nicely to do things - if you would be an effective animal manager.
Increasing Your Significance:
Before you can start telling your animal what you want him to do, you have to get him to listen to you. Many animals do not think that humans have much of interest to offer. Other animals are so used to humans caring for them that they take them for granted and do not pay any attention to them, (except when they have to punish the humans for not quite getting things right). People who work with animals see this happen over and over again. To try and understand why this happens, let's consider what the animal might be thinking about its relationship with humans.
If you were an animal, and somebody provided food for you every day and cleaned your environment whenever required, would you have a lot of respect and admiration for that conscientious and kindhearted individual? While considering an answer, think back to your teenage years, when perhaps someone who had done just that for you was reaping the benefits of your insightful gratitude. I remember sitting around with my adolescent sisters saying, in a high-handed tone, "If Mom did not want to have to drive us all over she should not have had children. After all, she knew what she was getting into, it is her responsibility. I certainly did not ask to be born..." Perhaps the reader marvels that I was allowed to live to maturity, or perhaps the reader remembers harboring a similar lack of gratitude. In any case, I was no mental midget and I did not say this TO my mother, but she nonetheless got the benefit of the underlying sentiment.
Similarly, over the years that I have been teaching this material, I have learned that most people have no idea who their paper delivery person is or anything about them. This person may have been delivering the paper for years, but only a handful out of thousands have been able to identify their personal paper deliverer. I propose that this is because they do not need to notice the paper person in order to have their paper delivered, and therefore they do not. There is no percentage in paying attention to the paper deliverer. However, I also propose that if I announced that you, the reader, could get one thousand dollars (I said IF) from me by meeting the paper delivery person to collect your paper, and only this way, I believe that in no time at all you would know a fair amount about the same paper deliverer - what they looked like, when they came by, how they traveled, etc. If I then added another rule and said that in order to collect the one thousand dollars, you had to make the paper person laugh, you would probably work hard to learn about the personality of the same paper deliverer who has never been important to you before.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -11- Thus, the energy that you invest in understanding and interacting with your paper deliverer depends much on what you believe you stand to gain through your perceptions and the applications of those perceptions. Perhaps animals come to similar conclusions because if they get everything they need from someone without expending any energy, they often do not expend any energy. Therefore, in general, as long as you deliver good things to animals regardless of, or despite, their behavior, they will not spend any energy trying to figure out what you want, nor in making their behavior acceptable to you, no matter how wonderfully kind you are to them.
Let's make another short study of human nature. If you are walking behind someone who drops a ten-dollar bill, which you in turn pick up, what is your reaction? Do you?:
A. Glance furtively around you and pocket the goods.
B. Walk up to the person who dropped the money and say in your best merit badge tone of voice "Excuse me sir but I believe you dropped this money."
C. Walk up to the person who dropped the money and say "Thank you very much sir! How did you know that this was just what I was hoping for?"
99% of the people that I have taught admit to answer B, a few have been caught responding with A, and are now serving time on highway beautification squads, but nobody that I have ever encountered even offered C, or an explanation similar to C. I believe that this is because in our understanding of life and human nature, we do not expect something for nothing, indeed, we are suspicious of anything that appears to deliver a reward for no return. We expect that a person who drops something of value before us either did so by mistake or did not recognize the value of the thing dropped.
Now let's again consider the case of animals being cared for. When you deliver food, what might that animal be thinking? He might think, "Golly, that Kayce Cover is one swell gal to take such gosh darn good care of me.” Or, he might think, "That Kayce Cover is so stupid, she carelessly left her valuable food here and I will in turn steal it from her.” Or he might think, "I sure am lucky to live here at a place where humans dump their waste which I know is actually good food." Or he might think, "I am a godlike animal who is ministered to by a vestal virgin, as is fitting to my divine nature and position, and her lot in life." I leave it to you to decide which of the above is more likely. I am inclined to favor the last, myself. In any case, it is a phenomenon oft discussed by keepers of bears, elephants and other dangerous animals when news of another keeper being killed by the animals they have cared for, surfaces. Some animal rights activists maintain that this is evidence that animals are unhappy in captivity, however, animals show the same proclivities toward other animals in the wild. Respect is given to those who can command it.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -12- Therefore, I propose that people bring many animal relationship problems on themselves because they do not engineer respect into their relationships with animals. Some people are insecure about their dealings with animals and they do not want to make the animals feel bad. They end up either being ignored or abused by their animals. These people may be forgetting that being liked usually follows being respected. A rule of thumb for all animal trainers: IF YOU HAVE TO CHOOSE BETWEEN BEING LIKED AND BEING RESPECTED, OPT FOR RESPECT. People do not listen or pay attention to people they do not respect, so here is something we have in common with animals.
THE SOLUTION:
If your animal does not pay attention to you and try to figure out what you want and how to cooperate with you, or if he does not respect you, you can fix that. You can create a respectful partnership between the two of you, with both members responsible to one another, rather than one of a human pampering a pet or of a pet and master. This brings us to another rule of thumb: ANIMAL TRAINING IS BASED UPON A MUTUALLY RESPONSIBLE AND RESPECTFUL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AN ANIMAL WORKING FOR A TRAINER AND A TRAINER WORKING FOR AN ANIMAL.
The first step in creating a partnership is to make the ‘good things in life’ directly associated with the presence of the human partner, and absent in the human's absence. For example, the trainer could feed the animal its food by hand in several small meals throughout the day, rather than just leaving dinner in a bowl.
This will tend to cause increased interaction between human and animal which gives the trainer the opportunity to reward the animal for interacting. When the animal pays attention to the trainer, the trainer rewards it. When the animal cooperates with the human, he is rewarded. Now he becomes even more interested in the trainer. He can do things to cause the human to give rewards. This makes the human a lot more fascinating to the animal that he previously was. It gives the animal more control over his life than he had before. It is a mutually advantageous relationship.
SAFETY FIRST
At all times, the trainer must either make sure that the animal cannot get access to him, or that the animal has learned not to be aggressive toward him AND HAS DEMONSTRATED HIS RELIABILITY IN THIS IN SPITE OF STRESS OR TEMPTATION.
If working with an animal who does not respect humans, appropriate safeguards should be taken by the trainer, who should not allow themselves to be endangered by a disrespectful or frustrated animal. I usually start working with animals from outside their enclosure, and wait until the animal learns the basic targeting skills before I go in with the animal. This way, the animal has a history of success in learning before he has the opportunity to make a big mistake. Any tendency toward aggression is corrected immediately, halting other training until Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -13- safety is restored.
Many animals will experiment with snapping or lipping the trainer's hand or arm during the initial training while the trainer is still outside the enclosure. I have an ingrained reflex of bopping these animals in the nose/snout the instant the attempt is made, which is a challenge, but gratifying when successfully done, for it causes the animal to take up a new and less risky hobby. I mention this because many animals will initially try to steal food from the trainer, rather than wait to be given food by the trainer. This has caused some people to consider it dangerous to use food in training. It is not the food which is dangerous. It is the impolite animal's attitude. How would you like to be serving dinner to guests and have them jump you, brandishing their butter knives, as you were on the way to deposit the food on the table? There is no justification for this kind of behavior except if people or animals show all thirteen ribs, in which case they should be in the hospital anyway for starvation rehabilitation. Within three weeks into training, you should be able to set your food down anyplace and turn your attention to your animal, without the animal encroaching on the food in any way. Later, the manual will describe how to teach an animal to pass food on the way to a target. I used to routinely swim with my group of adult sea lions, males and females, trailing fish and frisbees. The sea lions were unerringly polite and never challenged me for fish as I swam.
When I train, physical punishment is generally limited to correcting those behaviors which if uncorrected could result in harm or injury to animals or people. Physical punishment is not appropriate during the learning process, except with aggression. (One does not communicate with physical punishment, one uses punishment as the consequence when an animal refuses to cooperate with a communication that he understands, putting himself or a human in a potentially dangerous situation.) Even aggression can sometimes be corrected without physical punishment. This brings us to another rule of thumb: THE TRAINER DOES NOT COERCE THE ANIMAL AND TOLERATES NO COERCION FROM THE ANIMAL. Another axiom of mutual respect.
Never trust an untaught, untested animal to be ‘kind’ to you because you are ‘kind’ to him. The animal might not have ever considered the long term consequences of his actions toward you or he might not care. In observing human children growing up, there seems to be a stage that adolescent children, particularly boys, go through in which they tend to amuse themselves at the expense of the comfort or life of an animal. Pranks such as tying cans to a cat's tail or skidding on lizards are cruel but unless children are taught to have concern for the feelings of others, they are sometimes willing to torture and kill animals for sport. Animals are not necessarily more enlightened than people in this regard. I have seen polar bears tease and torture mice, sea lions tear the fins off fish and leave them helpless to die a slow death, orcas have been filmed tossing sea lions around, apparently for sport .... the list goes on. Perhaps all creatures tend to consider their own wants and comfort to be more valid that those of fellow creatures. In any case, until an animal has been taught the benefits of having mutual consideration with other animals and the detriments of self-indulgence at another's expense, the trainer should be especially cautious because an untrained or improperly trained animal can be a time bomb waiting to go off. No true expert sets him/herself up for harm by Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -14- trusting animals that have not earned trust or by exposing themselves to aggressive animals without appropriate precautions.
Conversely, properly trained animals can be very reliable, even if they started out to be aggressive toward humans or other animals, once retrained. For example, in eight years of working with seals and sea lions, wolves, bush dogs and cheetahs at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C., neither I nor any of the upwards of 40 keeper volunteers that worked directly with the animals was ever bitten by an aggressive animal. This was in spite of the fact that we swam with groups of animals, spent time in their exhibits with them, took some of them into the public area, and performed numerous medical and management procedures on these animals, including injections and blood sampling.
A WORD ABOUT PETS AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS:
Pets and domestic animals are easy to work with because they are used to the same environment that we live in and they are comfortable around people. However, they can be difficult to train if they are not used to learning and working or if they have already learned by another system. Just like people, animals can be very resistant to change, even if that change will make their lives better in the long term. Pets are used to being touched and pulled and pushed and tend to disregard these things coming from humans. Because Bridge and Target training is non-coercive and non-manipulative, it requires more patience, at first, than many other methods of training. We want the animal to decide for itself that it WANTS to work.
Usually when you start to train by this method, there are three phases that the animal seems to go through. These are:
1. Signs of intelligence.
At first, many animals, especially those who have not been well managed, or who are new to any kind of training, will be very endeared to Bridge and Target training, probably because it makes their environment more intelligible, because this is a logical system, and because it gives them some control over their environment in that they can now earn reinforcers. This is a sort of ‘honeymoon phase’ that is encountered with ‘naive’ or untrained animals.
2. Alienation.
The second stage reveals an alienated animal who has perhaps come to the conclusion that the trainer, while offering explanations and reinforcers, is also manipulating the animal and will not give up those reinforcers unless the animal VOLUNTEERS to give up some of its free will (free will is not allowed to the animal in many training systems, and this is a significant difference of Bridge and Target training method). This animal often finds it necessary to punish the trainer, in order to correct this manipulative behavior, by ignoring her. (Also be on guard for aggression, which is rare). That is fine, because the sooner the animal works Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -15- through this stage, the sooner it will get to the third stage. Any animal with respect for the trainer will usually not offer inappropriate behavior like nipping or other bad manners. This type of behavior is not tolerated in any way by the author, who recommends that it not be tolerated by anyone. Sometimes animals that have some training experience skip phase one and start out here.
3. Return to Work.
In the third stage, the animal, while busily ignoring the trainer, may be contemplating the fact that even though that trainer was manipulative, (s)he was also manipulated. That is, the animal worked for the trainer, but by working the animal in turn controlled the trainer because the trainer had to figure out how to motivate the animal to work. In other words, the animal gave work and got reinforcers. The trainer defines the work (s)he is willing to pay for, and the animal defines the reinforcers (unless the trainer is really good, in which case (s)he also defines the reinforcers) for which he will work. And while work requires effort and concentration, it also can bring novelty, better physical conditioning, endorphin and other innate and acquired reinforcers that the process of working delivers to the animal, in addition to the reinforcers that the trainer offers.
Perhaps the animal makes a conscious decision to take on a career of training the trainer to produce better and better or more and more reinforcers, or maybe this all happens on a more subliminal level, but the net effect is that the next thing that you know, the animal is back, soliciting the trainer's attention and the privilege of working. This animal can be termed a "sophisticated animal" and is a pleasure to work with. I look forward to seeing the animal start to question the trainer because I believe that an unquestioning animal is not as committed as the animal who convinces itself that by cooperating with the trainer, it is working for itself.
Indeed, the attitude of the sophisticated learner/worker animal appears to be similar to that of the human entrepreneur. The entrepreneur WELCOMES the opportunity to work, because of the success that it will bring him. The more the entrepreneur works, the more he makes. Conversely, in general, employees look for ways to AVOID the opportunity to work, especially if there is not much advancement potential, because their success rate is pre- guaranteed and pre-limited. Therefore, the harder an employee works, the less he is paid per unit of work. It is a major goal of this method to create this entrepreneurial attitude in all animals that will be in training partnerships.
HOW TO CREATE THE SOPHISTICATED WORKER - THE ANIMAL ENTREPRENEUR:
When the trainer first encounters an animal starting to lose interest in training, the appropriate response is to turn away, (or freeze action) thereby denying the animal both attention and the option to earn reinforcers. This is called a "time-out". Thus when the animal loses attention in the trainer, he loses control over his environment. Sometimes the trainer may have to leave an animal ten times in a row because the animal is resistant to offering Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -16- work if it is not coerced to do so. This is most often seen with animals who have a history of working in a manipulative system, such as "if you have a halter on, you MUST go forward or you will be to go forward." In Bridge and Target training if the animal does not VOLUNTEER to go forward (in working/learning) he loses the opportunity to go forward, also losing the opportunity to control the flow and/or selection of reinforcers.
This pause or withdrawal of attention can be called a "time out" and can be very short, ranging from a few seconds to minutes, hours, or days. (Not inferring that the animal’s needs are ignored during a time out, he is just not allowed to work).
When the trainer returns to an animal after a "time out" (s)he should treat the situation as a fresh start, offering a positive, enthusiastic attitude to the animal. However, the trainer should not relax her standards. If the animal still does not cooperate, (s)he should give another "time out". This subject will be explored more in the next manual volume, when motivation is discussed, but the following may be helpful to know:
IN GENERAL, IF AN ANIMAL FAILS TWICE IN A ROW, CHANGE WHAT YOU ARE DOING. IF IT FAILS A THIRD TIME, END THE SESSION AND REASSESS WHAT IS CAUSING/ALLOWING THE ANIMAL TO FAIL. AS IN BASEBALL, "THREE STRIKES AND YOU ARE OUT." However, animals fail for different reasons and the above rule is intended to keep a trainer from allowing an animal to become entrenched in a bad habit and to keep a trainer from badgering an animal that is failing because the trainer presented information inadequately or because the animal does not understand the presentation. There are times when the only reason that the animal fails is because he has no intention of doing anything for you, a funny-looking, presumptuous humanoid with strange ideas of what the animal should be doing for a living. This is the attitude of the "naive" animal worker/learner, and should be welcomed by the trainer for the reasons outlined above. In this case it is appropriate to give the animal time out after time out after time out until he decides that he wants to interact and work with you.
This attitude will reappear from time to time when A) you or the animal return from vacation with a case of laziness, or B) when you have been letting the animals get into a rut by doing the same things over and over again and then you suddenly get the notion that you are going to introduce new information, or C) whenever you add significantly to an animal’s job description or push them too hard.
Once you get past this attitude of noncompliance with a naive animal, the best way to manage this problem is to keep your animal working and interested. However, if, being human, you lapse in this regard, you can go back to the time out to correct the animal's attitude. In all fairness, you should also deprive yourself of chocolate for the rest of the day, for setting your animal up for failure.
More specific instructions for increasing your significance with your animal will be given in the Section II, "How to Train." Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -17- SPECIAL NOTE: Reinforcement is a complicated subject that will be dealt with in greater detail later. However, for the sake of discussion in this volume, reinforcement refers to various things that the animal desires but which are not required in order for his routine care. The author does not ever recommend depriving an animal of the food needed for good health, or for any other thing that is necessary for the animal. However, there are many little niceties ranging from praise to food treats, grooming to new experiences, self direction to "time off" which the animals are quite willing to work for. It is fine to have an animal work for his regular ration of food, except that if he chooses not to be cooperative he must still receive that food necessary to his well-being.
