Ecosystem Services Quake Or Bomb? Earth

VOL. 97  NO. 5  1 MAR 2016

Ecosystem Services

Quake or Bomb?

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1 MARCH 2016 PROJECT UPDATE VOLUME 97, ISSUE 5

Arctic Research on Thin Ice: Consequences of Arctic Sea Ice Loss Scientists embarked on a 6-month expedition in the Arctic Ocean to study the thinning sea ice cover, improve our understanding of sea ice loss effects, and help predict future changes.

NEWS

New Step Toward 7 Finding Earth 2.0 Researchers unveil a way to tease out the wobble of a star caused by unseen planets despite the confounding effects of star spots, which are the sunspots of distant stars.

OPINION

16 10

PROJECT UPDATE Understanding Ecosystem Services from a Geosciences Perspective Drones in a Cold Climate Assessment of ecosystem services— the benefits society receives from As climate change reshapes the Earth’s polar regions, scientists turn ecosystems—can be improved by including to drone-mounted cameras to measure sea ice. One expedition found broader spatial and temporal scales of out that flying drones near Antarctica isn’t easy. geosciences perspectives.

Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 1 Contents

DEPARTMENTS

Editor in Chief Barbara T. Richman: AGU, Washington, D. C., USA; eos_ [email protected] Editors Christina M. S. Cohen Wendy S. Gordon Carol A. Stein California Institute Ecologia Consulting, Department of Earth and of Technology, Pasadena, Austin, Texas, USA; Environmental Sciences, Calif., USA; wendy@ecologiaconsulting University of Illinois at [email protected] .com Chicago, Chicago, Ill., USA; [email protected] José D. Fuentes David Halpern Department of Meteorology, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pennsylvania State Pasadena, Calif., USA; University, University davidhalpern29@gmail Park, Pa., USA; .com [email protected] Editorial Advisory Board M. Lee Allison, Earth and Space John W. Lane, Near-Surface Geophysics Science Informatics Jian Lin, Tectonophysics Mark G. Flanner, Atmospheric Figen Mekik, Paleoceanography Sciences and Paleoclimatology Nicola J. Fox, Space Physics Jerry L. Miller, Ocean Sciences and Aeronomy Michael A. Mischna, Planetary Sciences Steve Frolking, Biogeosciences Thomas H. Painter, Cryosphere Sciences Edward J. Garnero, Study of the Philip J. Rasch, Global Environmental Earth’s Deep Interior Change Michael N. Gooseff, Hydrology Eric M. Riggs, Education 12 Brian C. Gunter, Geodesy Adrian Tuck, Nonlinear Geophysics Kristine C. Harper, History Sergio Vinciguerra, Mineral of Geophysics and Rock Physics Susan E. Hough, Natural Hazards Andrew C. Wilcox, Earth and Planetary 10–13 Opinion Emily R. Johnson, Volcanology, Surface Processes Geochemistry, and Petrology Earle Williams, Atmospheric Understanding Ecosystem Services Keith D. Koper, Seismology and Space Electricity Geomagnetism Societal Impacts from a Geosciences Perspective; Robert E. Kopp, Mary Lou Zoback, and Paleomagnetism and Policy Sciences Geochronology: It’s About Time. Staff Production: Faith A. Ishii, Production Manager; Melissa A. Tribur, Senior Production Specialist; Liz Castenson, Editor’s Assistant; Yael Fitzpatrick, Manager, Design and 27–28 Research Spotlight Branding; Valerie Bassett and Travis Frazier, Electronic Graphics Specialists Early Agriculture Has Kept Earth Editorial: Peter L. Weiss, Manager/Senior News Editor; Mohi Kumar, Scientific Warm for Millennia; Oklahoma’s Content Editor; Randy Showstack, Senior News Writer; JoAnna Wendel, Writer; Dormant Faults Hide Huge Seismic Shannon Kelleher and Cody Sullivan, Interns Angelo Bouselli, Marketing Program Manager; Jamie R. Liu, Manager, Risk Potential; P Wave Amplitude Marketing: Marketing 27 Decay Offers a Glimpse of Earth’s Advertising: Christy Hanson, Manager; Tel: +1-202-777-7536; Email: advertising@ Structure. agu.org

©2016. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved. Material in this issue may 3–8 News be photocopied by individual scientists for research or classroom use. Permission 29–32 Positions Available is also granted to use short quotes, figures, and tables for publication in scientific What Caused the Sudden Heating Current job openings in the Earth books and journals. For permission for any other uses, contact the AGU Publications of Uranus’s Atmosphere?; Quake Office. and space sciences. or Bomb? Seismic Waves Speak Eos (ISSN 0096-3941) is published semi-monthly, on the 1st and 15th of the month by Truth, Even If Nations Don’t; the American Geophysical Union, 2000 Florida Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20009, USA. Periodical Class postage paid at Washington, D. C., and at additional mailing Human Activities Account for Less Inside Back Cover: offices. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Member Service Center, 2000 Than a Third of Ocean Nitrogen; Postcards from the Field Florida Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20009, USA. United States Still First in Science, Member Service Center: 8:00 a.m.–6:00 p.m. Eastern time; Tel: +1-202-462-6900; Remnants of a glacier’s passing, Fax: +1-202-328-0566; Tel. orders in U.S.: 1-800-966-2481; Email: [email protected]. Tech Research Spending; New Step seen in the Scottish Highlands. Use AGU’s Geophysical Electronic Manuscript Submissions system to submit a Toward Finding Earth 2.0; Claudia manuscript: http://eos-submit.agu.org. Joan Alexander (1959–2015). Views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect official positions of the On the Cover American Geophysical Union unless expressly stated. A drone’s-eye view of the U.S. Christine W. McEntee, Executive Director/CEO 9 Meeting Report icebreaker Nathaniel B. Palmer on The Impact of African Dust on Air 13 April 2015, en route to the ice Quality in the Caribbean Basin. shelves near East Antarctica.

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What Caused the Sudden Heating of Uranus’s Atmosphere?

heating. However, because the gas giants are so huge and rotate so fast, this heat circles the poles without spreading globally, so it wouldn’t account for the global upper atmospheric heating that’s been observed, Melin said. Given the storm in Uranus’s lower atmosphere, Melin suspects that another factor could be at work: low-amplitude “acoustic waves”—also known as gravity waves— generated by huge, turbulent storms. These waves originate from disturbances, like rip- ples in a pond. On Earth, gravity waves come from violent thunderstorms or when wind blows over a mountain. On the gas giants, storms in the lower altitudes create these waves, which propagate toward the higher