The reason that this volume does not talk much about reinforcement and other motivation is that the new trainer's hands are full just concentrating on the communication technique, without considering the animal's motivational management.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -18- Chapter Two:
The Bridge and the Target
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -19- Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -20- THE BRIDGE:
Definition: BRIDGE: A signal that is conditioned to be reinforcing because it is paired with other reinforcers which evolves to pinpoint an instant in time for the animal in training.
The Bridge is a signal which tells the animal the exact instant he has done something you want, and earned a reward. The reward can be food, scratching, a play episode, or just the bridge, which becomes praise to the animal. The bridge begins as a signal to tell the animal food is coming. Because it tells the animal the exact instant food becomes available, the animal starts to notice things that happen at the same time as the bridge, perhaps because it wants to figure out how bridges happen and how it can cause them to happen. Because the animal is paying attention to what happens at the same time as the bridge, the bridge can become a way to pinpoint the exact time that a behavior which will earn a reward occurs, so that the animal can figure out which behavior is being bridged. Eventually the bridge pinpoints, for the animal, the exact instant the animal has been successful in creating the behavior that the trainer wanted. The significance of the bridge continues to evolve, until eventually the bridge serves at least four functions. The bridge: 1). Pinpoints the exact instant desired behavior is created. 2) "Bridges" the gap of time between the instant the desired behavior is created and the instant it is reinforced with food or other things. 3) Becomes a secondary reinforcer, pleasure inducing in its own right (e.g., praise, for humans). 4) Further increases your significance to the animal. Since you are giving signals that show you are reacting to the animal's behavior, it will start to examine its behavior in order to manipulate you to produce more bridges which in turn indicate more food, etc.
Eventually, more than one type of bridge can be used to communicate more precisely to the animal such things as "keep going, you are on the right track, but you are not finished yet." (See the intermediate bridge.) Any number of bridges can be conditioned, as long as they are conditioned one at a time and the animals response to each is carefully tested to ensure that the animal perceives each bridge as a signal that a reinforcer will occur. There are many reasons that trainers might use more than one bridge. For example, the "X", the sound of the letter X, is a very good and easy bridge to use in many situations. However, if you are doing water work with a dolphin, you might opt to use a bridge with a sound that carries better underwater, such as a whistle. Or, if you are working with doves in a theater you might want to avoid making a sound while bridging, so that you do not interfere with the play, so you might choose to use a flash of light, which will show up well for the birds but be invisible to the audience who cannot see backstage. Or, if you are working with a deaf dog, you need visual and tactile (touch) bridges.
Discussion on the Functions of the bridge: Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -21- 1. Pinpoints the exact instant desired behavior is created.
Some trainers believe that the bridge is the only communicator required to train an animal (i.e., no target is necessary). This is illogical. At any instant that the trainer bridges a desired behavior, hundreds of other behaviors are simultaneously occurring. Every muscle is in an attitude, the animal is breathing, looking, listening and gesturing in various ways - or it is not. The animal cannot possibly know which of the hundreds of behaviors is important to the trainer.
To prove the point one need only perform the following demonstration with a volunteer and an audience. The volunteer agrees to try to figure out which behavior that he performs earns the bridge. The audience is given the same goal. An agreement is made that the volunteer is a motivated learner. Perhaps 99 times out of 100, the volunteer will be bridged twenty times in a row without having a clue as to why. The author has even had volunteers that were banging themselves on the head in an unconscious gesture, and never lighted on that relatively obvious choice. Usually the volunteer ventures that he is being bridged for looking, or listening. These are things he is conditioned to consider important to the learning process. The audience usually correctly identifies the bridged behavior long before the volunteer does. They share the general perspective of the trainer - that of an outsider looking in, rather than being inside looking out.
It is a fine thing if the animal being trained is the last to know what is expected of him or how to succeed at his task. As seen with the human volunteer, even when repeatedly bridged, the animal still may not know what is wanted. He must go through a process of elimination to isolate the behavior that is being bridged, and that could take hundreds of trials.
It's understandable that many trainers have stopped at this level of communication with their animals, because the next levels of understanding how to train animals may be unique to the marine mammal training field. It is not described in psychology literature or any other academic writings that the author has been able to find. This may be because the study of the principles and processes of learning, and of how behavior is learned and created, is conducted by means of experiments which must be minutely controlled and documented in order for their validity to be verified. Therefore the science of psychology moves meticulously and rigorously rather than quickly, to cover new ground.
Conversely, professional trainers must teach and modify behavior as efficiently as possible without regard to the scientific validity of techniques or results. In training, the end product and the mental wellness of the animals speaks for itself. Trainers can look to the discipline of psychology for detailed explanations of how and why various things work, as well as for a technical vocabulary for specific communication and for tested information on such subjects as the best way to manage reinforcers and the physiology of motivation. Perhaps trainers have some information of interest to psychologists.
If the process of elimination is eliminated from the training process, efficiency increases Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -22- dramatically, by a factor of at least ten. Instead of requiring an animal to guess which aspect of its behavior is desired, an efficient trainer will tell the animal. To do this, the trainer uses a target.
2. "Bridges" the gap of time between the instant the desired behavior is created and the instant it is reinforced.
Hence the name "bridge". Many people ask "why have a bridge, why not just throw the animal a reward?" There are many times that you want to tell your animal that he has done the exactly correct thing, but you cannot throw him a reward. For example, an animal across the room, who does not bite child pulling his tail, deserves an immediate reward and praise. However, if you throw food across the room, the animal may knock the child over to get to it, which defeats all the previous good behavior. Or, he may not see it, in which case he gets neither food nor praise (the bridge). Or if the food boinks him in the head and bounces away - you may not have done a very good job of producing a reward. However, the bridge solves this dilemma. You can call out "X" the instant you see a good behavior, and then reward the animal with food when appropriate.
Also consider the high-jumping dolphin that jumped 10 feet yesterday and is asked to jump 12 feet today. The trainer must reinforce the dolphin the instant it makes a learning advancement - that is - the instant it reaches the 12-ft height, rather than at the end of the behavior cycle when the dolphin is back in the water.
The trainer's options:
A. (s)he can throw the fish at the dolphin at the instant the dolphin makes the height - but the dolphin may wrench its spine trying to get the fish mid- leap, or another animal may get it, or the fish might hit the dolphin ...
B. The trainer can throw the fish into the water - but by the time the performing dolphin gets there another animal may have intercepted the fish, or the dolphin may have been so occupied by the behavior that it did not notice the throw and does not look for a fish...
C. If the trainer throws the fish an instant early, the dolphin may abort the jump in order to go after the fish ...
D. If the dolphin lands in the water and then finds or receives the fish - the fish is paired with the event of swimming through the water - not with jumping. It may well decide that in the future it will stay in the water since that is where the fish appear...
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -23- Consider the solution:
Without interrupting the dolphin's work, the trainer bridges, the instant the dolphin achieves the new goal. The dolphin is then at leisure to return to the trainer for other rewards as his work permits. The bridge essentially tells the dolphin he has "money in the bank."
In advanced training it can be impossible, or ill-advised to immediately deliver food.
3. The bridge becomes a secondary reinforcer - pleasure inducing in its own right.
Some trainers underestimate the importance of secondary reinforcers. In human culture, the entire multibillion dollar advertising industry is based on secondary reinforcers. Obviously, billboards are inedible. However, the picture of a juicy hamburger can still make a hungry traveler's mouth water. Any entertainment trainer can testify to the importance of applause to performing animals, although applause has no innate survival value to the animal and it does not satiate any primary drive.
4. Increases the trainer's significance to the animal.
The bridge is a reliable signal that the animal will get something it wants. So strong is the association between the bridge and positive events for the animal that the animal will learn to leave food to respond to a bridge, and the animal will also work hard to figure out what behavior is being bridged.
This is why people try the coin return slot when they hear a certain jingle sound or why kids wheedle when they hear the hint of pending relent in a parent's voice. Both the jingle and the recapitulation are signs that the hearer will get something he wants.
Once you can tell your animal the instant he is doing what you want, you have to devise a way to tell him which one behavior (of the hundreds of behaviors that he creates every instant he is alive) you like. This brings us to the subject of the target.
LOCATION: THE TARGET:
TARGET(noun): A prop which pinpoints a critical location for an animal in training. This location may be a body contact point on the stationary animal, it may be a destination point, or it may be a place where other critical information will appear. The target can be an extended finger or fist, the end of a pole, a mark on a wall or a paper, a plaque... Essentially, the trainer and the animal each extend a target contact point toward the other, meeting in the middle. Thus, the human extends a pole and the dolphin touches with a rostrum, or the human extends a finger and the primate extends a finger to touch.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -24- TARGET(verb): A "point" of behavior. The smallest unit of behavior, consists of an animal's action to touch a designated spot.
The most important function of the target is to focus the animal's attention on the critical behavior, or the place where critical information will appear. Like the bridge, it evolves to have four aspects.
1) The target pinpoints in space the exact spatial orientation, or location, of the critical behavior.
2) It focuses the animal's attention to receive information.
3) It is the foundation for the formation of any physical motion or attitude the trainer wants to create, and can be used to define many concepts as well.
4) It fosters an attitude of cooperation between animal and trainer.
Taking a second look:
1. The target pinpoints in space
When teaching humans, we look for eye contact to indicate attention, and for verbal feedback to assert understanding. With nonverbal animals, some of whom consider eye- contact a threat, there must be a different mode of giving information and getting feedback. The target is that mode. By teaching the animal to match a particular body point to a point the trainer indicates - such as a muzzle to a trainer's extended target, the trainer can show the animal exactly where he must be to earn a bridge. In turn the animal can indicate his understanding of the requirement and willingness to cooperate by touching muzzle to target when asked.
2. Focus the animal's attention
Any information will be more successfully transferred to the animal if the animal is prepared to receive it. In sports there is the convention: "get ready. get set. GO." With only the bridge, the animal may always be surprised by the information sent by the trainer while it is concentrating on something completely unrelated to training. With the presentation of the target, the trainer signals the animals for its attention. The target may be used to give a command, training information, a warning - such as "look, there is a new person coming in," or to alert the animal to an option - "would you like food?"
3. Foundation for other behaviors
A single target can be used to put an entire animal anyplace. By a process of "connecting the dots," a series of target points can define complex behaviors without Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -25- confusion or failure. By using more than one target at once, the precise orientation or movement of an animal's body can be described. For example, with a muzzle and a tail target, a horse can be exactly aligned to any given reference point. With the traditional halter, only the head position is set.
Probably because of limited ability to communicate desired body position conferred by a head halter, humans traditionally get a horse to move its body by poking or bumping it. Eventually the horse learns to give way to a touch. In targeting, there is no need to manipulate the horse to communicate with it. There is no need for coercion of any type in order to communicate task information.
4. Fosters an attitude of cooperation
An important step in training by target is to teach the animal that the target provides the information which leads to the bridge which leads to the reinforcer. There can be no more direct path to food. Food may be presented without a target, but if food and a target are presented simultaneously, the fastest way to get the food is to target, even if the food is nearer. At a direct approach to the food, bypassing the target, the trainer will make the food disappear. This is a crucial step in the development of true cooperation between animal and trainer. The animal must see that the trainer purposely works to give the animal what it needs and wants, in return for the animal's cooperation, and food is a result of this cooperation. The animal must not conclude that it can grab food. It is questionable to use food to lure an animal into any behavior. A dolphin which jumps to take a fish from the mouth of a trainer is being paid to grab. Imagine if children were taught to blindly follow food and grab it, rather than that food comes from a cooperative effort with others for mutual benefit.
Likewise, many experienced trainers scorn the use of food because they have seen animals behave dangerously toward people in order to get the food. It is amazing to see people who let elephants frisk their pockets for treats - it indicates a lack of respect to the human, at best, and at worst will cost the foolish person his life. However, many trainers move freely amongst their animals, laden with food, which will be given to the animals appropriately, and which the animals accept in a dignified manner. The animals do not dart at the food, try to steal it or beg. They are confident they will be invited to eat, and they have dignity. If an animal has more to live for than food, and if learning becomes the source of enjoyment it should be for all living creatures, food quickly becomes a secondary concern, especially if the trainer manages reinforcers well.
In the next section of this manual we will look at how to teach the animal the bridges and target(s) and related skills.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -26- Chapter Three:
How to Train
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -27- Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -28- HOW TO TRAIN
This is going to be so simple, you will probably have a hard time believing how powerful it is. All you have to do is teach an animal two signals so that you can communicate to him. One signal must tell the animal when you like something it does, in fact the exact instant you like something. The other signal tells him where he has to move in order to make you tell him you like something he does.
The First Signal, the "Bridge"
To tell an animal at which exact instant we like what he does, we have to have some signal that we can use to mark that instant. There are a lot of signals that could be used, but the bridge needs to have certain qualities. It should generally, for hearing animals, be a sound. It should be a very short, distinct sound so it is a good way to mark an instant of time. It is not used a lot in everyday conversation, so the animal is not likely to be confused about whether we are talking to him or not. And it should be possible to produce using sturdy, inexpensive equipment such as your mouth, so you never have to worry if you remembered your "bridger" and you are always ready and able to communicate with your animal. ______
NOTE: There are two glossaries at the end of the manual, one organized according to subject, and the other alphabetically. A working knowledge of learning theory terminology will allow you to read the scientific literature and talk to scientists, who are not a bad lot if you can figure out a system for communicating with them. ______
Choosing a Bridge:
The author suggests using the verbal sound of the letter "X", as in the first syllable of the word "X-ray", spoken crisply and with enthusiasm, as a bridge for the following reasons:
1. It is a sound, so the animal can perceive it even if he is facing away from the source of the "X".
2. It is a short, sharp sound, which will help you mark the exact instant the animal did the behavior . I use the following analogy to help people see the value of a short, sharp bridge: If you and your animal were sent out by the CIA to save the city from a terrorist with a bomb, in the middle of a group of people, and only you knew what the terrorist looked like, and only the animal could work the machine gun, and you set the animal up with the machine gun Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -29- and he trains it on the crowd, and as he slowly sweeps the crowd waiting for your signal to fire, do you want to tell him "Goooooood" or do you want to tell him "X". (If you said "Gooooood" you may have latent hostilities towards other people).
3. "X" is not a sound that is very common in conversation and it has no other meanings, so that you are likely to reserve its use to that of being a bridge, rather than saying "Good" the instant your animal does something right and then saying he is a goooooood boy! You will instead say "X" to mark the instant of success and then say what a goooooooood boy.
4. You will save money if I ever help you train your animal!
Now that we finally got all that straight, I am going to remind you that you actually need TWO bridges. But no worry. The same sound, "x", delivered in slightly different ways, will serve for both types of bridge. These two bridges, are the intermediate bridge and the terminal bridge. They are used as follows:
The "X" (large case X) is a TERMINAL BRIDGE. It tells the animal when it has successfully created behavior that you desired. We use another bridge, the "x" (lower case), or INTERMEDIATE BRIDGE, to tell the animal that he is doing great, but he is not done yet. For example, if you call your animal to you, and he looks up from his feed, and starts to come, you can say, "x x x x x x x X", starting out softly and getting louder and more enthusiastic as the animal gets closer until you finally say "X" as he contacts the target. It is reminiscent of the game "hot and cold". In either case, neither "X" nor "x" has any meaning to the animal until you teach him what they stand for.
You could go around saying "X" every time your animal did something you liked and he might never realize that it MEANT anything. After all, anytime your mother does anything nice for you she is always breathing, right? But, we do not pay too much attention to normal breathing, because we do not think of breathing as a signal in most cases. To make sure the animal knows that X is a signal, we have to teach him exactly what it means, much as your parents taught you the meaning of words. Here is how to give the "X" meaning.
Teaching the Bridges:
A good way to start teaching your animal the meaning of X is to pair it with a reward. Every time your animal does something you like (and therefore causes you to say X) you are going to be rewarding it anyway, so why not start by showing him that X means a reward is coming. Later on, he will figure out both the X and the reward came because
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -30- of HIS actions. Food is a good reward to start with because almost everyone likes food from time to time, and in fact, fairly often. Here are the specifics:
1. Present a piece of food to your animal as you say, crisply and enthusiastically, "X". Do this three times.
2. Put your hands behind your back. Say "X" and watch for the slightest eye or ear movement (that tells you that your animal noticed the sound "X") and then say "x x x x x x x x" until the animal gets close enough to reach the food and then present the food from behind your back saying "X!" Do this at least three times, or until your animal looks over eagerly every time you say "X".
3. Make sure that your animal understands the "X" by waiting until he is distracted and looking away from you. Then say "X". If he instantly looks back to you, give him the food and you are ready to go on to the target. If he does not respond to the "X" let him rest' for a while and then go back to step 1 until he passes this test. DO NOT TEACH YOUR Animal TO TARGET UNTIL HE UNDERSTANDS THE BRIDGE. It is possible but useless, kind of like trying to drive a car when you know how to use the accelerator but not the brake...
4. As soon as your animal can do 3., pick three numbers between 1 and 10, for instance 2, 5 and 9. Now bridge your animal 10 times and only give him food on time 2, time 5 and time 9 (this is to help you be random). This will prepare your animal for the fact that he will always get a bridge every time he does something correct, but there is about a 30% chance that he will get food. It may be hard to believe, but your animal will work harder if he does not know for sure that he will get food, than if he does. Perhaps this is because if he knows that he wants 20 pieces of food per day, then he only needs to do twenty things, if he always gets one piece of food per bridge per behavior. On the other hand, if he does not know for sure when he will get food, he may not want to miss any chances that come up! This is sometimes called, the "lottery principle" which, loosely, states that to promote the best behavior, make the type, amount and arrival of the rewards unpredictable. This principle works very well Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -31- with humans also, as seen at casinos.
From now on, bridge every time the animal creates the proper behavior, and give a food reward no more than 30 percent of the time. Use petting, scratching, toys, playtime, walks, rooting opportunities and other things for rewards. The more creative and varied the rewards, the more interested your animal will be.
THE TARGET:
The Target tells the animal where he must be in order to earn a bridge. The bridge tells the animal "now" you have earned a reward, the target tells the animal "here" you have earned a reward. The target has several uses: TARGET (noun) is a contact point that the human presents. If you teach the animal that in order to earn a bridge he can touch your hand, your hand becomes the target, or target point. TARGET (verb) means to extend target (contact) point to another target point. You can target your animal by extending your hand, and your animal will target by touching your target point with his. Both the noun and the verb uses of this word stemmed from the idea of "targeting" the animal's attention to a particular place in order to receive training information. Since many animals will not maintain eye contact with people, nor do they tell us whether they are listening to us or understanding us, having an animal touch a contact point tells us three things we could not otherwise know - 1) that he is paying attention, 2) that he understands where he is to go, and 3) that he is willing to go to his target.
The target can be any contact point, but I suggest that the animal's first target contact point be his muzzle, since he naturally investigates things muzzle first, and he can see whatever he is targeting with his muzzle. Let your target be the back of your fingers, presented in a crisp, distinctive movement, (you want your animal to be able to distinguish between a casual hand motion and a request to target, and you want the request to draw the animal's attention). If your animal is likely to bite, then use a pole (see below) as his first target point. (However, if your animal attempts to bite, end his training session and correct his aggression. Do not resume training until the aggression is solved.)
With pets and domestic animals, when target signals are introduced, the trainer must be very firm, because animals with "pet" experience tend to try to ignore any kind of requirement (e.g., they must target in order to earn a piece of food) - they are used to getting everything for free. The good news is: no matter how lazy or resistant an animal is to learning initially, once they start they love the challenge, the new experiences and the self-control they gain. They also love being the focus of the trainer's attention. It is critical to remember that training is the most successful means by which an animal can learn to deal with the human culture he has been adopted into. A trainer is a guide to her animals.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -32- The purpose of training is not to gain power over another living creature - it is to enable that creature to participate fully in our shared, but human oriented, environment.
Teaching your animal to target:
1. Extend your hand, in a snappy motion, toward the animal, about 2 inches from his muzzle. The instant the animal touches the hand, say "X" emphatically and enthusiastically and feed him. Repeat this five times, feeding him two of the five times.
2. Repeat 1, but this time, say "HERE" as you present the fingers. By combining a verbal and a visual cue, the animal has two chances to know what we want. This is also to keep you from saying "X" as you present your fingers, which is one of the most common mistakes people make when starting to train by this technique. If you present your fingers saying "X" at the same time, you are telling your animal he is done before he has done any thing. Instead, say "here" while extending the hand target and say "X" as soon as he touches the target and promptly remove your hand. Repeat this five more times and quit for a while.
Basic Targeting Skills:
Now you can teach your animal more targeting skills: - Move to a target over a distance. - Move to a target in any direction. - Stay on a target for an indefinite time. - Target on an extension of the hand. - Target on a remote target. - Target hierarchies - Follow a two-finger point to a target.
Distance and Direction:
3. After a rest repeat 2., but have the animal move different distances to get to the target - perhaps 2 inches for the first trial, 5 for the second, 10 for the third, 8 for the fourth, 2 ft for the fifth and 2 inches for the sixth. Gradually increase the distance the animal is willing to go for a target, without making each trial always more difficult than the last.
4. Repeat 3. but instead of varying the distance the target is moved, vary the direction the animal must go.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -33- Extending the Duration:
5. To teach the animal to stay on a target rather than just touch it for an instance, give an intermediate bridge the instant the animal touches the target, leaving the target in
place, and give a steady stream of "x"'s until ending with the terminal "X", at which point promptly remove the target. As above, do not try to push the animal too far or too fast. It is better to give a 3 x trial, then a 5 x, then a 10, then a 2, then quit for a while, than to give a 3x trial, a 10 x trial, a 15 x trial, and have the animal quit on you with a feeling of being pushed. Keep trials short and varied in this way work until the animal will stay on target for 3-5 minutes. This is sufficient for drawing blood, giving injections, taking temperatures, and putting on harnesses and costumes. Even hoof trimming is probably best done in 3-5 minute sessions, rather than in longer sessions.
Targeting on a Target Pole, or Extension:
6. A target pole is an extension of your hand target, and can be a horse crop, a 2 ft pointer, or a disconnected TV antennae. Pad one end if needed so that it is softly rounded. This is the end that you will present to the animal to target on. Hold the pole in the palm of the target hand with the end just extending through the fingers, so that when the animal targets on the hand he will automatically touch the target pole. Bridge the instant that he makes contact, as you did when you were first teaching him to target on your hand. Do not vary the distance, direction, duration; just add the pole.
Next trial protrude the target pole a bit further so that it is more evident but the fingers are still reaching the end of the pole. Bridge the animal upon contact again. Continue to extend the pole while receding the fingers. Within a few trials your animal will target on the end of the pole as if it were your hand. This will make your life easier because animals are a mite shorter than most humans and the target pole is more convenient for both animal and human when walking, or when trying to work with both ends of the animal at once. such as when taking a temperature.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -34-
The Remote Target, or Target Station:
You can make a remote target by drawing a bull's-eye on a piece of paper. Punch a hole in the top edge so that you can hang or tie it to a fence, crate door or grate, or a hook on a wall.
Hold the flat target in your hand and present it for the animal to target on so that the animal sees the plastic target but is not required to touch it in order to target. Bridge as normal. Next trial, hold the target over your finger, but so that the animal can see the target finger extending from behind the plastic target, at the side. Proceed as for initially training the hand target.
Target Hierarchies:
It is important that your animal know which target to contact when more than one is in view. For example, if there is a target always hanging in the rear of his kennel, to use for kenneling purposes, you want to be able to call the animal away from the hanging target and to your hand target, so that you can call him out of the kennel. Therefore, make a point of teaching him the target hierarchy, which is, when more than one target is in view, the hand takes first importance, the pole second, and the station target third.
To teach this principle, start with the pole and the hand. Offer both simultaneously, but make the hand more prominent. Usually the animal will touch the hand because it is easier. Bridge him accordingly. Repeat this about three times, switching the side that the hand is on, but keeping it closer to the animal than the pole. Next trial, start moving the pole target so that it is equidistant from the animal, rather than farther away. Let him have three successes at this arrangement, switching sides that the targets appear on in a random manner. Next trial, make the pole target a bit closer than the hand target.
If the animal makes a mistake, immediately remove both targets for a few seconds and then try again. Keep everything very positive and do not tell the animal “no” or that he is bad, just immediately end the trial if he makes a mistake. When the animal cannot be fooled no matter where the pole is in relation to the hand give him a rest. Then you can start on demonstrating that the pole has hierarchy over the station.
For this step, repeat as above, but with the pole and station versus the hand and pole. Once this is completed, do the hand and the station, so that the animal knows that the hand takes precedence over the station. Next do all three together.
Follow a Two Finger Point to a Target:
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -35- Start by holding a station target in one hand and touching the bull's-eye of this target with a two-finger point of the other hand. Bridge the animal upon contact. Next trial, place the fingers about two inches from the bull's-eye, and draw the animal's attention to the target by jiggling it a bit. If he starts to go to the fingers, make them disappear and jiggle the target again. Bridge upon contact. Move the point further from the bull's-eye with ensuing targets, so that the point tells the animal where to look for the target and the animal is confident where to go to get his bridge. This skill is very helpful in teaching the animal to go into a kennel, crate or room.
Conclusion:
The applications for the Bridge and the Target are endless. For example: "Calm": If you want an animal to be calm, you pick a cue to name the calm state, such as "easy" (or calm, settle, relax - whatever you would like to have as a cue), and you watch for instance when your animal is being "easy". Every time you see him being calm, or "easy", you bridge the animal and say "easy". In other words, you name the present, calm state and pair it with a bridge, which tells the animal that he is going to be getting something good, just for being calm. "Come": Teach the animal to touch his muzzle to a target whenever you present the target and a verbal cue "here". The instant the animal arrives at the target and touches his muzzle to it, you bridge him (say "X"). Many people find it hard to believe, but animals will leave food to run to a target when it is presented, and they learn to pass up food on the way to a target.
Establishing the Bridge:
Once the trainer has chosen the signal to serve as a bridge, that signal should be communicated to the animal. Initially, the signal can be paired with the presentation of food (or anything else the animal likes). As trials progress, the food lags behind the bridge in increasing increments. The goal is for the animal to perceive the bridge as the signal that food is coming. Eventually the animal will learn that the food is coming as a result of the behavior that was occurring at the instant the bridge was issued. The bridge should have no other meaning to either the trainer or the animal to maintain consistency in the desired reaction to the bridge or cue.
In the Syn Ali program, although clicks, whistles or any other noise may be appropriate, the same bridge, for example the letter "X" should be the universal signal for this program. It will benefit all involved if the signal is universal. Young animals can be started and then transferred to higher levels of the Syn Ali program enabling more difficult tasks to be initiated immediately, if the ground work, e.g., bridging and targeting, is ingrained in the animal. This will save time and money for the animal's owner/trainer. This is also true for the older animal.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -36- The trainer has successfully established the bridge when the following conditions are met: 1) Stand before the animal until it loses interest in your presence. 2) Issue the bridge without any other feeding related cues (such as hand motion). 3) The animal should immediately turn toward the bridge.
Virtually any behavior can be trained faster and easier by targeting. Nonetheless, sometimes people will report that targeting does not work. The problem is usually in the way the target was presented, and the order, or logic, of the targeting steps. Once the logic is repaired, the problems dissolve.
Even if it is the trainer's fault that he is not communicating effectively using the target, it is still a frustration. A methodical approach to organizing the training presentation will help prevent this problem and streamline the entire training effort. A bit of discipline at the outset will save a lot of time in the long run, and is always worth the investment.
Power of the Target:
The first thing to do is to step back and gain an overall perspective on how targeting works. It was stated above that targeting pinpoints the location of a desired behavior. For early trainers working with the animal's spontaneously offered behavior, targeting allowed specific behavior, or a specific point of a behavior, to be tagged for the animal's particular notice. Well and good. This allowed the trainer try to bring the animal's notice to things that he was doing, however, as discussed, at any instant, an animal is creating hundreds of different behaviors, and even when tagged with a bridge, the animal must still go through a process of elimination to isolate the one thing the trainer is interested in. The great power of the target is that it allows the trainer to show the animal the exact point (place, location, body part) for the animal to contact in order to earn a bridge.
In turn, by showing the animal a series of target contact points, the trainer can lead the animal through any range of motion or series of motions or position or combination of positions that he can describe with these contact points. The trainer no longer has to wait for the animal to spontaneously do some behavior. Any behavior can be described. This also allows the trainer to introduce behaviors that the animal does not spontaneously offer, and to introduce concepts such as wait, over, under, through, stop, go, remember....
Two of the great animal behaviorists, Keller and Marian Breland, wrote in "Animal Behavior" about the many things they taught animals to do just using a bridge. Their achievements included teaching animals to do whole chains of behavior, for example teaching a raccoon to climb up a "tree," remove a coin, bring it down the tree and put it in a bank. When the behavior broke down however, and the raccoon started continuously "washing" the coin and refused to give it up to the bank, the Brelands had no way to "fix" Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -37- the behavior, and concluded that one cannot train against an animal's instincts with any reliability. We now know that this is not so. We routinely cross instincts with the behaviors we train, and with the proper preparation we can expect more than 95% reliability. Targeting makes this difference - it allows us to introduce new or specific ideas to the animals, and it allows us to go in and fix any part of a behavior that "breaks."
Besides the information we can give to the animal with a target, the target gives the nonverbal animal a means of giving the trainer direct feedback. When an animal touches the target (s)he tells the trainer two things: 1. (s)he recognizes the "point" of behavior. 2. (s)he is willing to cooperate. If these two conditions are not met, no training will occur with any kind of efficiency.
Knowing the power of targeting, we need only tap into all that power.
Connecting the Dots:
The first caution is: do not use the target to capture a spontaneously offered behavior by inserting the target to tag the behavior in progress - even though the target allows the trainer to do this with greater efficiency than the bridge alone allows. It is like using a baseball bat to bunt a ball - it will hit the ball further than your hand alone would, but there is a more powerful way to use a bat, and the use of the bunt is very limited.
Even to capture a behavior the animal spontaneously offers, the target is best used to systematically describe the behavior from beginning to end, at which point the trainer will name it for the animal, with a cue. In other words, when seeing an animal spontaneously create a desired behavior - do not interfere. Merely make a mental note that the animal is physically and mentally able to do this behavior. You can also name it and bridge, but I do not give food. Instead, I go back and describe the behavior to the animal and agree on a cue that will represent it. Start from the beginning and describe every part of the behavior and its limits - just as if the animal had never done the behavior. Once the animal is following the target to accurately recreate the behavior - name it. In the long-run, this thoroughness will save time and frustration.
Teaching the targeting concept to an animal is like teaching the alphabet and phonetics to children. There is a sizable time investment at first, but the children will be able to read or write anything as a result. The alternative would be to teach the children to recognize words by rote. A child could be taught to recognize the words stop, bank, bus stop, in less time than it takes to learn to read - but to teach a child all of language this way is very inefficient.
An animal is initially taught to touch the target whenever it is presented with some Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -38- specified body part such as muzzle or rostrum. Once the animal acquires this concept, myriads of behaviors can be communicated.
Immediately the animal can be asked to "come" as long as he can view the target. "Heel" is a series of target touches to the side of the trainer. "Jump" is a target held just out of reach. "Get up on the chair" is a target held high enough over a chair that the animal climbs the chair in order to touch the target, likewise "get in the car."
If the trainer is thought of as one who creates connect-the-dot pictures of behaviors for animals, the above are single dot behaviors. A multiple dot behavior which is simple to communicate is "lie down." Consider a sea lion. Sometimes one can get a sea lion to "lie down" by getting the sea lion on the beach, letting it relax, and then putting a target low to the ground and just out of reach. Often the sea lion will extend its muzzle to the target, leaving its body planted, and "lying down" in the process. It is possible to get a sea lion to lie down this way, but the above does not communicate the concept of "lie down" to the sea lion. "Lie down" means "form a horizontal plane with your body." To communicate this to the sea lion, the trainer must use five targets to put all four flippers and the head in one plane. Sound excessive? There is always a jokester sea lion which puts his head down and his back flippers up.
This is not to suggest that the trainer juggle five target poles at once. Introduce the muzzle target first, target the muzzle to the ground, link this to a cue - e.g., a two-finger point to the ground. Fade out the first target while maintaining the cue. Insert the second target, target the front flipper to the ground, add it to the finger point cue, fade the second target. Maintain the first two target points on cue, insert the third target... etc.. Even if this seems tedious, it is more efficient to train correctly the first time around than to correct a badly formed concept later.
Every behavior comprised of physical motion can be described as a series and/or combination of targets. More on this later. First, Here is how to initially train the target concept. Some animals are immediately comfortable with the trainer, some are not, we will consider both.