NASA/JPL altitudes and generate heat, Melin said. The Voyager 2 spacecraft snapped these (left) true-color and (right) false-color images of Uranus in 1986. “Uranus is unique in that it has remained so very quiet [stormwise] for so long and that the appearance of these storms in 2014 cor- odels of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and occur all the time on Jupiter and Saturn, the relates so well with the abrupt heating of the Neptune predict that the tempera- disturbances might have a hand in maintain- upper atmosphere,” Melin said. M tures of their upper atmospheres— ing high temperatures in their upper atmo- the zones of dilute gases far above the planets’ spheres, he suggested. Stormy Waves frigid cloud tops—should be around 200 kel- Melin presented the data on the Uranian Astronomers have seen a similar effect before vins, or –73°C. However, when the two Voy- heating last December at the 2015 AGU Fall on Saturn, said Leigh Fletcher, a planetary sci- ager spacecraft zipped by those gas giants in Meeting in San Francisco, Calif. (see http://bit entist who is also at the University of Leicester the late 1980s, scientists discovered that the .ly/FM15-abstract). in the United Kingdom but wasn’t involved in planets’ outermost atmospheres were much the research by Melin and his colleagues. In hotter than expected—nearing 1000 kelvins, Turning Up the Heat 2010, a huge storm erupted in Saturn’s lower or more than 700°C. During the past 20 Earth years, the upper atmosphere, and scientists witnessed the evo- Scientists have had trouble coming up with atmosphere of Uranus cooled from 750 to 550 lution of a region of hot gases that rose into a mechanism to explain these searing tem- kelvins, but since 2013, it has heated by about the upper atmosphere (see http://bit.ly/ peratures. Now, after decades of observation, 50 kelvins per Earth year, Melin said. A Uranus Saturn- Storm). they might be closer to an answer. year is 84 Earth years, so small variations in “Connecting this middle-atmospheric Although close monitoring has shown that Uranus’s atmospheric temperature while the activity to the tropospheric storms is very Uranus’s upper atmosphere underwent con- planet orbits the Sun should take place gradu- challenging, but it’s also possible that waves sistent cooling over the past 20 years, mea- ally. That the reversal happened relatively can transfer their energy all the way up to the surements since 2014 by University of Leices- quickly means that “something dramatic has top of the atmosphere, where Dr. Melin has ter’s Henrik Melin and colleagues revealed a changed,” Melin said. been working,” Fletcher continued. reversal toward heating. Several mechanisms can heat a planet, but However, scientists remain unclear as to During this time, other observers detected a none solve the mystery of the gas giants’ so- how these planets’ lower atmospheres inter- storm in the planet’s lower atmosphere. Could called “energy crisis,” Melin explained. The act with their upper atmospheres. “The the two phenomena be related? Sun warms the gas giants, but because those apparent increase in storminess of Uranus “The fact that this turbulent weather phe- planets are so large and far away, scientists over the past few years might just be an obser- nomenon in the lower atmosphere occurs at know that solar photons don’t supply enough vational bias, as our observing techniques the same time as there is significant heating energy to heat their upper atmospheres to continue to improve,” Fletcher said. “Only a in the upper atmosphere suggests that [the current temperatures. long-term campaign of Uranus storm tracking storm] is an important mechanism” in that Scientific evidence suggests that Jupiter and can accurately tell us the statistics of Uranian heating process, Melin said. Saturn hold extremely hot cores left over from storms, although the [2014] storms do appear Melin suspects that the recently spotted their formation about 4.5 billion years ago, but to have been bigger and brighter than any- Uranian storm (see http://bit.ly/U-storm) the core of Uranus generates relatively little thing we’ve seen before.” could have generated enough heat to reverse heat. Also, the process that creates auroras on the 20-year cooling trend in the upper atmo- Earth—high-energy solar particles interacting sphere of the planet. Also, because storms with the planet’s magnetic field—can cause By JoAnna Wendel, Staff Writer

Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 3 NEWS

Quake or Bomb? Seismic Waves Speak Truth, Even If Nations Don’t

arly this year, North Korea tested what it claimed to be a hydrogen bomb, or as E the North Korean government declared in its official statement, an “H-Bomb of jus- tice.” However, it’s not likely that North Korea actually developed a hydrogen bomb and successfully tested it on 6 January local time as announced. The U.S. Geological Survey recorded the subsequent seismic event as having a 5.1 magnitude, which is much lower than would be expected from such a powerful weapon. But even if North Korea or anyone else conducting a clandestine nuclear test makes no announcement, seismologists can still figure out if an underground bomb test or an earthquake took place by analyzing how energy propagates from the seismic event in question.

Explosions Send Compression Waves in All Directions hakandogu/Adobe Stock Even if a country doesn’t announce an underground nuclear test, seismologists can distinguish a subterranean bomb P waves are the fastest-moving type of seismic blast or other explosion from an earthquake by examining the event’s seismic waveforms. As shown here, a seismo- waves. They alternately compress and dilate graph translates seismic waves into a graph called a seismogram, which researchers can then evaluate. the material they move through. When an explosion, such as a nuclear test, occurs within the Earth, all of the force of the blast strikes Seismologists then plot the up signals from Looking at only the waveforms from the the surrounding material. P wave compressions and down signals from North Korean test, Dreger said, “It’s very “As the bomb is detonating, it’s compress- dilations on black-and-white diagrams called obviously an explosion.” So even if a less out- ing the rock immediately adjacent to it, and focal mechanism plots. They divide these spoken country tried to secretly test an atomic that propagates out to the recording stations” diagrams into four regions representing or hydrogen bomb, scientists could still as P waves, said Douglas Dreger, a seismolo- directions in which seismic waves travel from uncover the truth. gist at the University of California, Berkeley. a shock. A focal mechanism plot would The first wave to reach the seismometer gen- appear completely white before an earth- Seismology Alone Can’t Determine erates an “up” signal. Seismologists use the quake and then be shaded black in some What Type of Bomb Detonated term “up” because the ground actually moves spots once seismic detectors register an up Once scientists know an underground explo- up when the compression phase of a P wave signal in a region. sion or bomb test occurred and they know the arrives and the squeezed underground rock Each type of earthquake generates a differ- magnitude of the seismic event it caused, they and soil juts upward at the surface. ent plot pattern in which there are some can calculate the explosive force that caused black and some white regions. By contrast, that quake. This latest test, registering at 5.1, concussive signals propagating in all direc- most likely falls below the magnitude a hydro- tions from an explosion would shade the gen bomb would produce, said Brian Stump, a entire plot black. Dreger’s focal mechanism seismologist at Southern Methodist University plot for the North Korean nuclear test is in Dallas, Texas. SA 3.0 (http://bit.ly/ 3.0 SA entirely shaded. But, Stump said, drawing a firm conclusion concerning what type of bomb was detonated

0), cropped from the original. Bigger Interior Waves Suggest requires radionuclide measurements that spe- an Explosion cially designed aircraft can make. Some news ccbysa3- CC BY- Mikenorton, The relative amplitudes of an event’s seismic media outlets reported shortly after the North When an earthquake strikes, seismologists use diagrams waves, which zip through the Earth’s interior, Korean announcement that U.S. Air Force called focal mechanism plots to determine what type of when compared to the amplitudes of its sur- planes would sample the air near the test area faults moved. Each type generates a different pattern, face waves, which radiate more slowly from to determine what radioactive material, if any, with both black and white regions. Earthquake faults of the shock, can also indicate if an explosion or leaked out of the underground blast site (see different configurations, such as strike-slip or thrust earthquake triggered the event. Explosions http://bit.ly/Sniffer). faults, yield distinctive plot patterns when earthquakes produce larger internally propagating waves occur along them. However, all regions of the diagram than surface waves, whereas an earthquake go dark if the jolt is caused by an explosion. doesn’t cause the same discrepancy. By Cody Sullivan, Writer Intern