Remember, first, establish the bridge. Test it. Then -
‘Comfortable’ Animals:
Most animals will investigate things, leading with the muzzle. An exception is a primate. Like us they often lead with their hands. Determine what body part the animal leads with - this will be the animal's first target contact point. Extend the target, for example, a balled fist or a target pole end - if the animal might lead with its dentition. The animal will extend to investigate the "target". Bridge the instant the animal makes contact with your extended target, Follow with another reinforcer. Be ready. Many neophytes are so absorbed in watching their animal they miss the opportunity to bridge the initial contact Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -39- (note: this is an example of opportunistic training). By the time they correct themselves, the animal is no longer curious about this "target." If the trainer is prepared, he can teach the target in less than a minute. This estimate is based on experience with horses, cows, animals, dogs, cats, - most domestic animals. If the animal will not approach, or if the first opportunity is missed, keep the faith and read on.
‘Uncomfortable’ Animals:
Most exotic animals, even if tame, are not as interested in spontaneous contact with humans as domesticated animals are. Some do not even want to look at a human initially. These animals just take a bit longer.
First, make sure that the animal eats well and that it has acclimated to its present home (general guideline - thirty days) before beginning a training program. Even if the animal enjoys interaction with the trainer, it requires energy from the animal which should not be taken away from initial adjustment to new quarters.
Once the animal is ready, start feeding it by hand. If the animal will not eat in your presence, toss a piece of food to the animal and back off until the animal eats it. Then stay where you are and toss the second piece to the same spot. If the animal eats - toss the next one a little further away to give the animal a tension rest. Toss the next one a bit closer to you. It may take a few days but soon the animal will eagerly anticipate your presence and eat from wherever you present the food - even directly out of your hand. While this is happening, establish the bridge.
Now start target training. Insert a padded target pole between the animal and the food, so that the animal inadvertently brushes the target on the way to the food. The instant the animal makes accidental contact with the target in the shoulder area, bridge the contact (shoulder contact appears to be the least invasive to many animals). As the animal continues to approach to take food, move the target so that the animal intercepts it closer and closer to its muzzle. Soon it can be moved directly into the path of the muzzle on its way to food. The animal will usually just bump the target out of the way. Make sure you are ready to bridge this contact.
The target can now start to proceed the food presentation. As soon as the target contact is stable, move the target presentation to one side and present the food a little to the other, and farther back than the target. The instant the animal touches the target, bridge and feed. If the animal goes for the food first instead of the target, make the food disappear - so that the most direct path to the food is through the target - even if that does not look like the most direct path. Pretty soon, it will be possible to put the food between the animal and the target, and the animal will pass up the food to get to the target. This is an important step in training - not to be passed up. The animal must decide to cooperate with the trainer. The animal must not think that it is grabbing food from the trainer. It is questionable to use food as a lure of any type - including but not limited to high jumps - for Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -40- the above reason.
Completing the Target Concept:
The training of behaviors can be interspersed amongst lessons on target concepts, but one must be very thorough in teaching the aspects of the target. The simplified concepts of targeting are as follows. 1. Touch the target the instant it is presented. 2. Touch the target as long as it is presented. 3. Follow the target if it moves. 4. Touch the target in spite of any obstacles. 5. Touch the target in spite of any distractions. 6. Follow the target even through medium changes (land to air, water to air) 7. Touch the target with the body point indicated.
8. When a second target is introduced, maintain contact with the first target while touching the second one. 9. For every added target, keep the already established targets in constant contact. 10. A target pole is an extension of the target hand - touch it whenever presented. 11. The target station is the extension of the target pole touch it whenever asked. 12. If more than one target is presented, the order of priority is hand, then pole, then station.
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Planning Behaviors
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -43- Planning Behaviors:
While teaching the concepts of targeting, one should be planning the training of behaviors. This approach is recommended: forecast the entire captive life of the animal in training. List all the behaviors that this animal will be taught. Prioritize them. Now break them all down into components. A component is an ingredient of a behavior. The behavior ‘jump’ is a one-target-point behavior but it has two components even in the simplest of conditions.
Those two components are:
1. Touch the target. 2. Propel into the air.
Now a word about conditions - every behavior is known to be reliable only under the conditions it has been trained and tested. A behavior trained in a laboratory with no audience, no traffic sounds, no loose dogs, no intense lights, and no other trainers or other animals being trained - can be 99% reliable in the laboratory but will be a mess in the real world. The animal must be taught about the conditions of the arena in which it will work before it can be reliable in these conditions.
Conditions can be divided into two categories that can be called distractions and parameters.
Introducing Distractions and Parameters:
Distractions are qualitative aspects of the environment - things such as bells, applause, audience, animals, the feeling of pressure, other animals, or flying objects. Parameters describe the amount or intensity of the distraction - how long or how hard the pressure feeling is, how close or numerous or loud the audience. There can be any number of distractions in an environment and there can be any number of parameters to a given distraction. Distractions and parameters will be considered more fully in Volume II, Desensitization. For the present we will agree that distractions and parameters are variables that must be presented in the training process, one aspect varied at a time, and that the present discussion assumes a rarified environment - such as a holding area, a laboratory, a back yard or a house room. We agree that new animals can be trained in more complicated environment, but then the variables of the environment would have to be incorporated into the training plan, and for ease of presentation, we will currently consider only the presentation of target variables.
Planning the Presentation of Behaviors:
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -44- One of the most important rules of training is to present only one piece of new information, or one "variable" at a time. More than one variable can be presented in a session, but only one at a time in a serial sequence. In order to do this successfully, the trainer must analyze the information that (s)he is going to present. Distractions and parameters have already been separated out. The next step is to decide exactly what the behavior to be taught entails.
New trainers are asked to write the exact description of the behavior they wish to train including the limits of the behavior. There are a lot of complaints from new people that this is a most difficult thing ... there are those of us not so new people that recall grumbling about this exercise. It appears to be difficult for people to define exactly what they want. Yet, this step is crucial because one cannot communicate to the animal what (s)he cannot clearly state for herself.
Moreover, the correct execution of a desired behavior is often a matter of degree. The trainer must clearly describe to the animal the basic behavior and the limits of that behavior. For example, if one teaches a monkey to flip a toggle, house-fixture-type, light switch, the trainer wants the monkey to apply lateral pressure to one side of the toggle until it clicks over to the other side of the plate, ONCE. The trainer does not want the monkey to toggle indefinitely on a given command, nor to bite the switch to move it (in case of electrical shock), nor to break the toggle off by applying undue pressure. These are the limits which must be honored for the behavior to be reinforced. Therefore, in outlining this behavior to the monkey, the trainer must communicate all these conditions.
Another look at the limits:
1. The toggle must be flipped until it hits the opposite of the plate (versus the light coming on, which may not be in the monkey's control if the bulb is burned out).
2. If the trainer stops here (s)he is courting trouble because eventually the monkey will try to get more rewards per cue by flipping the toggle multiple times per a single command. So before this situation, frustrating to both trainer and monkey, occurs, it is best to communicate to the monkey that the cue is indicates one flip only.
3. Finally, the trainer must communicate any other limitations such as do not use the mouth or sticky hands.
Flipping a light switch is a very simple behavior. A more complicated behavior will require yet more analysis before it is presented to the animal partner. For example, consider teaching an animal to rotate in a circle. The trainer must decide if he wants the animal to rotate on an axis or to make a large round pass. How will the trainer communicate he wants a round and not an ellipse? In short, once the trainer determines exactly what conditions he wants he must then define the behavior that will encompass all the conditions. Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -45- If one looks at behaviors as geometric shapes moving through space and acted upon by physical forces, then one has a built in rule system for analyzing and defining behaviors, as described in any Euclidean geometry book. Thus if a trainer wants an animal to rotate in a circle, he looks at the geometric definition of a circle .
A circle is the set of points that are equidistant from an axis point.
That means that the trainer will require at least two target points to teach the circle concept - one to establish the axis and one to establish the radius. The axis will be established first and then held constant. The radius target will rotate around the constant axis. The skeptic who thinks two targets are not required to teach a circle concept may luck out, but the odds are against it. I recommend using two targets.
If a circle is the set of points equidistant around an axis, a spiral is a circle moving vertically on its axis, through space. A flip is a circle also - but with a twist - this circle must be "committed" while the animal is still in the water because the instant it leaves the water it does not have much ability to change its motion. A circle on the land will always be on the ground plane, a circle in the water is zero gravity and can be constantly controlled and adjusted by the animal, a circle through the air has little friction - but lots of gravity to act against.
Thus it is most logical to train flips underwater where the animal has good control, name the completed concept, and then put it in the air. It takes about two-three weeks to train an animal in good physical condition to finish a flip.
Thus, the preparation for training a behavior has three steps: 1. Decide exactly what you want to communicate. 2. Define the behavior including its limits. 3. Separate the geometric and motion components of the behavior so that the behavior can be seen as a set of geometric modules moving through space and acted upon by physical forces.
A geometry book and a basic knowledge of physics will prove to be invaluable resources in deciding how to approach the training of complicated behaviors.
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Analysis of Behaviors
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -47- Analyzing Behaviors
No matter how complicated a behavior initially appears, it is always compiled of simple parts.
COMPONENT: The smallest piece of a behavior after the target. A target vector, or a target with an additional quality such as motion, duration, or pressure. The basic building block of a behavior.
MODULE: A specific set of components, a sub set of a behavior.
Below are several examples of analyzed behaviors. The behaviors are comprised of components. For our purposes, a component is the simplest organized behavior except for a simple touch. A component is a touch with some special quality like motion, resistance, contact duration or orientation to another object (like "mouth around ball"). Components can be grouped into modules - the module being a simple sub-behavior in a more complex whole. Groups of modules form behaviors. Groups of behaviors form behavioral chains. Simpler than the component is the concept. Concepts are the basis of everything the animal learns - but they are often the last thing the animal is taught. This is because their very simplicity makes them difficult to communicate. How does one describe time, intensity, eternity or immortality? Often we find ourselves not even trying to develop concepts - we just teach behaviors and leave the animal to systematize his learning however he happens to.
EXAMPLES OF ANALYZED BEHAVIORS
1. COME Contact a target presented by the trainer, from any distance or direction regardless of distractions.
geometry: This is a vector - a line with direction
components: target distance direction
2. SIT Keep head at standing level while bringing back legs Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -48- forward and haunches to the ground.
geometry: The shoulders form an axis which the hips rotate from, describing an arc from the horizontal axis to the vertical axis.
components: target 1. - Keep head stationary. target 2. - Lead hips from horizontal to the ground.
3. ROLL OVER -
geometry: A cylinder rotating on a horizontal axis.
dolphin body type components: target 1. - Keep head stationary target 2. - Keep flukes positioned target 3. - Target a pectoral flipper - trace the rotation with this target
sea lion body type components: target 1. - Keep head stationary target 2. - Target one flipper to body side. Name with a cue and fade target. target 3. - Keep both rear flippers in positioned, extended on the horizontal axis. (Establish one, then keep that one constant and establish the second.) target 4. - Target the second pectoral flipper - trace the rotation.
NOTE: The difference in targeting requirements is due to the difference in the physical environments of the two animals - the dolphin is in the water, and we presumed the sea lion was on land.
4. PILLAR SPIRAL
definition: The animal erupts out of the water in a vertical pillar, simultaneously spiraling.
geometry: The animal's body forms a cylinder rotating Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -49- in space as it travels up a vertical pillar (y axis) until the animal loses momentum and falls back vertically back (down the y-axis) into the water.
components: module one: Cylinder target 1 - Muzzle target to describe the vertical axis of the cylinder. target 2 - The other end of the axis can be left to gravity in many cases. If the animal is confused, insert a second target, extending the flipper tips - the other end of the cylinder's axis. target 3 - To either the point of the shoulder or an extended flipper (depending if want the flippers extended during the spiral - or not) to establish the radius of the cylinder. rotate target 3 around the axis to trace the cylinder. module two: Vertical pillar target 1 - Muzzle target presented at the desired height to describe "a vector on the y-axis". Once the animal contacts the target his task is finished and he may fall back into the water. module three: Synthesis- put the "module one" behavior on a cue and fade out all target contacts. While the animal is floating in the water - give the "module one" cue and insert the target pole at the muzzle axis again. Gradually raise the vertical height (on the y axis) of the muzzle target with successive trials. When the animal has achieved the desired height (with good rotation) assign a cue to this new behavior of modules one and two combined. Fade out the target.
In the behaviors which were described above, it can be seen that all share at least one component. Most share two or more. In fact, if any number of behaviors are analyzed, based on physical stance or motion, they will probably have some combination of the following thirteen components.
Components
1. Maintain neutral contact with a target point 2. Push a target point (or object) 3. Pull ... 4. Lift 5. Hold (take responsibility for staying in contact)
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -50- 6. Carry: hold over distance traveled 7. Put (get something to a given destination) 8. Give (release contact) 9. Bat (make rigid contact with a moving target object) 10. Throw 11. Catch 12. Travel to a target point 13. Body contact and manipulation
This may not be an exhaustive list but it covers most behaviors that are commonly trained.
Behavioral Chains:
A behavioral chain is a group of behaviors connected in a specific order. A behavioral chain can be simpler or more complex than any given behavior. Retrieval is an example of a behavior chain. The animal must find a specified object, pick it up, carry it, and give it to the trainer. He cannot change the order in which the behaviors are completed and still meet criteria: "put the object in the trainer's control." A very simple chain is "bark from a target station". Both aspects of the behavior are very simple but the animal has been told that he must go his target first and then bark - so it has a specific order.
TIME AND FREQUENCY (REPETITION)
When training - time and repetition are very important to the learning process. For example, the more repeated an event, the easier it is recalled from memory, generally. Things get complicated right away in trying to understand the relationship of time and repetition to learning. For example, repetition usually occurs as time progresses. An increase in time can decrease memory recall - sometimes it is difficult to see where the trade-off occurs.
In spite of the complex interactions of animal biology, time and repetition, a few axioms have emerged.
A) We understand that repetition helps form habits.
B) We also know that animals seem to remember the things they have done most and the things they have done most recently.
A misinterpretation of these two facts has spawned the rule of thumb - "Teach behavioral chains in the reverse of the order in which they are performed" in other words, teach the last part of the chain first, then the second to the last, etcetera. This saying is an anachronism from the days before targeting was understood. Here is a modified axiom that will much more useful to the high-performance trainer: Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -51- C) Divide a complex or chained behavior into its parts, and teach these parts however logic dictates. Once they are all mastered, teach their order (in the behavior or chain) in the reverse that it will be performed.
This modified axiom stems from the understanding that an animal can only learn one thing at a time. He can learn many things in succession, but at any given instant he can only focus on one new piece of information. When an animal is learning a new behavior, each component or module is a new concept - a change or variable. If these new variables are taught at the same time as their order in their complex behavior/behavioral chain - then the animal is being presented with two variables at once - the new behavior and the new order.
Looking at another communications system - written English. We find that children are taught new words by separating them into prefixes, suffixes and syllables whenever possible - not by starting at the end and adding more and more letters. Indeed, because many letter groups act as a unit, it could be very misleading to teach this way. Try learning the word "enough" backwards - Ha! Similarly there are discreet units, or modules, in many behaviors and these are most logically taught as subroutines, and then incorporated into the behavior.
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Below is a comparison of building behaviors/behavioral concepts with the processes of building other things - physics/ concepts and literature.
Concepts Behaviors Physics Principles Stories/ Literature bridge instant in time point in one a letter dimension target point in space point in second punctuation dimension compound target a set of target a shape diphthong points component target(s)with a vector syllable motion module a component that etc word is part of a planned behavior behavior a set of modules sentence
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -52- behavioral chain etc paragraph behavioral chain paragraph of set with parameters number of words behavioral chain etc with parameters and distractions
This comparison gets a bit tentative at times because each system is uniquely suited to its task and therefore the systems do not perfectly parallel one another. Targets and points and letters can all be combined to describe something - like a shape or a concept or a word. All these things can be modified. In training and physics, they can be modified by direction, forces, distractions/ parameters or coefficients, dimensions, intensities, or amounts. Words can be modified by adverbs and adjectives, tense, person, voice, gender and case.
In all three examples, despite dissimilarities, once one learns the system one can communicate extremely complex situations and concepts via the extremely simple building blocks of the system. Literature can be organized into any kind of book, physics into problems/solutions/theories and behaviors into behavioral chains and habits.
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Creating the Global Training Plan
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -54- Creating the Global Training Plan:
Now that we have considered the analysis of the individual behavior and the behavioral chain here is a way to create a plan for your entire training program:
An Aside About Stress Management - The Time Line
First, make two time lines for each type of animal under consideration. One is a life line. Draw one for each type of animal in training. Mark the animal's birth date and the end of the line is the longevity record for that animal plus some extra. (It is nice to think our animals will be so well managed that they will exceed all longevity records.) Divide the time line into years and chart out all the major events of the animal's natural lifetime cycle. Include weaning, first moults, puberty, onset of breeding life, etcetera. This line may be different for males and females but both can usually be incorporated on the same line(if you are planning for a group of animals).
The second line is an annual time line for the year being planned. It can start with any month of the year - like a fiscal calendar. On this calendar make note of the important annual events in the life cycle of the animal species. This schedule will vary according to the sex and age of the animals. For example, males and females may enter into "breeding season" at different times. Males do not lactate, and females may not shed antlers. Adult animals do not wean and young animals may have different shed or moult times than adults. Incorporate any life line events that will occur that year that are not necessarily repeated annually. Also incorporate any major managerial events that can be anticipated - such as separation of young form adults or males from females, transfers, worming dates, physical exam work ups, exhibit repairs, tourist onslaughts, disruptive weather seasons (e.g., very hot/humid), exhibit openings anything that may require the animal to spend energy to adapt to an event that is out of the ordinary. (Eventually, all the animal types, sexes and ages can be put onto one line. Initially, it may be easier to put only one type or
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -55- sex of animal on line.)
The result will be a line for the year under consideration with various dates blocked. The training agenda will be superimposed over this year line. At times when life is relatively dull for the animals, the training schedule can be pushed a bit. When the animal is under a lot of situational stress, the trainer must be careful with training demands. Besides spacing stress, time lines are useful in setting goals and priorities. For example, the trainer can lessen an animal's stress by arranging to train veterinary examination behaviors before the routine physical examination. Crate and transfer training can occur well in advance of the actual transfer. Animals facing their first "season" can be desensitized to audience and crowd distractions before the people arrive.
Lifetime Behavior Priority List
The next step of the process is to make a list of all the behaviors to be taught. As suggested above, consider teaching any behaviors that will lessen the stress on the animal during its life. Also on the list will be show and research behaviors, play behaviors, group management, communication signals, symbols and concepts. Safety behaviors should be right at the top of the list.
Next is the most tedious step of the process. Break all the behaviors into their components. If this seems too great an expenditure of time please reconsider. As behaviors are analyzed and the components are listed, behaviors start falling into teaching levels. In other words, the various behaviors will have components in common. With the training of each component progress is made on many behaviors at once. For example, with a simple target come the behaviors "come," "high jump," and "heel." With a target transferred to a remote station symbol one can create "kennel," "stay," and "do not charge the door." "Veterinary examination" and harness training are simply targets maintained in spite of manipulation of the body. "Brushing teeth" is an upper an lower jaw target with a disregard of manipulation and taste - so is giving back food or objects for retrieval.
Once components have been analyzed and separated out behaviors can be grouped according to importance and components in common, and the presentation of training material can be prioritized. Schedule training goals over the time line taking into account situational stressors of the animal's yearly cycle.
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The Individual Training Session
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -57- Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -58- The Individual Training Session
Training sessions can be of any length as long as the animal agrees to participate. However, one of the most difficult problems the author encountered was a tendency to let sessions go too long. The animals worked well but when the sessions were significantly shortened their effectiveness actually increased. A session can be as short as a few seconds. Sometimes it is best to make one significant point and quit - let the lesson sink in while the animal appreciates the unexpected free time, a bonus for prompt cooperation.
Sophisticated animals can work at learning for well over an hour - especially if they enjoy what they do. However, the prime attention span for learning may be about twenty minutes of maximal concentration to the task. Longer than twenty minutes and the time may be put to better use by breaking it into two smaller sessions. Sometimes, animals will want to go longer and will solicit the trainer's attention to interact. Sometimes they will practice on their own. Many animals love to learn, accomplish goals, and achieve recognition from the trainer and audience. The author's animals work and play alongside her - as the situation allows. At times, they have worked for 18 hour stretches. It is not the norm, but neither is it a problem for trainer nor animal. It is a way of life to live, learn and work together. Taking the above factors into consideration, training priorities can be presented in training sessions.
It is recommended that components and concepts be introduced under conditions that will allow the animal to concentrate on them. In a very short session consider presenting only one or two things. For a twenty minute session, warm the animal up with a few fun or easy things. Then progress quickly to the most challenging material of the session. As the session progresses evolve toward material that is inherently reinforcing, older or easy. For example if you wanted to work on a high jump, a flip, the concept wait, hitting a target with a thrown ball, and a walk in the public area, and if the high jump and the walk were already developed behaviors, a possible presentation schedule for a session might be: high jump, target, wait, wait, water, flip, take ball - throw, throw, throw, flip, flip, wait - go for a five minute walk.
Once the training agenda has been analyzed, it is easy to make great accomplishments with minimal expenditures of time - and sometimes no actual session. For example, a tape player with music and sound effect tapes can be used to desensitize an animal. Relaxation cues can be played at sleep time. Objects that will be used for training can be put in with the animal during off time, or used as a toy. Objects slated for desensitization can be left by a gate to flash at the animals as they pass by. Secondary reinforcers can be introduced for a few seconds as a trainer wanders by. All of these things are easy as long as the trainer is organized to get them accomplished.
There is no optimal schedule or strategy for presenting material to be learned. For one reason, randomness in the material content of sessions is as important was varying the reinforcers. Anything that is fully predictable can be punishing, especially if the animal Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -59- is craving novelty to begin with.
In summary, try to -
1. Vary the lengths of sessions as well as the type, difficulty, and order of material that is presented. 2. Keep the session concise. 3. Try to always end on a positive note - that is, with the animal being successful.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -60- Chapter Eight:
The Training Transaction
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -61- The Training Transaction
One of the most confusing aspects of thinking about animal behavior and how it is managed is: no animal creates a single behavior. Instead, an animal creates a steady stream of behavior. Any attempt to break this continuum into separate, specific behaviors is arbitrary. The trainer must decide exactly what constitutes a specific behavior. Then the trainer must communicate to the animal this very same information, and they must agree to refer to a specific segment of behavior continuum by a name or cue. Cues and behaviors can be changed or exchanged interminably, as long as all parties concerned understand and agree to honor the changes.
It can be difficult to figure out how to explain something to an animal if one cannot define it for one’s self. The text of this manual, Volume I, is devoted to guiding a trainer's analysis, definition and communication to their animals.
Once the behavior is communicated, the trainer must motivate the animal to duplicate the behavior described. This is the main subject of the next manual, Volume II.
The training process is not broken up as these two manuals are, into the discipline of communication logic and the art of motivation. Instead, the two are inextricably intertwined along the animal's behavior continuum.
The trainer starts out with a definition of the behavior to be communicated and a plan to present this information to the animal in discrete, logical steps - one new piece of information at a time. Training commences.
1. The trainer sets the environment for success, e.g., - limit environmental distractions assemble teaching props assemble "consequences" set up an aversive situation to allow for negative reinforcement.
2. The trainer presents - an event, such as food, or information, such as a cue.
3. The animal then responds or does not. The options: It can meet the criterion correctly, it can make an imperfect attempt, it can mangle the behavior on purpose, it can do something completely unrelated to the trainer's
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -62- request but interactive with the trainer ("I will not retrieve, but I will do a flip), it can bite the trainer for the impudence of the request. it can do nothing. Etcetera...
4. The trainer analyzes the animal's response. Correct response due to communication and cooperation. Correct due to coincidence/accident. Incorrect due to lack of understanding. Incorrect due to lack of motivation. Incorrect due to failure to receive critical information.
5. The trainer chooses his own response. Reinforce the behavior. Punish the behavior. Time Out the behavior. Ignore the transaction. Repeat the cue. Give additional information.
6. Trainer responds to the animal's behavior with a consequence. Primary or Secondary Negative and Positive Punisher or Reinforcer
7. The animal responds to the trainer's consequence. Accept consequence, e.g., eat food. Reject consequence, e.g., ignore food, trainer, cues.
8. The animal gives the trainer a consequence - Ready for next request. Lobby to change direction of interaction. Ignore. Uses trainer's leg as dental floss.
9. The trainer sets the environment for the next step - to facilitate the next step in learning.
10. The trainer presents - an event, such as food, or information, such as a cue.
Etcetera, until the entire behavior and the conditions under which it will be required Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -63- are fully communicated to the animal and the animal indicates that he receives and understands the information and agrees to cooperate by translating the trainer's input into a tangible behavior.
Appendices
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -64- Appendix One: Terminology Organized by Subject
The above process is conceptually simple but can be mentally exhaustive, especially if the animal lacks motivation, an audience shares the trainer's attention, or the animal does not understand the first presentation, and the trainer must rethink his approach.
Almost as difficult is communicating with other humans about what is going on during the training process. It requires that the steps in the training process be conceptually organized, defined, and the definitions circulated and agreed upon by those that will be attempting to communicate on this subject.
The only true justification of scientific terminology or jargon is to be able to communicate, precisely and accurately, with others with similar interest. Terminology should clarify - not confuse. It is silly to use jargon when a simple common use word will do. It requires the listener to translate the term in order to follow the concept. It is a worse sin to use terminology or jargon imprecisely. It bars others from fully understanding the speaker, and it may be a ploy to disarm critics - if one cannot understand what is said, one cannot criticize or question it.
Terminology is a loaded gun, only as good or as bad as the trainer using it... potentially lethal to understanding and communication. Many a discussion has been maimed or killed by someone carelessly shooting terminology at innocent bystanders.
The terminology in this appendix is derived from the body of operant psychology literature. It is important to all trainers because it is a base for communications amongst ourselves, and also with scientists in fields related to ours. If used correctly, we gain understanding, credibility and prestige amongst others who depend on this terminology to conduct their business - credibility because they will be able to readily see that we understand concepts we hold in common, and prestige because we went to the effort to be learn the terminology correctly, demonstrating dedication and understanding.
With the knowledge that terminology is necessary, a glossary of some terms related to training, operant conditioning and behavior are included. The list is not exhaustive. It is merely an introduction to some of the most basic and useful definitions. The reader is encouraged to compare these definitions and explanations to those that can be obtained in a psychology text book. Many will be exactly the same, but some will not. The author Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -65- has referenced many sources of definitions for the terms included, and has found some to be confusing, incomplete or otherwise difficult (“negative reinforcer” is commonly misused, even by professionals). Therefore, terms are expanded and discussed and exemplified in some instances.
The reader is encouraged to compare this glossary with that of any psychology text book defining the same terms. Some terms, such as operant and stimulus, are part of the body of psychological literature. The term "bridge" is sometimes used amongst psychologists but is probably more often referred to as a "conditioned stimulus". The term "target" is not in frequent use amongst psychologists, but is widely used amongst trainers, however, the author has seen it defined only as a contact point on a paddle or pole, and not as an action by the animal or a concept, even though in common usage this term has all three dimensions. A few terms, such as "distraction" and "parameter" are common words which the author introduces with specific meanings for training contexts.
As with any part of this manual, the author begs the critical attention of the reader and welcomes discussion and comment. Knowledge advances only with critical investigation, and any good understanding is strengthened by exercise - the author will be honored if the reader will exercise hers. As possible, commentary generated by this manual will be included in the next volume to be considered by all subscribers.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -66- TERMINOLOGY GROUPED ACCORDING TO USE
Consequences the trainer delivers:
1. REINFORCER - increases the frequency of the behavior it immediately follows.
2. PUNISHER - decreases the frequency of the behavior it immediately follows. Illogical choice - it should be a “diminisher”.
3. POSITIVE - add to the environment.
4. NEGATIVE - take from the environment.
5. POSITIVE REINFORCER - frequency of the behavior increased by the addition of some thing the animal desires, immediately after the behavior.
6. NEGATIVE REINFORCER - frequency of the behavior is increased by the subtraction of something the animal doesn't like, as an immediate result of the behavior. NOT A PUNISHER. e.g., Mother with crying baby; Mother picks up baby; It stops crying; The baby was positively reinforced for crying; The mother was negatively reinforced when the baby quit crying.
7. Punishers can be positive or negative also.
Discussion:
Below is a table of "likely" punishers and reinforcers to help clarify how punishers and reinforcers, both negative and positive, are related to one another.
positive negative punisher a slap loss of a privilege reinforcer a food treat removal of a disliked food
The examples listed are neither always punishers nor reinforcers - it depends on the perception of the individual animal and WHERE THE ADDED STIMULUS IS, RELATIVE TO THE BEHAVIOR UNDER CONSIDERATION.
Remember that the same stimulus, such as a "bee stinging" can be either a punisher or a negative reinforcer depending on whether it was administered in response to a behavior - e.g., the bear stole honey and the bee stung it; (the bear was punished for
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -67- stealing honey); or - the bear killed the bee and removed the sting sensation; the bear was negatively reinforced for killing the bee.
The above example illustrates how important it is to be precise when applying reinforcers and punishers to behaviors. Behaviors occur in a steady stream. As trainers, we decide which point in the steady stream we want to increase or intensify. We use a tool such as a bridge to pinpoint the exact instant on the behavior continuum, for the animal's understanding.
As seen above, not only can a single stimulus be either a reinforcer or a punisher, it can serve two different functions in the same application. It can be the punisher for the behavior it follows and the stimulus which, when removed, becomes the negative reinforcer for the behavior that immediately follows it.
Analogously, the positive reinforcer for one behavior can be the negative punisher in another case, e.g., the animal does a behavior - it gets to play with a ball. The animal disregards a command, the ball is taken away- the ball is first a reinforcer, then a punisher.
When speaking of reinforcers and punishers, refer to the behavior - not to the animal (or its "character"). i.e., the behavior is punished (or decreased), the dog is not. The behavior is reinforced - not rewarded. The animal can be rewarded - although it may be hard for the trainer to know when the animal feels rewarded. It is easier to see if the frequency of a behavior increases than to make a subjective judgment of the animal's state of mind.
8. PRIMARY: A quality that an animal responds to innately in a certain way, without any conditioning from a human. A primary reinforcer might be food, sex, water, sleep ... a primary punished might be the deprivation of any of the above, fear, pain...
9. SECONDARY: A quality that an animal responds to because its perception has been conditioned. A secondary reinforcer is something that initially had no significance to an animal and then became desired by the animal because of its association with other desired, primary reinforcers - in training this is often food. Once a secondary reinforcer is established, it can be very strong - just as strong as primary reinforcers in animals that are in normal drive state (not deprived of anything) and are not driven by hormone surges at the time.
There can be both primary and secondary punishes. A bridge is a secondary reinforcer and a "no" or negate, is a secondary punished in many training systems.
10. TIME OUT: The cessation of stimulus or response from the trainer, for some interval of time. In essence, the animal receives no cues from the trainer, but also cannot influence the trainer to produce a consequence such as food or praise until the "time out" or TO has passed. Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -68- 11. SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT: The type, amount and frequency of the reinforcement that will be given when a task is completed. There are generally considered to be three basic schedules:
A. CONTINUOUS: one reinforcer for one task or a set amount of reinforcer for one task, every task gets paid the same.
Often still preferred for work with birds, but is usually considered dangerous to use with many animals because it sets up a rigid expectation - a right to payment as it were. When the time comes that the trainer has no reinforcer on hand, he may have no behavior or the animal may become frustrated, angry and aggressive. Also this strategy sets the animal up to plan how many behaviors, and which behaviors he will do today. He can even manipulate the situation so that he does something wrong which he has to be paid to correct, earning all the reinforcers he can appreciate that day, and letting him refuse all subsequent behaviors at no loss to himself.
B. FIXED: A set amount of reinforcer for a set amount of task, for example one apple for every ten lever pecks. In some case this schedule can cause an animal to work longer and faster to get a reinforcer.
C. VARIABLE: A random amount of reinforcer is given in a random way to behaviors that are completed. This is the "jackpot" or "lotto" concept. The animal knows the chances for the huge payoff are not great - but there is a chance. He will therefore often continue to work for reinforcers that he values lowly or not at all in order to stay in the running for the grand prize. In addition, this strategy is intrinsically interesting to the animal, and therefore further increases the animal's interest and response.
Information the animal receives:
12. STIMULUS: Any environmental condition which impinges on the animal's sensory perception.
13. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS: A stimulus which has a specific meaning - in animal training, usually denoting a stimulus which elicits a specific behavior, or a cue. Usually noted as S .
14. CONDITIONED STIMULUS: A stimulus which has a specific meaning - usually to denote the successful completion of behavioral criterion. A bridge is a conditioned stimulus.
15. STRESSOR: A stimulus which requires some adaptation from the animal. It is recommended that stressors be considered as costs of living. Any animal has an energy/adaptability "budget" for living - just like a human makes a certain amount of money. If you spend more money on medical bills one month there is less for Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -69- entertainment. All expenditures together cannot exceed the total income without severe repercussions. Likewise, if an animal is sick - it has less to invest in adapting to a new environment or strange conditions.