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they could compare their findings with previ- Human Activities Account for Less ous models. Than a Third of Ocean Nitrogen Revisiting the Nitrogen Cycle Human activities produce nitrogen mainly as ammonia, nitrogen oxides, and organic nitrogen-containing compounds. In the South Africa. At the atmosphere, chemical reactions convert time of the studies, ammonia to ammonium and nitrogen oxides Altieri worked as a to nitrate. A lack of data about the fates of National Oceanic and nitrogen compounds motivated the research, Atmospheric Admin- Hastings said, particularly with regard to istration postdoc ammonium and organic nitrogen deposition. 0) jointly appointed She and her colleagues found that approxi- between Brown Uni- mately 60% of nitrate in their samples hails versity and Princeton from human sources. The ammonium came University. entirely from evaporated seawater, although The researchers the researchers were able to use only precipi- spent 18 months col- tation, not aerosol, data for that compound. SA 2.0 (http://bit.ly/ccbysa2- 2.0 SA lecting aerosol and Although the nitrate data aligned with results precipitation sam- Hastings had seen before, the ammonium data ples from a National were unprecedented. “We would have thought Science Foundation we would’ve seen significant agriculture or atmospheric sam- industrial activity influence, but the ammo- CC BY- Webster, Tony Smokestacks like these emit nitrogen oxides, which are converted to nitrate in the pling tower in Ber- nium seems to all be coming from the ocean atmosphere. muda that rises itself,” she said. “That was a particularly big 65 meters above sea surprise.” The results of the researchers’ level. Because the analyses for these nitrogen sources were pub- ince the Industrial Revolution, humans island is at times “downstream” from winds lished in the Journal of Geophysical Research: have been releasing nitrogen into the that blow over the North American continent, Atmospheres in 2013 (see http://bit.ly/JGR_ S atmosphere and, from there, into the it has proven useful for atmospheric sampling paper) and Global Biogeochemical Cycles in 2014 ocean, where it acts as a nutrient but also in the past. (see http://bit.ly/Global_BioGeo), respectively. poses dangers to aquatic ecosystems in high During its warm season, Bermuda receives In a third study using the same samples, quantities. Now new research finds that far air masses only from farther out in the ocean, which was published on 6 January in the Pro- less human-generated nitrogen is reaching whereas its cool season brings an influx of air ceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (see the open ocean than previously thought. masses directly from North America in addi- http://bit.ly/PNAS-paper), the team found Although atmospheric models suggest that tion to marine ones. Using weather modeling, that only about 17% of the organic nitrogen up to 80% of the ocean’s reactive nitrogen— the team could be sure where each air mass originated from anthropogenic activities. that is, nitrogen that can be used by came from. Hastings said she would have expected a sig- organisms—comes from anthropogenic To gather rainwater, the team used a pre- nificant portion of it to be generated by sources, such as livestock production, agricul- cipitation collector—basically a glorified humans, as with nitrate. “This is the most ture, and coal-fired power plants, a recent bucket equipped with a sensor that opened its organic nitrogen data that really anyone has series of observational studies indicates that ever had for this type of data set over the only 27% can be traced to human activities. “The ammonium seems ocean,” she said. The results may lead to future research that In this final study, the team also pooled the could alter how scientists view fundamental to all be coming from the data for all three nitrogen sources extracted interactions between the ocean and the air. from the precipitation and aerosol samples. “We’re lacking important understandings of ocean itself.” They found that only about 27% of the total the nitrogen cycle because the traditional idea nitrogen deposition was anthropogenic in ori- is that nitrogen coming in via rain and aerosol gin. Although Knapp considers the results deposition is really anthropogenic in origin,” lid to collect new samples whenever it began somewhat surprising, she suspects that the said Meredith Hastings, an associate professor to drizzle. Low-lying aerosol particles that discrepancy between the team’s results and of Earth, environmental, and planetary sci- hang from the air regardless of rain were past findings could be due to a paucity of ences at Brown University in Providence, R.I. pumped through filters. The samples were research. “If it’s not, and the ocean is playing a signifi- later analyzed for nitrate, ammonium, and “This is a data-limited field and there just cant role in recycling, then that’s something organic nitrogen in what chemical oceanogra- aren’t a lot of atmospheric deposition mea- that’s been totally missing in our thinking.” pher Angela Knapp of Florida State University surements,” said Knapp. “I don’t think it’s in Tallahassee, who was not involved in the overturning a paradigm. I think it’s more that A Rigorous Analysis study, called “one of the most rigorous analyt- this is a new piece in the puzzle.” Hastings participated in the new research, ical studies of atmospheric deposition that’s which was led by Katye Altieri, a senior been done.” The researchers scaled up their researcher at the University of Cape Town in results to represent the world as a whole so By Shannon Kelleher, Writer Intern

Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 5 NEWS

“knowledge-intensive service industries,” the United States Still First in Science, report continues. The report also focuses on the increased Tech Research Spending cost of attending public research universities. Net tuition and fees for full-time students rose 80% between 1999 and 2012 in the most research-intensive public universities while Increased state and local appropriations fell 36% per stu- International dent, according to the report. “We see now Competition that budget constraints have substantially “While international affected federally funded higher education competition is grow- R&D,” Droegemeier said. ing, [U.S.] federal Although the report does not delve too spe- support for R&D is cifically into funding trends for the Earth and wavering,” said NSB space sciences, Droegemeier said that “the vice-chair Kelvin lack of predictability in funding is, I think, Droegemeier, vice more important an issue than the actual president for amounts.” He said, “Those areas in particular research at the Uni- that are heavily dependent on observing sys- versity of Oklahoma tems that are very expensive really would ben- in Norman, during a efit from having more predictability in their 19 January briefing to funding cycle.”

National Science Foundation release the report. Public Attitudes Toward Science Between 2003 and 2013, China’s research and development (R&D) expanded more rap- “There is plenty of The report details public attitudes toward sci- idly than that of any other country, accounting for about one third of total global growth in room for lots of ence, showing that the public has more confi- science and engineering R&D during that decade, according to “Science and Engineering [international] play- dence in the scientific community than in any Indicators 2016,” a report issued in January by the U.S. National Science Board. ers,” he said. “It’s really about U.S. other institutions surveyed aside from the competitiveness and military and that about 55% of Americans making sure that we worry “a great deal” or a “fair amount” about he United States continues to lead the remain competitive. We have to continue global warming or climate change. world in expenditures for research and investing, [but] not at the same rate. We’ve In an interview with Eos, Arvizu said that T development, but the number 2 spender, got to continue speeding up and accelerating responses about climate change often depend China, is increasing its investment in those our investments and upping our game.” on what question is asked and on other factors areas at the fastest pace of any nation, states There is “continuing evidence” of budget such as the economy. “If unemployment is the newest issue of a recently released bien- pressures on total R&D, particularly in the past low, people have more interest in the environ- nial report. China is strengthening its research 3–5 years, and “total federal R&D investments ment. When unemployment is high, they have enterprise in other ways as well, such as mak- have not kept up with inflation,” said NSB less interest in the environment.” ing huge strides in graduating science and chair Dan Arvizu, director of the U.S. Depart- Arvizu said he was surprised by the results engineering degree recipients, according to ment of Energy’s National Renewable Energy of a survey question that show that 51% of the report, which relies mostly on data Laboratory in Golden, Colo. Americans believe that science makes life through 2013. In 2013, U.S. R&D expenditures totaled $456 change too quickly, a percentage that is up The United States accounted for 27% of global billion, with the private sector accounting for about one third from a decade ago. research and development (R&D) spending in more than two thirds of that amount; 80% of “What we found is those with less educa- 2013, and China accounted for 20%, according U.S. R&D funding went to development and tion and less income were more likely to to the report, which states that global R&D express worry about the pace of change,” expenditures in 2013 were nearly $1.7 trillion, “There is plenty of room Arvizu said. Leaders in the scientific commu- up from $836 billion a decade earlier. nity “definitely need to be worried” about A “multipolar world” for science and engi- for lots of players. It’s this perception, he added, because the nation neering “is emerging after many decades of needs a science- and technology-savvy pop- leadership by the United States, the European really about U.S. ulation to thrive in today’s advanced society Union, and Japan,” states the report, entitled competitiveness and and to maintain its research and develop- “Science and Engineering Indicators 2016,” ment leadership. which is a biennial analysis issued by the U.S. making sure that we “We can’t leave large portions of our society National Science Board (NSB). The report (see underserved, and education is the key,” he http://bit.ly/SandE-Indics) provides key infor- remain competitive.” said. “We have all this technology that is driv- mation about how the United States compares ing the pace of change. Simply to be competi- with other nations in the areas of research and tive, I think we need a much more literate development; science, technology, engineer- applied research, and 18% went to basic general population.” ing, and math (STEM) education; and work- research, according to the report. About 40% force development. The report also surveys of the U.S. gross domestic product derives public attitudes toward science. from high-technology manufacturing and By Randy Showstack, Staff Writer