Stressors are valued differently by different animals. Some animals love to have physical exercise and have a higher tolerance for demands in this area than the normal animal of their type. Perhaps the same animal has a terrible time holding still for a veterinarian examination, subsequently finding this "stressful." With good training the animal will become proficient at the vet examination - it will no longer require as much "adaptation" effort, and the animal will no longer perceive it as being "stressful." A second animal could be the opposite, enjoying the veterinarian examination and being stressed by rigorous physical demands.
16. BRIDGE: A signal that pinpoints an instant in time for the animal in training.
A. Intermediate Bridge: Signals the animal that at that instant it is on the path to success, but it has not completed the behavior yet. In this manual, the intermediate bridge is a softly spoken "x", denoted as a lower case x.
B. Terminal Bridge: Signals the instant at which an animal successfully completes a requested behavior. In this manual, the terminal bridge is a crisp, clear, emphatically spoken "X", denoted as an upper case X.
C. X: See Bridge, Terminal.
D. x: See Bridge, Intermediate.
17. TARGET(noun): A prop which pinpoints a critical location for an animal in training. This location may be a body contact point on the stationary animal, it may be a destination point, or it may be a place where other critical information will appear. The target can be an extended finger or fist, the end of a pole, a mark on a wall or a paper, a plaque... Essentially, the trainer and the animal each extend a target contact point toward the other, meeting in the middle. Thus, the human extends a pole and the dolphin touches with a rostrum, or the human extends a finger and the primate extends a finger to touch.
18. NEUTRAL CUE: A discrete signal with no initial meaning. Its meaning is acquired through association with a primary stimulus and related reflex response.
19. CUE: A signal which will elicit a specific behavior or reflex - as a result of a learned association.
Responses the animal offers:
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -70- 20. REFLEX: An involuntary physiological reaction to a stimulus - such as drooling when food is presented.
21. OPERANT: A response to the environment (a stimulus) that the animal initiates to act upon, or operate his environment. Pushing a lever is an operant, so is barking or sitting down or biting down.
22. INSTRUMENTAL BEHAVIOR: Behavior emitted by an animal in order to obtain a goal, i.e., behavior that is "instrumental" in obtaining a goal. That behavior could be in response to a trainer's request (instrumental in obtaining a reinforcer from the trainer) or it could be in order to obtain any goal the animal set - digging a hole to get under a fence, stacking boxes to reach a banana or waiting to get prey.
23. HABIT: A behavior which an animal routinely emits without a cue presented by a trainer. The behavior may have initially been taught by a trainer or the animal may have originated it. For example, a person is initially taught by his mother to brush his teeth after eating. This can become a habit which the person continues without his mother there to remind him. A person may develop certain gestures while speaking, that were not specifically taught and are not part of the actual seeking process, and continue these gesture habits indefinitely. Or a person may be conditioned to eat at a specific time. He habitually eats at that time, cued by internal body conditions.
24. TARGET(verb): A "point" of behavior. The smallest unit of behavior, consists of an animal's action to touch a designated spot.
25. COMPONENT: The smallest piece of a behavior after the target. A target vector, or a target with an additional quality such as motion, duration, or pressure. The basic building block of a behavior.
26. MODULE: A specific set of components, a sub set of a behavior.
27. BEHAVIOR: A specific action created by an animal. For the purposes of training, an animal action defined and named by the trainer.
28. BEHAVIORAL CHAIN: A group of behaviors in a specific order forming a more complex behavior, and defined as a unit to the animal.
The learning process and strategies:
29. CONDITIONING: To create a predictable, "automatic" behavioral response in an animal in response to a cue. The process of learning how signals, behaviors and consequences are related.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -71- 30. CLASSICAL or RESPONDENT CONDITIONING: Sometimes referred to as Pavlovian conditioning. Classical conditioning results in a reflex (versus a behavior) which can be elicited by a cue. A reflex is elicited by a primary stimulus - e.g., savory food elicits saliva, pain elicits rapid withdrawal, etcetera. In classical conditioning, a neutral cue is associated with an eliciting stimulus, and eventually becomes an eliciting stimulus. This type of conditioning does not involve any voluntary choices made by the animal - just a reflex response or reaction.
31. OPERANT CONDITIONING: To predictably elicit a specific operant, or behavior, in response to a cue. An operant is a behavior that acts upon, or operates, the animal's environment.
32. INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING: To condition a specific behavior which is "instrumental" to gaining some end perceived by the animal, in response to a trainer's cue. The "end" to which the animals instrumental behavior is directed may be to gain reinforcement from the trainer.
33. SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION: The process of refining an animal’s behavior, or operant, from a spontaneous initial behavior to the behavior which is planned by the trainer.
34. SHAPING: The process of trying to create a behavior or put a behavior on cue by selective or differential reinforcement.
35. AN APPROXIMATION: A single step in the refinement process of shaping. Comes from the idea that each differential or selective reinforcement selects a behavior that is a closer approximation of the end-point behavior than the previous response.
36. SELECTIVE OR DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT: The process of reinforcing only those operants which are like, or increasingly like, the end-point desired behavior.
Of all the operants the animal offers, approximations of the end-point desired behavior are selectively reinforced until the behavior is formed. This entire process is considered successive approximation. The trainer's strategy is selective or differential reinforcement. This is not usually the strategy used with bridge and target technique. This is because with a bridge and a target you start with a definite specific instruction. When the animal is successful, it is given the next instruction. Each step is extremely simple - touch the target. However as the process continues the set of instructions which communicated the behaviors are more complex than the first instruction set - but no less specific.
In general, in bridge and target training, if the animal is motivated, it will be successful (it has all the information it needs to do so.) Therefore, every response will be reinforced. The behavior goes from simple to complex - but it is always refined. In successive approximation, the behavior evolves from general to specific, and the animal zeros in on the Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -72- desired response by a process of elimination. In bridge and target technique the animal zeros in on the desired response by following a target.
Do not be misled to think that targeting will be a long and tedious process. Rather, the initial progress will be slow because the steps are small. As the animal and the trainer become proficient in the system, it can become almost as fast as explanations are in any language. Going back to the reading analogy - consider how much time each human invests in learning the alphabet, but in the end reading and speaking are very fast and seem simple (except in front of audiences).
37. DESENSITIZATION: A process of changing an animal's perception of an event, negative or positive, but usually negative, to a neutral perception, as evidenced by the animal’s lack of response to the event when compared to a previous baseline.
38. PERCEPTION MODIFICATION: the process of changing an animal's perception of an event or stimulus, as evidenced by his changed response to the event or stimulus when compared to a previous baseline. This is most effectively done through a conditioning process where the event/stimulus is paired with a conditioned reinforcer or punished in order to transfer the value of the reinforcer or punished to the event/stimulus. If the event/stimulus is paired with a neutral condition, the process is usually called desensitization. There is no bridge and no reinforcer classically used in the desensitization process. This is a more general term than desensitization.
39. AVOIDANCE LEARNING: The process of learning to emit a behavior in order to prevent an aversive event, e.g., children learn to duck an oncoming ball in order to avoid being hit by it.
40. ESCAPE LEARNING: The process of learning to emit a behavior in order to escape an aversive event in progress, e.g., if a room is too hot, a person will leave it to escape the heat. If the person or animal can predict when the room will be too hot, they can then avoid the room when it becomes hot. Thus, avoidance learning can directly follow escape learning.
41. GENERALIZATION: The process of comparing events, consequences or objects which have some trait in common and recognizing that common trait. That trait can then be extrapolated into new situations, guiding the animal's response, without the animal being specifically taught about that new situation. For example, if a child is specifically taught not to cross a street in front of an oncoming car, bus and bicycle - then the child is likely to also wait for a motorcycle to pass. Eventually, the child conceptually groups all the vehicles traveling on a road into a set - "traffic."
In animal training, an animal can be taught to allow a series of specific people to touch it. Eventually, the animal will let all people pet him, even if they are strangers.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -73- 42. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS: The state of considering oneself helpless because of the failure of attempts to control a situation. Some animals will eventually quit trying.
This is why it is important for a trainer to set the animal up to be successful - so that it will gain confidence and believe, through generalization, that since he could solve any situation presented to date, he could solve any situation that could ever be presented. Thus he will work hard to meet challenges rather than give up and passively accept consequences.
43. DISTRACTIONS: qualitative aspects of the environment - things such as bells, applause, audience, animals, the feeling of pressure, other animals, or flying objects.
44. PARAMETERS: describe the amount or intensity of the distraction - how long or how hard the pressure feeling is, how close or numerous or loud the audience. There can be any number of distractions in an environment and there can be any number of parameters to a given distraction.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -74- APPENDIX II: WORKING NOTES
THE BASICS OF HOW TO TRAIN ANY KIND OF ANIMAL
INTRODUCTION
The requirements for learning are probably the same for all animals including humans. They are simple and only 2 in number: 1. The thing to be learned must be effectively communicated to the student, human or animal. 2. The student must be motivated to learn and perform.
YOUR SIGNIFICANCE
The animal must be given a reason to interact with the trainer. Start feeding by hand.
THE BRIDGE
The bridge begins as a signal to tell the animal food is coming. It becomes a way to pinpoint time for the animal. Its significance continues to evolve, eventually serving at least four functions. The bridge - 1. Pinpoints the exact instant desired behavior is created. 2. "Bridges" the gap of time between the instant the desired behavior is created and the instant it is reinforced with food or other things. 3. Becomes a secondary reinforcer- pleasure inducing in its own right (e.g., praise, for humans). 4. Increases your significance to the animal. Since you are giving signals that show you are reacting to the animal's behavior, it will start to examine its behavior in order to manipulate you to produce more bridges which in turn indicate more food, etc.
Additionally, more than one type of bridge can be used to communicate more precisely to the animal.
TRAINING THE BRIDGE:
Once the trainer has chosen the signal to serve as a bridge, that signal should be communicated to the animal. Initially, the signal can be paired with the presentation of food (or anything else the animal likes). As trials progress, the food lags behind the bridge, at first imperceptibly, but with increasing time-lags over the trials. The goal is for the animal to perceive the bridge as the signal that something good is coming. Eventually the animal will learn that the "something good" is coming as a result of the behavior that was occurring at the instant the bridge was issued.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -75- TESTING THE BRIDGE:
The trainer has successfully established the bridge when the following conditions are met: 1) Stand before the animal until it loses interest in your presence. 2) Issue the bridge without any other feeding related cues (such as hand motion). 3) The animal should immediately turn toward the bridge.
THE TARGET
The most important function of the target is to focus the animal's attention on the critical behavior, or the place where critical information will appear. Like the bridge, it evolves to have four aspects.
1. The target pinpoints, in space, the exact spatial orientation, or location, of the critical behavior.
2. It focuses the animal's attention to receive information.
3. It is the foundation for the formation of any physical motion or attitude the trainer wants to create, and can be used to define many concepts as well.
4. It fosters an attitude of cooperation between animal and trainer.
TRAINING THE TARGET:
Now start target training. Insert a padded target pole between the animal and the food, so that the animal inadvertently brushes the target on the way to the food. The instant the animal makes accidental contact with the target in the shoulder area, bridge the contact (shoulder contact appears to be the least invasive to many animals). As the animal continues to approach to take food, move the target so that the animal intercepts it closer and closer to its muzzle. Soon it can be moved directly into the path of the muzzle on its way to food. The animal will usually just bump the target out of the way. Make sure you are ready to bridge this contact.
TESTING THE TARGET: The target can now start to precede the food presentation. As soon as the target contact is stable, move the target presentation to one side and present the food a little to the other, and farther back than the target. The instant the animal touches the target, bridge and feed. If the animal goes for the food first instead of the target, make the food disappear - so that the most direct path to the food is through the target - Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -76- How to describe
The first caution is: do not use the target to capture a spontaneously offered behavior by inserting the target to tag the behavior when it is spontaneously offered by the animal - even though the target allows the trainer to do this with greater efficiency than the bridge alone allows. It is like using a baseball bat to bunt a ball - it will hit the ball further than your hand alone would, but there is a more powerful way to use a bat.
Even to capture a behavior the animal spontaneously offers, the target is best used to systematically describe the behavior from beginning to end, at which point the trainer will name it for the animal, with a cue.
CONCEPTS OF TARGETING:
The training of behaviors can be interspersed amongst lessons on target concepts, but one must be very thorough in teaching the aspects of the target. The simplified concepts of targeting are as follows. 1. Touch the target the instant it is presented. 2. Touch the target as long as it is presented. 3. Follow the target if it moves. 4. Touch the target in spite of any obstacles. 5. Touch the target in spite of any distractions. 6. Follow the target even through medium changes (land to air, water to air) 7. Touch the target with the body point indicated. 8. When a second target is introduced, maintain contact with the first target while touching the second one. 9. For every added target, keep the already established targets in constant contact. 10. A target pole is an extension of the target hand - touch it whenever presented. 11. The target station is the extension of the target pole touch it whenever asked. 12. If more than one target is presented, the order of priority is hand, then pole, then station.
THE BEHAVIOR
ANYTHING THAT THE ANIMAL DOES OR CAN DO CAN BE EXPRESSED AS A SET OF POINTS. THE TARGET IS USED TO DESCRIBE BEHAVIOR BY A PROCESS OF CONNECTING THE DOTS. THE GEOMETRY DEFINED BY THE TARGET(S) MAY BE STATIONARY OR IT MAY MOVE THROUGH SPACE, AND IT CAN CHANGE AS IT Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -77- MOVES. Therefore, in order to prepare to present information about a behavior to an animal, the trainer must do the following.
1. Decide exactly what you want to communicate. 2. Define the behavior including its limits. 3. Separate the geometric and motion components of the behavior so that the behavior can be seen as a set of geometric modules moving through space and acted upon by physical forces.
List all the behaviors that this animal will be taught. Prioritize them. Now break them all down into components. A component is an ingredient of a behavior.
COMPONENTS
1. Maintain neutral contact with a target point 2. Push a target point (or object) 3. Pull ... 4. Lift 5. Hold (take responsibility for staying in contact) 6. Carry: hold over distance traveled 7. Put (get something to a given destination) 8. Give (release contact) 9. Bat (make rigid contact with a moving target object) 10. Throw 11. Catch 12. Travel to a target point 13. Body contact and manipulation
This may not be an exhaustive list but it covers most behaviors that are commonly trained.
MODULE
A specific set of components, a sub set of a behavior.
BEHAVIOR
A specific action created by an animal.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -78- BEHAVIORAL CHAIN
A group of behaviors in a specific order forming a more complex behavior.
EXAMPLES OF THE ABOVE PROCESS - DEFINE, LIMIT, ANALYZE
A COMPLEX BEHAVIOR:
PILLAR SPIRAL
definition: The animal erupts out of the water in a vertical pillar, simultaneously spiraling. limits: must be vertical with no transverse drift and animal must make one complete rotation geometry: The animal's body forms a cylinder rotating in space as it travels up a vertical pillar (y axis) until the animal loses momentum and falls back vertically back (down the y-axis) into the water.
components: module one: Cylinder target 1 - Muzzle target to describe the vertical axis of the cylinder. target 2 - The other end of the axis can be left to gravity in many cases. If the animal is confused, insert a second target, extending the flipper tips - the other end of the cylinder's axis. target 3 - To either the point of the shoulder or an extended flipper (depending if want the flippers extended during the spiral - or not) to establish the radius of the cylinder. rotate target 3 around the axis to trace the cylinder. module two: Vertical pillar target 1 - Muzzle target presented at the desired height to describe "a vector on the y-axis". Once the animal contacts the target his task is finished and he may fall back into the water. module three: Synthesis- put the "module one" behavior on a cue and fade out all target contacts. While the animal is floating n i the water - give the "module one" cue and insert the target pole at the muzzle axis again. Gradually raise the vertical height (on t h e y a xi s ) o f t h e m u zzl e t a r g e t wi t h s u c c e s s i ve t r i a l s . When the animal has achieved the desired height (with good rotation) assign a cue to this new behavior of modules one and two
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -79- combined. Fade out the target.
REVISED AXIOM OF THE BEHAVIORAL CHAIN:
A) We understand that repetition helps form habits.
B) We also know that animals seem to remember the things they have done most and the things they have done most recently.