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that at any given time, the signal due to a star spot can be known exactly. But that didn’t sit well with Grunblatt and his col- New Step Toward Finding Earth 2.0 leagues. “If we don’t know what [Earth’s] sunspot activity is going to be tomorrow, how can we assume that we can know what [activity on] an unresolved star hundreds of light-years stronomers have developed a more et’s mass as well as how far the planet’s orbit away is going to look like in a month?” he accurate way to estimate the masses of lies from the star. explained. Because star spots come and go exoplanets, an important step toward A and change shape over time, the team mod- the ultimate goal of finding Earth’s twin Confounding Star Spots eled them as having somewhat unpredictable among the orbs circling nearby Sun-like stars. Although the radial velocity method has been traits instead of assuming they evolve in an They’ll need something like this, exoplanet used to detect more than 500 of the roughly entirely predictable manner. seekers say, if they hope to ultimately find 2000 known exoplanets, a common feature on The team applied its model to a test case—a what’s popularly dubbed Earth 2.0—an Earth- the surface of stars can confound the results. previously detected Earth-mass planet, mass planet orbiting a Sun-like star at a dis- Just as dark blemishes called sunspots dot dubbed the Hell planet because it lies within tance similar to Earth’s orbit. Researchers our Sun, star spots fleck the surfaces of stars. roasting distance of its star, Kepler-78. The described the new work earlier this year at the As a star spot rotates with its star’s surface, it researchers found that their model yielded a winter meeting of the American Astronomical moves toward an observer then recedes, induc- mass estimate slightly more precise than pre- Society in Kissimmee, Fla. ing a Doppler shift that can mimic the shift vious results. caused by the wobble of a star due to an orbit- In addition to presenting the new technique Measuring an Exoplanet’s Mass ing planet. at the Florida meeting , Grunblatt and his col- Astronomers typically calculate the mass of an Stars wobble significantly enough from leagues described the work in the 1 August exoplanet by using a method known as radial heavy planets orbiting close to them that the 2015 issue of The Astrophysical Journal (see velocity (see http://bit.ly/RadialV). The additional color shift due to star spots poses http://bit.ly/ApJ-paper). method relies on tracking the motion of a star little challenge to exoplanet observers. How- “The power of their method is that it can be that moves slightly back and forth, or wob- ever, in the quest to find the much smaller applied to Earth-size planets in longer period bles, due to the tug of an orbiting planet. As shift caused by a less massive, Earth-like orbits,” said exoplanet astronomer Artie seen by a distant observer, the forward motion planet at a much greater distance—like Hatzes of the Thüringian State Observatory in shifts the color of starlight toward the blue Earth’s—from the star, the interfering signals Tautenburg, Germany, who did not participate end of the spectrum, and the backward motion from these dark blemishes loom large, said in the study. shifts the light toward the red, an effect astronomer Samuel Grunblatt of the Univer- known as the Doppler shift. Knowing the sity of Hawai‘i at Mānoa in Honolulu. magnitude of the wobble and how frequently it Using our own star as an example, he noted Other Approaches recurs allows scientists to measure the plan- that sunspot activity generates a Doppler shift A team that includes astronomer Suzanne that’s between 10 and Aigrain at the University of Oxford in England 100 times more than has worked on a similar model. The research- the shift caused by ers reported their findings in the 21 Septem- Earth’s tug. In effect, ber 2015 issue of Monthly Notices of the Royal our sunspot activity Astronomical Society (see http://bit.ly/Rajpaul drowns out the wob- _et_al). bles that Earth Aigrain said that she and her collaborators induces on the Sun. incorporate other information in their model, such as the activity of the star’s chromo- Model for Star sphere, the layer that sits above a star’s visible Wobble surface. In contrast, Grunblatt and his col- Although instruments leagues adopted a more basic strategy, using aren’t yet sensitive only radial velocity information and the rota- enough to record the tion period of the star to eliminate the star stellar wobble induced spot signal. by Earth 2.0, Grun- During a stellar observation, “if [our] blatt and his col- approach was found not to work well, then leagues are gearing up Grunblatt’s more basic approach would be a for such a detection pretty robust one to fall back on,” said and have developed a Aigrain. model that can more Methods like these “will become more and accurately account for more important in the search for smaller and the confounding star cooler planets,” she added. spot signal than ear-

Karen Teramura, UHIfA Teramura, Karen lier attempts. This close-orbiting exoplanet found in 2013 is known as the Hell planet because of its Previous strategies By Ron Cowen, Freelance Science Journalist; nearness to its star, Kepler-78. have usually assumed email: [email protected]

Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 7 NEWSTRIBUTE

Claudia Joan Alexander (1959–2015)

laudia Alex- ander, who In her spare time, Claudia wrote two books on C oversaw the science for children and mentored young people, dramatic conclusion of the Galileo especially African American girls.

Caltech mission to Jupiter and was the NASA project scientist for the international comet-chasing Role Model for Young Women Scientists Beginning in 1998, she was Rosetta’s