A misinterpretation of these two facts has spawned the rule of thumb - "Teach behavioral chains in the reverse of the order they are performed in" in other words, teach the last part of the chain first, then the second to the last, etcetera. This saying is an anachronism from the days before targeting was understood. Here is a modified axiom that will much more useful to the high-performance trainer:
C) Divide a complex or chained behavior into its parts, and teach these parts however logic dictates. Once they are all mastered, teach their order (in the behavior or chain) in the reverse that it will be performed.
HOW TO PLAN
THE OVERALL TRAINING PLAN
First, please make two time lines. One is a life line. Draw one for each type of animal you have. Mark the animal's birth date and the end of the line is the longevity record for that animal plus some extra (it is nice to think our animals will be so well managed that they will exceed all longevity records). Divide the time line into years and chart out all the major events of the animal's natural lifetime cycle. Include weaning, first moults, puberty, onset of breeding life, etcetera. This line may be different for males and females but both can usually be incorporated on the same line.
The second line is an annual time line for the year being planned. It can start with any month of the year - like a fiscal calendar. On this calendar, make note of the important annual events in the life cycle of the animal species. This schedule will vary according to the sex and age of the animals.
Forecast the entire captive life of the animal in training. List all the behaviors that this animal will be taught. Prioritize them. Now break them all down into components. Incorporate any life line events that will occur that year that are not necessarily repeated annually. Also incorporate any major managerial events that can be anticipated
The result will be a line for the year under consideration with various dates blocked.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -80- The training agenda will be superimposed over this year line. At times when life is relatively dull for the animals, the training schedule can be pushed a bit. When the animal is under a lot of situational stress, the trainer must be careful with training demands. Besides spacing stress, time lines are useful in setting goals and priorities.
THE INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR
No matter how complicated a behavior initially appears, it is always compiled of simple parts. In the above example the concept of the module was introduced - the module being a simple sub-behavior in a more complex whole. Each module can be broken further into smaller parts - the components. For our purposes, a component is the simplest organized behavior except for a simple touch. A component is a touch with some special quality like motion, resistance, contact duration or orientation to another object (like "mouth around ball"). Simpler than the component is the concept. Concepts are the basis of everything the animal learns - but they are often the last thing the animal is taught. THE TRAINING SESSION
Present only one piece of new information, or one "variable" at a time. More than one variable can be presented in a session, but only one at a time in a serial sequence.
It is recommended that components and concepts be introduced under conditions that will allow the animal to concentrate on them. In a very short session consider presenting only one or two things. For a twenty minute session, warm the animal up with a few fun or easy things. Then progress quickly to the most challenging material of the session. As the session progresses evolve toward material that is inherently reinforcing, older or easy.
1. Vary the lengths of sessions as well as the type, difficulty, and order of material that is presented. 2. Keep the session concise. 3. Try to always end on a positive note - that is, with the animal being successful.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -81- APPENDIX III: TERMINOLOGY, ALPHABETICALLY LISTED:
01. APPROXIMATION: A single step in the refinement process of shaping. Comes from the idea that each differential or selective reinforcement selects a behavior that is a closer approximation of the endpoint behavior than the previous response.
02. AVOIDANCE LEARNING: The process of learning to emit a behavior in order to prevent an aversive event, e.g., children learn to duck an oncoming ball in order to avoid being hit by it.
03. BEHAVIOR: A specific action created by an animal. For the purposes of training, an animal action defined and named by the trainer.
04. BEHAVIORAL CHAIN: A group of behaviors in a specific order forming a more complex behavior, and defined as a unit to the animal.
05. BRIDGE: A signal that is conditioned to be reinforcing because it is paired with other reinforcers which evolves to pinpoint an instant in time for the animal in training.
A. Intermediate Bridge: Signals the animal that at that instant it is on the path to success, but it has not completed the behavior yet. In this manual, the intermediate bridge is a softly spoken "x", denoted as a lower case x.
B. Terminal Bridge: Signals the instant at which an animal successfully completes a requested behavior. In this manual, the terminal bridge is a crisp, clear, emphatically spoken "X", denoted as an upper case X.
06. CLASSICAL or RESPONDENT CONDITIONING: Sometimes referred to as Pavlovian conditioning. Classical conditioning results in a reflex (versus a behavior) which can be elicited by a cue. A reflex is elicited by a primary stimulus - e.g., savory food elicits saliva, pain elicits rapid withdrawal, etcetera. In classical conditioning, a neutral cue is associated with an eliciting stimulus, and eventually becomes an eliciting stimulus. This type of conditioning does not involve any voluntary choices made by the animal - just a reflex response or reaction.
07. COMPONENT: The smallest piece of a behavior after the target. A target vector, or a target with an additional quality, such as motion, duration, or pressure. The basic building block of a behavior.
08. CONDITIONED STIMULUS: A stimulus which has a specific meaning - usually to denote the successful completion of behavioral criterion. A bridge is a conditioned stimulus.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -82- 09. CONDITIONING: To create a predictable, "automatic" behavioral response in an animal in response to a cue. The process of learning how signals, behaviors and consequences are related.
10. CUE: A signal which will elicit a specific behavior or reflex - as a result of a learned association.
11. DESENSITIZATION: A process of changing an animal's perception of an event, negative or positive, but usually negative, to a neutral perception, as evidenced by the animals lack of response to the event when compared to a previous baseline.
12. DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT: See SELECTIVE REINFORCEMENT.
13. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS: A stimulus which has a specific meaning - in animal training, usually denoting a stimulus which elicits a specific behavior, or a cue.
14. DISTRACTIONS: Qualitative aspects of the environment - things such as bells, applause, audience, animals, the feeling of pressure, other animals, or flying objects.
15. ESCAPE LEARNING: The process of learning to emit a behavior in order to escape an aversive event in progress, e.g., if a room is too hot, a person will leave it to escape the heat.
If the person or animal can predict when the room will be too hot, they can then avoid the room when it becomes hot. Thus avoidance learning can directly follow escape learning.
16. GENERALIZATION: The process of comparing events, consequences or objects which have some trait in common and recognizing that common trait. That trait can then be extrapolated into new situations, guiding the animal's response, without the animal being specifically taught about that new situation. For example, if a child is specifically taught not to cross a street in front of an oncoming car, bus and bicycle - then the child is likely to also wait for a motorcycle to pass. Eventually, the child conceptually groups all the vehicles traveling on a road into a set - "traffic."
In animal training, an animal can be taught to allow a series of specific people to touch it. Eventually, the animal will let all people pet him, even if they are strangers.
17. HABIT: A behavior which an animal routinely emits without a cue presented by a trainer. The behavior may have initially been taught by a trainer or the animal may have originated it. For example, a person is initially taught by his mother to brush his teeth after eating. This can become a habit which the person continues without his mother there to remind him. A person may develop certain gestures while speaking, that were not specifically taught and are not part of the actual seeking process, and continue these
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -83- gesture habits indefinitely. Or a person may be conditioned to eat at a specific time. He habitually eats at that time, cued by internal body conditions.
18. INSTRUMENTAL BEHAVIOR: Behavior emitted by an animal in order to obtain a goal, i.e., behavior that is "instrumental" in obtaining a goal. That behavior could be in response to a trainer's request (instrumental in obtaining a reinforcer from the trainer) or it could be in order to obtain any goal the animal set - digging a hole to get under a fence, stacking boxes to reach a banana or waiting to get prey.
19. INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING: To predictably elicit a specific behavior in response to a trainer's cue so that the animal may gain the reinforcement from the trainer.
20. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS: The state of considering oneself helpless because of the failure of attempts to control a situation. Some animals will eventually quit trying.
This is why it is important for a trainer to set the animal up to be successful - so that it will gain confidence and believe, through generalization, that since he could solve any situation presented to date, he could solve any situation that could ever be presented. Thus he will work hard to meet challenges rather than give up and passively accept consequences.
21. MODULE: A specific set of components, a sub set of a behavior.
22. NEGATIVE - take from the environment.
23. NEGATIVE REINFORCER - frequency of the behavior is increased by the subtraction of something the animal doesn't like, as an immediate result of the behavior. NOT A PUNISHER.
E.g., Mother with crying baby; Mother picks up baby; It stops crying; The baby was positively reinforced for crying; The mother was negatively reinforced when the baby quit crying.
24. NEUTRAL CUE: A discrete signal with no initial meaning. Its meaning is acquired through association with a primary stimulus and related reflex response.
25. OPERANT: A response to the environment (a stimulus) that the animal initiates to act upon, or operate his environment. Pushing a lever is an operant, so is barking or sitting down or biting down.
26. OPERANT CONDITIONING: To predictably elicit a specific operant, or behavior, in response to a cue.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -84- 27. OPERANT CONDITIONING: To predictably elicit a specific operant, or behavior, in response to a cue. An operant is a behavior that acts upon, or operates, the animal's environment.
28. INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING: To condition a specific behavior which is "instrumental" to gaining some end perceived by the animal, in response to a trainer's cue. The "end" to which the animal’s instrumental behavior is directed may be to gain reinforcement from the trainer.
29. PARAMETERS: describe the amount or intensity of the distraction - how long or how hard the pressure feeling is, how close or numerous or loud the audience. There can be any number of distractions in an environment and there can be any number of parameters to a given distraction.
30. PERCEPTION MODIFICATION: the process of changing an animal's perception of an event or stimulus, as evidenced by his changed response to the event or stimulus when compared to a previous baseline. This is most effectively done through a conditioning process where the event/stimulus is paired with a conditioned reinforcer or punished in order to transfer the value of the reinforcer or punished to the event/stimulus. If the event/stimulus is paired with a neutral condition, the process is usually called desensitization. There is no bridge and no reinforcer classically used in the desensitization process. This is a more general term than desensitization.
31. POSITIVE - add to the environment.
32. POSITIVE REINFORCER - frequency of the behavior increased by the addition of some thing the animal desires, immediately after the behavior.
33. PRIMARY: A quality that an animal responds to innately in a certain way, without any conditioning from a human. A primary reinforcer might be food, sex, water, sleep ... a primary punished might be the deprivation of any of the above, fear, pain...
34. PUNISHED - decreases the frequency of the behavior it immediately follows.
35. REFLEX: An involuntary physiological reaction to a stimulus - such as drooling when food is presented.
36. REINFORCER - increases the frequency of the behavior it immediately follows.
37. REINFORCER/PUNISHED TABLE: Below is a table of "likely" punishes and reinforcers to help clarify how punishes and reinforcers, both negative and positive, are related to one another.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -85- positive negative punisher a slap loss of privilege reinforcer a food treat removal of disliked food
The examples listed are neither always punishes nor reinforcers - it depends on the perception of the individual animal and WHERE THE ADDED STIMULUS IS, RELATIVE TO THE BEHAVIOR UNDER CONSIDERATION.
Remember that the same stimulus, such as a "bee stinging" can be either a punished or a negative reinforcer depending on whether it was administered in response to a behavior - e.g., the bear stole honey and the bee stung it; (the bear was punished for stealing honey); or - the bear killed the bee and removed the sting sensation; the bear was negatively reinforced for killing the bee.
The above example illustrates how important it is to be precise when applying reinforcers and punishes to behaviors. Behaviors occur in a steady stream. As trainers, we decide which point in the steady stream we want to increase or intensify. We use a tool such as a bridge to pinpoint the exact instant on the behavior continuum, for the animal's understanding.
As seen above, not only can a single stimulus be either a reinforcer or a punished, it can serve two different functions in the same application. It can be the punished for the behavior it follows and the stimulus which, when removed, becomes the negative reinforcer for the behavior that immediately follows it.
Analogously, the positive reinforcer for one behavior can be the negative punished in another case. The animal does a behavior, it gets to play with a ball. The animal disregards a command, the ball is taken away.
When speaking of reinforcers and punishes, refer to the behavior - not to the animal (or its "character").i.e., the behavior is punished (or decreased), the dog is not. The behavior is reinforced - not rewarded. The animal can be rewarded - although it may be hard for the trainer to know when the animal feels rewarded. It is easier to see if the frequency of a behavior increases than to make a subjective judgment of the animal's state of mind.
38. SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT: The type, amount and frequency of the reinforcement that will be given when a task is completed. There are generally considered to be three basic schedules:
A. CONTINUOUS: one reinforcer for one task
or Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -86- a set amount of reinforcer for one task, every task gets paid the same.
Often still preferred for work with birds, but is usually considered dangerous to use with many animals because it sets up a rigid expectation - a right to payment, as it were. When the time comes that the trainer has no reinforcer on hand, he may have no behavior or the animal may be come frustrated, angry and aggressive. Also this strategy sets the animal up to plan how many behaviors, and which behaviors he will do today. He can even manipulate the situation so that he does something wrong which he has to be paid to correct, earning all the reinforcer he can appreciate that day, and letting him refuse all subsequent behaviors at no loss to himself.
B. FIXED: A set amount of reinforcer for a set amount of task, for example one apple for every ten lever pecks.
In some case this schedule can cause an animal to work longer and faster to get a reinforcer.
C. VARIABLE: A random amount of reinforcer is given in a random way to behaviors that are completed.
This is the "jackpot" or "lotto" concept. The animal knows the chances for the huge payoff are not great - but there is a chance. He will therefore often continue to work for reinforcers that he values lowly or not at all in order to stay in the running for the grand prize.
In addition, this strategy is intrinsically interesting to the animal, and therefore further increases the animal's interest and response.
39. SECONDARY: A quality that an animal responds to because it's perception has been conditioned. A secondary reinforcer is something that initially had no significance to an animal and then became desired by the animal because of its association with other desired, primary reinforcers - in training this is often food. Once a secondary reinforcer is established at can be very strong - just as strong as primary reinforcers in animals that are in normal drive state (not deprived of anything) and are not driven by hormone surges at the Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -87- time.
40. SELECTIVE OR DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT: The process of reinforcing only those operants which are like, or increasingly like, the endpoint desired behavior.
Of all the operants the animal offers, approximations of the endpoint desired behavior are selectively reinforced until the behavior is formed. This entire process is considered successive approximation or shaping. The trainer's strategy is selective or differential reinforcement.
This is not usually the strategy used with bridge and target technique. This is because with a bridge and a target you start with a definite specific instruction. When the animal is successful, it is given the next instruction. Each step is extremely simple - touch the target. However as the process continues the set of instructions which communicated the behavior are more complex than the first instruction set - but no less specific.
In general, in bridge and target training, if the animal is motivated, it will be successful (it has all the information it needs to do so.) Therefore, every response will be reinforced. The behavior goes from simple to complex - but it is always refined. In successive approximation, the behavior evolves from general to specific, and the animal zeros in on the desired response by a process of elimination. In bridge and target technique the animal zeros in on the desired response by following a target.
Do not be misled to think that targeting will be a long and tedious process. Rather, the initial progress will be slow because the steps are small. As the animal and the trainer become proficient in the system, it can become almost as fast as explanations are in any language. Going back to the reading analogy - consider how much time each human invests in learning the alphabet, but in the end reading and speaking are very fast and seem simple (except in front of audiences).
41. SHAPING: The process of trying to create a behavior or put a behavior on cue by selective or differential reinforcement.
42. STIMULUS: Any environmental condition which impinges on the animal's sensory perception.
43. STRESSOR: A stimulus which requires some adaptation from the animal. It is recommended that stressors be considered as costs of living. Any animal has an energy/adaptability "budget" for living - just like a human makes a certain amount of money. If you spend more money on medical bills one month - there is less for entertainment. All expenditures together cannot exceed the total income without severe repercussions. Likewise, if an animal is sick - it has less to invest in adapting to a new environment or strange conditions.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -88- Stressors are valued differently by different animals. Some animals love to have physical exercise and have a higher tolerance for demands in this area than the normal animal of their type. Perhaps the same animal has a terrible time holding still for a veterinarian examination, subsequently finding this "stressful." With good training the animal will become proficient at the vet examination - it will no longer require as much "adaptation" effort, and the animal will no longer perceive it as being "stressful." A second animal could be the opposite, enjoying the veterinarian examination and being stressed by rigorous physical demands.
44. SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION: The process of refining an animal’s behavior, or operant, from a spontaneous initial behavior to the behavior which is planned by the trainer.
45. TARGET(noun): A prop which pinpoints a critical location for an animal in training. This location may be a body contact point on the stationary animal, it may be a destination point, or it may be a place where other critical information will appear. The target can be an extended finger or fist, the end of a pole, a mark on a wall or a paper, a plaque... Essentially, the trainer and the animal each extend a target contact point toward the other, meeting in the middle. Thus, the human extends a pole and the dolphin touches with a rostrum, or the human extends a finger and the primate extends a finger to touch.
46. TARGET(verb): A "point" of behavior. The smallest unit of behavior, consists of an animal's action to touch a designated spot.
47. TIME OUT: The cessation of stimulus or response from the trainer, for some interval of time. In essence, the animal receives no cues from the trainer, but also cannot influence the trainer to produce a consequence such as food or praise until the "time out" or TO has passed.
48. X: See Bridge, Terminal.
49. x: See Bridge, Intermediate.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -89- APPENDIX IV: WORKING OUTLINE
The Basics of How to Train Any Kind of Animal Introduction - Two Requirements Increasing Your Significance The Bridge - Time Four Aspects Pinpoint Instant in Time Bridge the Gap Between Completion and Reinforcement Secondary Reinforcer Increase Trainer's Significance The Target - Location Four Aspects Pinpoint a Critical Location Focuses the Animal's Attention Foundation of All Motion Based Behaviors Forms a Cooperative Attitude Five Alternate Training Methods Manipulation Physical Resistance Passivity Desensitization Opportunism Inefficient Breakdown Capture Behaviors that Cannot be Targeted Successive Approximation Inefficient Failure Enhance and Intensify Imitation Too Many Variables No Priorities Involvement of the Trainer Osmosis No Ability to Motivate Teachers and Learners Informational Drift No Development of a Motivational System Nice Bonus When it Happens How to Train The Power of the Target Introduce Concepts Fix Broken Behaviors Direct Feedback from the Animal Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -90- Recognize a Point of Behavior Demonstrate Willingness to Cooperate Connecting the Dots Teaching the Target "Comfortable Animals" "Uncomfortable Animals" Testing the Target Concept Completing the Target Concept Planning Behaviors Distractions and Parameters Presentation of Material to be Taught Define the Behavior Goal Limits Analyze the Behavior List the Components by Priority Analyzing a Behavior by Parts The Target Point Components Modules Behavior Behavioral Chain The Underlying Concept Comparison of Bridge and Target with Other Communication Systems Miscellaneous Points Habit Time and Frequency Revised Chain Axiom Creating the Global Training Plan Stress Management - the Time Line Lifetime Behavior Priority List Identify and List Essential Behaviors Analyze and Group the Components of the Essential Behaviors Prioritize the Components of the Essential Behaviors Integrate the Components into the Time Line The Individual Training Session Make a Single Point The Longer Session General Suggestions Vary Type, Length, Difficulty and Order Keep Session Concise End With a Success
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -91- APPENDIX V: RULES OF THUMB
1. IF YOU HAVE TO CHOOSE BETWEEN BEING LIKED AND BEING RESPECTED, OPT FOR RESPECT.
2. ANIMAL TRAINING IS BASED UPON A MUTUALLY RESPONSIBLE AND RESPECTFUL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AN ANIMAL WORKING FOR A TRAINER AND A TRAINER WORKING FOR AN ANIMAL.
3. THE TRAINER DOES NOT COERCE THE ANIMAL AND TOLERATES NO COERCION FROM THE ANIMAL.
4. IF AN ANIMAL FAILS TWICE IN A ROW, CHANGE WHAT YOU ARE DOING. IF IT FAILS A THIRD TIME, END THE SESSION AND REASSESS WHAT IS CAUSING/ALLOWING THE ANIMAL TO FAIL. AS IN BASEBALL, "THREE STRIKES AND YOU ARE OUT.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -92- APPENDIX VI: FIVE ALTERNATIVE TRAINING METHODS
Amazing and wonderful things have been accomplished between humans and animals working together, without the benefit of the bridge or target. But when considering traditional and other techniques of training, it can be firmly stated that the bridge and target system is the most effective and advantageous training system evolved to date. Here are a few comparisons with other systems:
1. MANIPULATION:
This is one way to describe much of the traditional animal training process. For example, to teach a dog to sit, one pulls up on the head and pushes down on the rump. This technique has allowed many wonderful training accomplishments but has the following disadvantages.
A. Taught resistance
Many animals will initially resist any push or manipulation. This resistance may not even be conscious - a typical response to jostling on the subway is to solidify one's stance. A push often begets a return push, as predicted by Newton's third law of motion "For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction."
B. Passivity
Once the animal learns to tolerate the manipulation, it is not necessarily paying attention to the manipulation. More likely it is not. Manipulation is used to condition an animal to disregard intrusions such as veterinary procedures, or the application of tack. It is not efficient for forming active cooperation. Consider what is accomplished by molding a person’s hand to grip a pencil. When this technique was applied to the author as a child, the author remembers an urge to stab the teacher with the said pencil. The author coped by ignoring the intrusion and fantasizing herself elsewhere. Once the teacher gave up the manipulation as a bad job, the author felt able to get back to learning how to hold a pencil.
With this method, the animal is first manipulated in spite of resistance, then it is rewarded for lack of resistance, then it is expected to initiate the behavior on its own in response to a cue. There is almost always an awkward phase where the animal hasn't started to take a cue because it is so busy being passive. To get past this, there is often the use of force - like a swat to the rump, to get the animal to start the behavior to avoid the swat. Clumsy. (Not to be confused with the animal who does understand his part and simply is not motivated to participate.)
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -93- C. Useful in desensitization
The critical point is that manipulation does not elicit active cooperation, it elicits first resistance, and then passive cooperation. The animal learns to pointedly ignore manipulations while they occur (as long as he is not pushed to the point of running or attacking.) Thus, manipulation is a useful tool in habituating an animal to examinations and veterinary procedures, as well as "intensive" handling by children.
2. OPPORTUNISTIC TRAINING
This term will be used to describe situations wherein the trainer tries to capture spontaneously occurring behaviors by bridging and reinforcing them as they are seen. If a trainer sees a dolphin flip, the trainer might immediately issue a bridge and subsequently, a primary reinforcer. The trainer now hopes to see an increased frequency of that behavior. This is a nice theory but rarely works, for the reasons outlined above in the description of the need for targets.
A. Inefficient
As described, when an audience member is trained, he is generally the last to know why he is getting reinforced. This occurs even though he knows from the outset that his goal is to figure out why he was bridged. If a fellow human has this problem, consider the likelihood that an animal will not, especially if the trainer springs a bridge/ reinforcer out of nowhere. This type of training is predicated on the idea that whatever is noteworthy to the trainer will be noteworthy to the animal also. However, it has already been shown that this is not the case. To prove the point to oneself, attempt the exercise. A backwards flip or a bark may be the same unconscious gesture that hand motions are for some humans.
In any case, in general it takes less time to teach a behavior than it does to have that behavior spontaneously occur once, much less in response to a cue. Similarly, engineers can be trained in 4-5 years, while it took millions of years for the first human to spontaneously discover calculus, one tool of engineering.
A trainer attempting to teach complicated behaviors, like flips and retrieval, opportunistically, is a trainer with no prospects of a social life. In fact, no matter how much time the trainer invests, the only chance of a high quality behavior this way is for the animal to coincidentally make a hobby of that particular behavior. Credit for the results goes to the talented and persevering animal, or perhaps to the friendship existing between the two which motivates the animal to persist in trying to divine what the trainer wants. It is an unequal partnership with the animal doing all the work.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -94- B. Behaviors Break Down
Moreover, the behaviors obtained this way tend to break down easily and there is no practical way to correct them. The Brelands, who have very impressive credits, trained opportunistically and by successive approximation (see glossary). However, they were frustrated by behaviors breaking down spontaneously, and found themselves unable to correct the problems. They concluded in their book, Animal Behavior, 1965, that animals could not be reliably taught to do these things, because it crossed their instinctive behavior. One of the Breland's conclusions was that cows could not be taught to move quickly to do behaviors.
When the author worked with cows trained by bridge and target they were plenty fast. A few times the author saw her life race before her eyes as a cow raced toward her target. Imagine being run over by a locomotive with rubber cement slobber.
Sometime after the conclusion of this training, a writer wanted to see a cow which had participated in this research training project. The author was happy to comply, but there was a little problem. The cows had started on new careers as milk-givers and had joined a herd of about 150 head. The two authors visited the herd. The trainer called "Maddyyy!"
The trainer was a bit dubious because there were so many cows it seemed like the chances of sorting out a particular former student.
Suddenly the group of cows parted, a wave in a bovine Red Sea. Roaring up to the fence, eyes wide with anticipation and calling out a greeting, was Maddy.
"My God! She knows her name!" the writer exclaimed.
"Yes." (Author dazed and disbelieving)
"You do not sound surprised!"
"I am not." (Author playing it cool)
"Well, I am."
This is a story with a happy ending. It is always nice when the animal surprises the audience and not the trainer. It shows that cows are trainable and that they are willing to work at high speeds under at least some conditions. And it illustrates that bridge and target training must be significantly easier for all involved, if it allowed the author to easily accomplish what was problematic for the very talented Brelands.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -95- C. Capture behaviors that cannot be targeted
Opportunistic training is very useful in training behaviors that cannot be described by target. Teaching a dog to bark on cue, or a sea lion to breathe on command, or a seal to urinate on cue are all examples of behaviors that are cannot easily be described by targeting. However, just because a behavior is difficult to target doesn't mean that it will be easy to train without one. Only simple behaviors that can be predictably caused (barking dog) or naturally occur periodically (breathing, urination) are practical, and they often require the trainer to spend a lot of time sitting with the animal waiting for the spontaneous emission of the desired behavior.
3. SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION:
This is the process of creating a specific behavior by starting with the natural spontaneous behavior of an animal and then reinforcing those behaviors or aspects of behavior which are increasingly like the end-goal behavior, also called "shaping" by some. The hope is that each step will be more correct, specific or finished than the last. A bridge of some form is used but a target is not. The desired behaviors are selectively or differentially reinforced. Selective or differential reinforcement refers to the practice of reinforcing only those offerings which are improvements or refinements over the last behavior which was reinforced.
This technique is often described in psychological research literature. Occasionally food is used to lure the animal in the desired direction. The food does not constitute a target - it is a lure, not a signal.
A. Prone to Failure
An example of what can be accomplished by this technique: Under very controlled conditions, the Brelands trained chickens to do some very interesting things, reliably, with the help of the initial use of food lures. With less controlled conditions, they experienced frustrating behavior breakdowns, as described in Animal Behavior, 1965. Often, frenetic activity with no usable behavior on cue, or sometimes aggression, results. If this method worked, the author would not get so many calls from the owners of dogs that fetch sticks and flee the county rather than retrieve them.
B. Inefficient
The author became completely convinced of the relative merits of targeting and successive approximation by pitting the two methods in demonstrations. The author would agree to train by targeting. The challenger, always a professor of psychology
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -96- or an experienced trainer who claimed to use this technique, would train by successive approximation. The author has always won decidedly. That is the author's "animal" (usually a student) would successfully complete the task in a fraction of the time required by the successive approximation "animal."
C. Enhance and Intensify existing behaviors
As with manipulation, there is a place for this technique. It can be used to enhance behaviors that have already been formed by target.
If your horse were racing, successive approximation can be used to encourage the animal to run faster - in other words, to greater effort in the direction that has already been specifically described by target. Why not use the target here also? At high speeds or great distances, it can be physically dangerous or impossible to insert a target, and at the final stages of a behavior when the target is being "faded" out and the behavior put solely under cue or "stimulus control," successive approximation helps to polish the behavior.
Similarly, if training a monkey to feed a person by spoon, start with an empty spoon. Once the monkey successfully moves the spoon in and out of a person's mouth, start to put a little something into the spoon - a dab of peanut butter perhaps - and use these to demonstrate the next criterion: the spoon not only has to move in and out of the person's mouth, it has to arrive at the mouth with its contents intact and leave without them. This process is one other aspect of successive approximation, where the basic behavior is precisely defined, but some parameter of the behavior is increased or intensified over successive trials.
D. Why Targeting Increments are not Successive Approximations
Some claim that training by target in small steps is another form of successive approximation. However, this is not the traditional use of the term. Targeting is precise, it is not an approximation. In targeting, the trainer builds from a simple specific to a more complex specific, but criteria are precisely defined. In successive approximation, one attempts to build from a general behavior the animal offers to a specific behavior existing in the trainer's mind. At no point does the trainer describe the behavior for the animal. It requires the animal to make a series of trial and error eliminations.
4. IMITATION:
Imitation can be risky to use with new animals or new trainers. Unless done correctly it will not work and can cause serious damage to your relationship due to the frustration it can engender. If a trainer shows an animal a behavior, saying "do this" - what is "this"?
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -97- Presented thus, there are too many variables for efficient learning. For any chance of success the trainer must initially stick to really simple behaviors if imitation is attempted. Once the animal associates your behavior with some correlative behavior of its own in response, the behavior can be put on cue. However, the mimic behavior is the animal's best interpretation of what the trainer did. When training a task with target, the information can be prioritized and logically presented, one variable at a time. Any aspect of the behavior can be changed at any time. Moreover, if some part of the behavior "breaks down" it can be fixed with a target but not with imitation.
If an object is involved and the trainer manipulates the object in some way saying "do this" the animal has the same problem, although at least it has only one object to focus its attention on rather than the trainer's total behavior. How will the animal know what the purpose of the object is, or what the criteria of the behavior are? Consider, if the trainer feeds himself with a spoon and then hands a spoon full of food to the monkey - the monkey will eat the food if it is worth eating. Then follows a mutually frustrating stint of trying to keep the monkey from eating the food. As things improve, the monkey will finally give up on trying to keep the food and thrust the spoon of pudding toward the trainer. The trainer is now a la mode with a spoon stuck in the eye, pudding in the hair, and a frustrated monkey. The trainer will end up frustrated too - justly deserved for improper lesson preparation. It is something to think about while removing food from hair.
IN SUMMARY, IMITATION DOES NOT ISOLATE OR PRIORITIZE VARIABLES, IT DOES NOT GUIDE THE ANIMAL IN HOW TO CORRELATE ITS DIFFERENT BODY PARTS, AND IT DOES NOT FACILITATE BEHAVIORAL REPAIRS.
On the up side, imitation requires the human to make an equal physical involvement in the behavior initially, and this can be very motivating to the animals. When the trainer shows that (s)he is as invested in the behaviors as the animal is asked to be, it becomes mutual play rather than directed work. If the trainer goes first, and enjoys it, the rascally critters will follow - so don't pull up too suddenly. Imitation also allows the trainer to imitate the animal - letting the animal lead. The animals can appreciate this too - but watch out where they lead. Some animals have strange senses of humor.
5. OSMOSIS:
This term is used to describe those situations where untrained animals are housed with trained animals in order that they might learn from the educated animals. It is not doubted that the animals do learn from one another, and sometimes even actively teach one another - but one can get old trying to train this way.
First of all, we have no control over whether the animals are motivated to learn and teach amongst themselves.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -98- Secondly, supposing they are all very motivated to engage in mutual education, the trainer must depend on the interpretation of the behavior by the teaching animal. Even with excellent teaching programs for humans or animals, there is informational drift - the farther you get from the originator of the information, the more distortion is likely to occur. Finally, even if the animal understands exactly what the trainer intends he learn, the trainer must establish the motivational system with the trained animal in order to harvest the fruits of this knowledge. As is seen with secondary reinforcers, motivational systems are largely developed through the training process, so in the long run, the trainer may not save any time with behaviors that are learned from animal colleagues.
On the other hand, it is good to see animals teaching one another and interacting for a constructive goal. This can build a sense of team accomplishment amongst the animals. In other words, when it happens, great! But do not base a career on it.
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -99- About the Author: Kayce Cover has 20 years of experience in training domestic and exotic animals and their human trainers. She has a BS degree in Animal Science from the University of Maryland where she was also a research consultant. She has also managed several exhibits for the Smithsonian's National Zoological Park where she oversaw the training of staff, volunteers, and various carnivores (with an emphasis on enlisting the animal's cooperation in their own care). Ms. Cover also trained marine mammals at an oceanarium, and was co-founder of a project to train capuchin monkeys to aid quadriplegics. The material of this book series has been the basis of educational demonstrations delivered to over two and a half million people.
The Assistant Editor, Jenifer Zeligs Hurley is a Ph.D. in physiology, from the University of California at Santa Cruz, Long Marine Laboratory, where Bridge and Target training was used to prepare California Sea Lions for contributing physiology data while free-swimming in the open ocean. Hurley teaches and manages 40 trainer/keepers at the University who volunteer in the physiology research, using the techniques outlined in this manual. Hurley started her tenure as a marine mammal trainer with Kayce Cover at the Smithsonian's National Zoological Park at the age of 11, and trained for many other projects, including animals for theater and pigeons to guide the sightless (at age 13).
Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -100- Copyrighted text and logo of Syn Alia Systems ; no reproduction without written permission; email [email protected] -101-