Courtesy of NASA/JPL- Rosetta project, At Michigan, Claudia was also very active in U.S. project scientist, and for an extended Claudia Alexander died of breast can- student life. She was lighthearted, an insti- period of time, she also served as project cer on 11 July 2015. gator of many jokes, and had great success manager, coordinating with the European She was 56. imitating my heavy Hungarian accent. In Space Agency on the orbiter’s journey to Claudia was born in Vancouver, British her more serious moments, she initiated rendezvous with the 67P/Churyumov- Columbia, Canada, on 30 May 1959. The high-impact outreach efforts to underprivi- Gerasimenko comet as it circled the Sun. family moved to Northern California when leged and underrepresented groups. She She played a critical role in integrating the she was 1 year old, and she grew up in Santa worked extensively with inner city students disparate science team into a coherent sci- Clara. Her father, Harold Alexander, was a in Detroit and helped many young women to ence enterprise, and she led the effort to social worker, and her mother, Gaynelle, finish school. Some were motivated enough relate Rosetta’s observations to our under- was a corporate librarian for chipmaker by Claudia to attend institutions of higher standing of the formation of our solar Intel. learning. She was particularly enthusiastic system. about working with young women of color In her spare time, Claudia wrote two Early Life as a Space Science Student and becoming a role model for the next gen- books on science for children and men- Claudia wanted to study journalism at the eration. tored young people, especially African University of California, Berkeley (UC Her efforts were recognized and appreci- American girls. On the U.S. Rosetta mis- Berkeley), but her parents “would only ated at Michigan. In 1992, Claudia was sion’s webpage, she wrote, “Throughout agree to pay for it if I majored in something named University of Michigan Woman of school I was one of few women in class and ‘useful,’ like engineering,” she once said in the Year in Human Relations. She continued didn’t feel very feminine talking my way an interview. During college, she became an to have a strong relationship with the uni- through engineering applications like dam engineering intern at NASA’s Ames versity over the years, and in 2002, she or bridge building. At that time there were Research Center. She found herself drawn to earned the Department of Atmospheric, few female role models to give me a vision the space facility and visited it as often as Oceanic and Space Sciences (AOSS) Alumni of myself as a professional engineer. I she could. Her supervisor eventually Merit Award. She also served on the AOSS wasn’t feeling very validated, which played arranged for her to intern in the space sci- National Advisory Board. In 2007, her uncle, hugely into my self-esteem at the time. ence division. She went on to earn a bache- Jiles Williams, established the Claudia Alex- But I stuck with it. When I was a senior in lor’s degree in geophysics at UC Berkeley in ander Scholarship for undergraduate stu- undergraduate school, a professor nudged 1983 and a master’s in geophysics and space dents at Michigan. me into a senior project on Earth’s carbon physics at UC Los Angeles in 1985. After cycle. It turned out great. He was really earning her master’s degree, she joined Leading the Galileo and Rosetta Missions pleased and pretty much got me into grad- NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) as an During her 3 decades at NASA JPL, Claudia uate school. It was a case of a professor instrument representative for the Near served as the last project manager of Gali- believing in me. Fifteen years later, I was Infrared Mapping Spectrometer of the Gali- leo, one of the most successful missions for chosen to be the project scientist on leo mission. exploring the distant reaches of the solar Rosetta, a lifelong dream, and my life has In 1988, Claudia enrolled in the doctoral system. She was leading the mission when never been the same!” program in space and planetary physics at scientists orchestrated its death dive into We mourn the loss of Dr. Claudia Alex- the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Jupiter’s dense atmosphere in 2003, when ander, a dedicated scientist, inspiring role where she worked on thermophysical mod- the spacecraft finally ran out of fuel after model, and one of the nicest people I ever eling of cometary nuclei under my guidance. 8 years orbiting the giant planet. Her lead- had the pleasure of working with. In 1993, she defended her Ph.D. thesis and ership resulted in major new discoveries returned to JPL, where she continued her about the upper layers of Jupiter’s atmo- research on comets and the early history of sphere, including its composition and By Tamas I. Gombosi, University of Michigan, the solar system. dynamics. Ann Arbor; email: [email protected]

8 // Eos 1 March 2016 MEETING REPORT

The Impact of African Dust on Air Quality in the Caribbean Basin

Symposium on Airborne Dust, Climate Change, and Human Health Miami, Florida, 19–21 May 2015

arge quantities of African dust are car- agreed that there is a need for better data on ried to the Caribbean Basin every year, cardiovascular and other respiratory illnesses, Plans were also made to L causing concerns about the impact on in addition to asthma. develop a dust warning human health. Because of dust, the concen- There is also a need for more widespread air tration of airborne particulate matter in the quality measurements, which are currently capability linked to public region frequently exceeds the World Health made only in Barbados, Puerto Rico, Guade- Organization guideline for particles measur- loupe, Martinique, and Cayenne. Participants health services. ing less than 10 micrometers in diameter. agreed to implement an ad hoc federated net- Further, the shifting global climate could work to enable accurate tracking and quanti- exacerbate the problem. fying of African dust outbreaks and the trans- To address these concerns, 48 scientists port of this dust across the Caribbean to the Discussions focused on the considerable engaged in Caribbean studies met for a sym- coastline of the southern United States. NASA research that has gone into dust-climate posium last May at the University of Miami in solar tracking photometers and micropulse linkages on scales ranging from regional Miami, Fla. Participants included researchers, lidars are located at a number of sites, and (e.g., changes in rainfall, vegetation, land atmospheric modelers, climatologists, and participants discussed increasing the number use, wind conditions in Africa) to planetary representatives from the public health com- of sites. As an outcome of the meeting, a web- teleconnections (e.g., El Niño, the Atlantic munity. site (currently in beta testing) will integrate Multidecadal Oscillation). Although this work Although African dust is widely believed to these observations in real time with Moderate has yielded promising results, large uncer- be linked to the high incidence of asthma in Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer tainties still exist, exemplified in the Inter- the Caribbean, there have been few regional (MODIS) satellite products and aerosol model governmental Panel on Climate Change pro- studies of asthma or other aerosol-related forecasts. jections for Africa, which are indefinite for health issues. Epidemiological studies were Plans were also made to develop a dust the two most critical dust-related parame- presented at the meeting, but the results were warning capability linked to public health ser- ters, soil moisture and wind fields. inconclusive or contradictory. Participants vices in the region so that alerts could be Symposium participants concluded that a issued to susceptible coordinated study of air quality and the health populations. The impacts across the Caribbean Basin could Caribbean effort will serve as a test bed for evaluating dust-climate be coordinated with models and the consequent dust-health the World Meteoro- effects. Because the Caribbean is relatively logical Organization unaffected by major aerosol sources other Sand and Dust Storm than dust, health impacts could be more Warning Advisory directly linked to dust. The information gained and Assessment Sys- from these studies could provide insights on tem, which currently possible health impacts in other dusty regions focuses on African of the world where 2.1 billion people live and dust and its impact where there is little research on aerosol- on Europe and the health issues. Middle East. The symposium was supported by the There is wide- National Integrated Drought Information Sys- spread concern tem of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric about the effects of Administration. climate change on dust transport and health in the region. By Joseph M. Prospero, Department of Atmo- The 50-year Barba- spheric Sciences, Rosenstiel School of Marine

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center NASA dos dust record and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, A Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Partnership (NPP) satellite composite image of the shows significant Miami, Fla.; email: [email protected]; Trans-Atlantic African dust plume on 16 June 2015, during the second of two major dust changes linked to and Henry F. Diaz, Earth Systems Research outbreaks that occurred in rapid succession. The tail end of the first, which emerged climate, most nota- Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric from Africa on 6 June, can be seen over the western Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico. bly the intense Administration, Boulder, Colo., and Cooperative Note that the canted, vertically oriented, light-toned areas seen over the midlatitude droughts in the Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, North Atlantic are artifacts caused by Sun glint on the ocean surface. 1970s and 1980s. Boulder, Colo.

Eos.org // 9 OPINION

The Critical Zone Perspective Understanding Ecosystem Services The societal relevance of processes occurring at CZ scales comes primarily from their fun- from a Geosciences Perspective damental role in regulating ecosystem processes and their effects on associated services. There is growing concern that human disturbance, including intensive manage- uman societies depend greatly on the An example of an ecosystem service critical ment for agriculture, is altering the CZ’s natural environment in many ways: for to society is provision of water of sufficient potential to provide essential services, to the H food production, water supplies, ero- quantity, timing, and quality for drinking and extent that it transforms the CZ into a less sion and flood control, and recreational other human requirements. A traditional active regulator of nutrients, carbon, and opportunities, for example. However, the ecosystem services perspective focuses on water. linkages between human societies and these relating active vegetation management (e.g., The long-term evolution of the CZ from its benefits they derive from the environment forest thinning) or vegetation change due to bedrock source is driven by climate-sensitive have not always been considered explicitly disturbance (e.g., fire, insect, or drought ecosystems [Rasmussen et al., 2011], and the when managing natural resources. To under- mortality) to water resources, often empha- evolved structure of porous soil and bedrock, stand these linkages so that benefits from the sizing precipitation, soil moisture, and sur- in turn, affects how an ecosystem responds to environment can be more effectively man- face water flows while not necessarily con- perturbation [Lin, 2010]. However, CZ devel- aged, the framework of “ecosystem services” sidering other influential processes [e.g., Alila opment occurs over longer time scales (thou- has emerged as a useful approach. et al., 2009]. sands to millions of years) than ecosystem The benefits that society derives from the Explicitly expanding assessment of the ser- succession (tens to hundreds of years) [e.g., environment have been described in many vice of water provision to include geosciences Chadwick et al., 1999]. Services deriving from ways, with ecosystem services initially classi- perspectives would in many cases lead to more CZ processes, such as water purification and fied into four distinct categories [Millennium robust understanding of relevant environ- carbon stabilization, are sensitive to how vari- Ecosystem Assessment, 2005]: mental processes and how to manage them for ations in climate or rock formation character- • Provisioning services are material bene- the benefit of society [Field et al., 2015]. For istics (lithology) affect the long-term evolu- fits to humans, such as fiber, food, or timber. example, geosciences perspectives on water tion of regolith, the surface soil and deeper • Regulating services are processes such as resources explicitly bring into consideration rocky material that covers unweathered bed- pollination, flood control, and disease control. other key processes such as water quantity as rock. • Supporting services include nutrient affected by groundwater interactions with Hence, a CZ perspective of ecosystem ser- cycling and soil formation. surface water, water timing as affected by sub- vices (Figure 1) expands the scope to include • Cultural services are those aspects of spe- surface flow transit times, and water quality as processes at time scales often not considered cies and ecosystems that provide humans with affected by rate-limiting biogeochemical pro- in ecosystem services, such as nutrient recreational, spiritual, or religious experiences. cesses [Chorover et al., 2011; Brooks et al., 2015]. release from rock to bioavailable form based This perspective is on lithology, substrate age, atmospheric consistent with the deposition, nutrient retention, and loss original definition of mediated by soil development, weathering- ecosystems as one induced carbon sequestration, aspect- physical system induced variation in subsurface water stor- [Richter and Billings, age, and landscape-scale water dynamics 2015]. affecting plant-available water [Field et al., To further high- 2015]. light the utility of CZ science seeks to understand these incorporating geosci- larger-scale and longer-term processes ences perspectives associated with evolution of the weathering into considerations profile and their effects on regulating cli- of ecosystem ser- mate, nourishing ecosystems, and con- vices, we discuss an trolling water quality and quantity. Such example focusing on biotic-geologic couplings are particularly integration of biolog- relevant for the assessment of regulating ical, physical, and and supporting ecosystem services. Incorpo- chemical processes rating a broader perspective that includes associated with evo- couplings of biotic and geologic processes P. D. Brooks D. P. lution of the “critical that influence the production of natural West Maroon Creek is fed by high elevation snowfall in the Elk Mountains of Colorado. zone” (CZ, extending resources, such as soils, that are “nonre- These mountains typify the high elevation water sources that feed the major rivers of from groundwater newable” on human time scales can help Western North America and serve as the primary water sources for more than 70 mil- level to the top of the enhance ecosystem service assessments, lion people in the United States. Recent work shows that most of this meltwater infil- vegetation canopy) particularly for regulating and supporting trates soils and recharges groundwater before becoming streamflow and feeding and their relevance services. downstream reservoirs. Here studies of the critical zone related to groundwater supply to society in the con- Recent developments in CZ science have focus on how large the groundwater stores are, how these storage zones vary over text of ecosystem revealed the importance of ecological, geo- space and time, and how they can buffer or exacerbate regional drought. services. morphic, geochemical, and hydrologic pro-

10 // Eos 1 March 2016 OPINION

ing ecosystem ser- studied by terrestrial ecosystem scientists— vices. For example, to infuse our knowledge of ecological pro- ecologists who focus cesses with geophysical and biophysical on the services pro- mechanisms that support them. We encour- vided by vegetation age geoscientists to partner with ecologists, and reefs in reduc- economists, and social scientists to bring ing impacts of these larger spatial-scale and longer coastal hazards temporal-scale perspectives when working could benefit from with stakeholders, decision makers, and geosciences input on policy makers. how geomorphol- These groups will be well served by ogy, elevation, and explicitly linking geosciences with ecosys- coastline configura- tem services, building upon advances in tion interact with both communities to quantify the time the living organisms scales required to replenish services follow- to deliver those ser- ing a disturbance. A geosciences context vices. enables broader perspectives for managers, Time scales asso- policy makers, and stakeholders to effec- ciated with plant tively understand the expanded temporal community succes- and spatial scales of Earth processes sion provide a more required to provision ecosystem services to Fig. 1. Critical zone services provide context, constraints, and currency that enable more detailed example of society. effective management and valuation of ecosystem services. FromField et al. [2015]. how ecosystems services assess- Acknowledgment ments can be This work was supported by a grant from the cesses that affect the relevant supply of ser- improved through geosciences. The succes- National Science Foundation (NSF EAR- vices and act over larger temporal and sion after a disturbance such as forest blow- 1331408). spatial scales than those generally accounted down (high winds that topple trees) usually for in the ecosystem services community occurs in tens to hundreds of years, after ini- References (“supply chains” [Field et al., 2015]). Many tial colonization by short-lived species, fol- Alila, Y., P. K. Kuraś, M. Schnorbus, and R. Hudson (2009), Forests and floods: A new paradigm sheds light on ecosystem successions occur over the mean lowed by longer-lived species. age-old controversies, Water Resour. Res., 45, W08416, residence time of a single regolith. This However, geosciences perspectives also doi:10.1029/2008WR007207. regolith is therefore the primary source of consider the conversion of rock to soil and Brooks, P. D., J. Chorover, Y. Fan, S. E. Godsey, R. M. Max- well, J. P. McNamara, and C. Tague (2015), Hydrological lithogenic nutrients for many successions of the long-term evolution of the soil profile partitioning in the critical zone: Recent advances and plants and animals, even on tectonically and are on the order of thousands to millions opportunities for developing transferable understanding of water cycle dynamics, Water Resour. Res., 51, 6973–6987, active hillslopes. CZ evolution rates there- of years. For instance, the long-term evolu- doi:10.1002/2015WR017039. fore clearly affect ecosystem function and tion of Hawaiian tropical forest ecosystems Chadwick, O. A., L. A. Derry, P. M. Vitousek, B. J. Huebert, and L. O. Hedin (1999), Changing sources of nutrients during the supply of services. occurs on lava flows that range in age from four million years of ecosystem development, Nature, 397, Conceptualization of CZ processes expands hundreds of years on the big island of Hawaii 491–497. the context of ecosystem services temporally to about 4.1 million years on Kauai [Chadwick Chorover, J., et al. (2011), How water, carbon, and energy drive critical zone evolution: The Jemez-Santa Catalina Critical Zone Observa- and spatially, providing constraints on eco- et al., 1999]. tory, Vadose Zone J., 10, 884–899. system services associated with rate-limiting The regolith profiles support ecosystems Field, J. P., et al. (2015), Critical zone services: Expanding context, constraints and currency beyond ecosystem services, Vadose processes such as soil formation and hydro- comprising the same forest vegetation Zone J., 14, doi:10.2136/vzj2014.10.0142. logical partitioning. This conceptualization species, but they differ dramatically in Lin, H. (2010), Earth’s critical zone and hydropedology: Con- also advances the assessment and valuation their physical-chemical properties as a cepts, characteristics and advances, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 14, 24–45. of ecosystem services by providing integrated result of long-term weathering processes. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), Ecosystems and Human currencies that quantify the energy flux A core aspect of ecosystem services is to Well-Being: Synthesis, Island Press, Washington, D.C. available to do thermodynamic work on the provide a means for valuing the services Rasmussen, C., P. A. Troch, J. Chorover, P. Brooks, J. Pelletier, and T. E. Huxman (2011), An open system energy-based framework for CZ [Field et al., 2015]. they provide.A geosciences perspective predicting critical zone structure and function, Biogeochemistry, 102, By incorporating CZ processes into the could prove valuable in estimating the cost 15–29. ecosystem services framework, society gains of recovering lost services, for example, if Richter, D., and S. A. Billings (2015), ‘One physical system’: Tanseley’s ecosystem as Earth’s critical zone, New Phytol., 206, a broader perspective on ecosystem services we lost both types of forests and their ser- 900–912. and hence more refined tools to value societal vices due to disturbances like blowdown or benefits. We have highlighted CZ processes lava flow. In this case, we would need to as an example, but the concept applies more consider the contrast in rate-limiting soil By Jason P. Field, David D. Breshears, and generally to linking geosciences perspectives production processes for these two forest Darin J. Law, University of Arizona, Tucson; to ecosystem services. types. email: [email protected];Juan C. Ville- gas, Universidad de Antioquia, Colombia; Laura Improving Valuation Geoscientists’ Perspectives Needed López-Hoffman, University of Arizona, Tucson; with Geosciences Perspectives In summary, we need geosciences perspec- Paul D. Brooks, University of Utah, Salt Lake Geosciences perspectives expand both spatial tives—focused over a broader range of tem- City; and Jon Chorover and Jon D. Pelletier, and temporal scales of consideration affect- poral and spatial scales than is typically University of Arizona, Tucson

Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 11 OPINION

the potassium-argon (K-Ar) and uranium- thorium/helium (U-Th/He) methods to rocks and minerals has advanced our understanding Geochronology: It’s About Time of the pace of tectonic processes. Together with studies of nuclides produced by cosmic rays, this understanding has revolutionized the study of landscape evolution. The advent of carbon-14 dating radically altered our understanding of prehistoric human migration. However, this isotope’s 5700-year half-life led to an apparent concen- tration of events 30,000 to 40,000 years ago. This pileup only relaxed to include much older ages after the development of optically stimu- lated luminescence dating, which brought quantitative chronologies to systems that were historically difficult to date. Coupled with enormous advances in uranium series dating, these techniques focused on the Pleistocene have been essential for calibrating glacial- interglacial cycles from climate records.

Taking Stock: Where Are We Now? George Gehrels A visionary program (EarthScope, http://www A zircon crystal (approximately 0.2 millimeter long) from the Coast Mountains in western Canada shows zonation that .earthscope.org) begun in 2002 has been spec- records multiple stages of crystallization. The ages from this sample range from more than 116 million years old at their tacularly successful in revealing the three- cores to 58 million years old for outer rims. Zircon plays an important role in radiometric dating because it is a com- dimensional structure within the North Amer- mon mineral in crustal rocks; it contains trace amounts of uranium and thorium, which decay to lead with reasonably ican continent. However, fulfilling its goal of well-constrained half-lives; and it preserves a record of geological processes despite younger metamorphism. understanding the evolution of the North American continent will require a major effort led by geochronologists. ime is at the heart of Earth sciences; million years into billions of years. The ability The National Research Council [2012] report every significant advance in geochro- to date young basalts revealed a geomagnetic New Research Opportunities in the Earth Sciences T nology has produced a paradigm- timescale that led directly to the plate tectonic recognized the central role that geochronology shifting breakthrough in our understanding of revolution. plays in the geosciences (Figure 1) and identi- Earth’s history. Without quantitative knowl- The development of high-precision fied pressing instrumentation and facilities edge of absolute and relative time, no modern uranium-lead (U-Pb) zircon dating is currently needs for fostering research and education. In discipline with a historical focus could func- revolutionizing our understanding of magmatic response, with the support of the National tion. timescales as well as the tempo of sediment Science Foundation, we led a yearlong consul- However, when we conducted a broad con- accumulation and biologic change. In situ U-Pb tation with consumers and producers of geo- sultation with geochronology experts and dating challenges our assumption that early chronology to understand their aspirations researchers who rely upon geochronological Earth was an arid world that was hostile to life. and the challenges they face. data, we found a strong sense that the field The recognition that major extinction events We surveyed nearly 300 U.S.-based geo- has been orphaned by the national science are coeval with the formation of large igneous chronology producers on their views regarding support structure and weakened by the wide- the role of geochronology in innovation, spread view that it is a “tool” rather than a Geochronology has transformative science, facility support, syn- scientific challenge. ergistic research, and the status of decay con- Every discipline that benefits from geo- provided information that stants. With these results as a guide, we chronology should participate in the steward- drastically changes our hosted meetings at the 2014 Goldschmidt ship and development of this field, including Conference, the 14th International Conference scientific efforts and financial support. In understanding of natural on Thermochronology, and the 2014 Geologi- return, geochronologists must address the cal Society of America Annual Meeting. The research priorities of the disciplines they sup- phenomena. conclusions drawn from these interactions port and provide enhanced user access to data. were recently published in the report “It’s About Time: Opportunities and Challenges Radical Changes in Perception provinces and asteroid impacts is changing our for U.S. Geochronology” [Harrison et al., 2015]. In one instance after another, geochronology understanding of the processes of species evo- has provided information that drastically lution and highlights the dependency of Data Disconnect changes our understanding of natural phe- Earth’s living systems on extraterrestrial Our field has changed dramatically over the nomena. The earliest mineral dates, deter- inputs. past 20 years. Many scientists now focus on mined more than 100 years ago, catapulted By quantifying variations in rock tempera- dating youthful features at or near Earth’s Earth’s estimated age from 10 million to 100 ture and depth through time, application of surface using measurement methods that

12 // Eos 1 March 2016 OPINION

didn’t exist a generation ago. In situ methods into disciplines that require have produced massive amounts of new data different constraints on tim- for those interested in deeper time or deeper ing and rates. As geochro- Earth, whereas traditional methods have nology spread into these gained an exquisite degree of precision as they emerging fields, it often have matured. failed to become firmly Despite these advances, our consultations rooted within those cultures. revealed several troubling paradoxes. Routine analyses could be Although more instruments than ever are supported through existing being employed for Earth science research in programmatic funding, but the United States, the geochronologic commu- new fields lacked the tradi- nity still has enormous demand for more data. tion of sustaining the devel- Individual laboratories produce more, and opment of geochronologic higher quality, data than ever, but many inter- protocols. ested parties feel that costs are prohibitive or For our community to that bottlenecks in the process preclude their truly prosper, we must make participation. The techniques and instruments the case across the geosci- in use today are far more sophisticated than ences that stewardship of those in the recent past, but many are con- geochronology is the cerned by the lack of progress in putting responsibility of all disci- proven advances in geochronologic instru- plines that use its products. mentation to use. This stewardship includes Our consultations point to a lack of optimi- the need to support high- Fig. 1. Geochronology plays a central role in all historical aspects of the Earth zation between geochronology producers and risk research and develop- and planetary sciences but has no disciplinary home within the federal fund- consumers. We believe this mismatch is ment of equipment, meth- ing umbrella. driven by misdirected incentives in combina- ods, and applications. In tion with a pervasive view that geochronology return, the geochronology is merely a tool rather than a discipline in its community needs the ana- own right. lytical and staffing resources to address the unanswered scientific questions of our time Looking back, it is easy to see how this research priorities of supportive disciplines (e.g., when life began on Earth) and would occurred. To address the specific needs of a and to provide enhanced user access to permit the goal of EarthScope—to understand particular Earth sciences discipline, geochro- data. the four-dimensional structure of North nologists developed novel methods to address America—to be fully realized. their challenging scientific problems. In the Grand Challenges Our report points to the need to support process, individual geochronologists became Geochronology is poised to make unprece- foundational and potentially high-risk devel- experts in an increasing diversity of special- dented leaps in its capacity to stimulate trans- opment of new geochronological methods, the ized fields. This specialization, in turn, has formative research. We envision four grand need for greater cooperation among existing separated the providers of geochronologic challenges for the coming decade: laboratories, and cooperative interactions with information from those who apply this infor- • age precision and accuracy of ±0.01% allied scientists. We invite you to download a mation: In some cases, these information con- from the Cenozoic to the Hadean, which copy of our report (http://bit.ly/Geochron_rpt) sumers have never actually participated in the requires creating methods and mass analyzers and join the conversation on the future of U.S. analyses that provide them with their data. of unprecedented sensitivity and resolution geochronology at http://bit.ly/Geochron Even within geochronology, researchers with vastly improved decay constants _feedback. perceive different issues facing them. For • continuous temporal coverage through- example, some researchers are frustrated by out the Quaternary—from 1 week to 1 million References the low accuracy with which decay constants years—of processes key to today’s societal Harrison, T. M., S. L. Baldwin, M. Caffee, G. Gehrel, B. L. Schoene, D. S. Shuster, and B. Singer (2015), It’s about time: Opportunities are known; others would not be significantly security, including climate change, critical and challenges for U.S. geochronology, Inst. Geophys. Planet. affected by an improvement as large as an zone management, volcanic hazards, and Phys. Publ. 6539, 56 pp., Univ. of Calif., Los Angeles. [Available at http://sims.epss.ucla.edu/USG-Workshop/PDF/Geochronology%20 order of magnitude. paleoseismology report%202015.pdf.] • measuring the denudation of the Earth’s National Research Council (2012), New Research Opportunities in the No Simple Solutions surface with submillimeter per year accuracy Earth Sciences, 117 pp., Natl. Acad. Press, Washington, D.C. There is not a simple solution to the challenges using thermochronometers, for timescales as the geochronology community faces, but per- short as 10,000 years, to place geodetic defor- haps the first step is a better understanding of mation rates in context with long-term geo- By Mark Harrison, University of California, Los the landscape we live in. The most salient fea- logic trends Angeles; email: [email protected]; Suzanne ture is that virtually every geochronologist • coverage of thermal conditions ranging Baldwin, Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y.; operates within a different disciplinary home from Earth’s cryosphere through to the man- Marc Caffee, Purdue University, West Lafayette, because no federal science program has sus- tle to provide the deep time dimension to Ind.; George Gehrels, University of Arizona, taining geochronology infrastructure and inno- structures imaged by the USArray seismic Tucson; Blair Schoene, Princeton University, vation as its core mission. observatory network Princeton, N.J.; David Shuster, University of Cal- The reasons for this are partly historical These ambitions are more than simply ifornia, Berkeley; and Brad Singer, University of and partly due to the expansion of the field honing a tool; they touch on the great, Wisconsin–Madison, Madison

Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 13 2016 Call for Nominations

Nominate your colleagues for a prestigious AGU Union Prize, Award, Fellowship, or Medal Nomination Deadline: 15 March

New Union Awards for 2016 Section and Focus Group Awards and Lectures Africa Award for Research Excellence in Earth and Space Science William Kaula Award Nomination Deadline: 15 April

Medal, Award, William Bowie Medal, AGU’s highest honor, Inge Lehmann Medal is awarded in recognition International Award is awarded for making an is awarded in recognition for outstanding for outstanding contributions to the understanding outstanding contribution to furthering the Earth and and Prize Spotlight contributions to fundamental geophysics and of the structure, composition, and dynamics of the space sciences and using science for the benefit for unselfish cooperation in research. Earth’s mantle and core. of society in developing nations and includes complimentary travel to the Fall Meeting. Receiving an AGU Honor is an Harry Hess Medal is awarded in recognition Roger Revelle Medal is awarded in recognition esteemed recognition for those who for outstanding achievements in research on the for outstanding contributions in atmospheric Science for Solutions Award is awarded for have made profound contributions constitution and evolution of the Earth and other sciences, atmosphere-ocean coupling, atmosphere- significant contributions in the application and use planets. land coupling, biogeochemical cycles, climate, or of the Earth and space sciences to solve societal and breakthrough achievements in the related aspects of the Earth system. problems and includes a $1000 monetary prize. Earth and space sciences. Now is the Robert Horton Medal is awarded in time to nominate a student, colleague, recognition for outstanding contributions Charles Whitten Medal is awarded in Climate Communication Prize is awarded to to hydrology. recognition for outstanding achievement in research one honoree in recognition for the communication peer, or mentor whose achievements on the form and dynamics of the Earth and planets. of climate science and includes a $25,000 have made a difference in the Earth Athelstan Spilhaus Award is awarded in monetary prize. and space sciences. recognition of the honoree’s enhancement of the Excellence in Geophysical Education public engagement with Earth and space sciences, Award is awarded for a sustained commitment to through devoting portions of their career conveying excellence in Earth and space science education by to the general public the excitement, significance, a team, individual, or group. and beauty of the Earth and space sciences.

honors.agu.org 14 // Eos 1 March 2016 2016 Call for Nominations

Nominate your colleagues for a prestigious AGU Union Prize, Award, Fellowship, or Medal Nomination Deadline: 15 March

New Union Awards for 2016 Section and Focus Group Awards and Lectures Africa Award for Research Excellence in Earth and Space Science William Kaula Award Nomination Deadline: 15 April

honors.agu.org Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 15 K. Gavahan

16 // Eos 1 March 2016 DRONES IN A COLD CLIMATE

By Guy D. Williams, Alexander D. Fraser, Arko Lucieer, Darren Turner, Eva Cougnon, Peter Kimball, Takenobu Toyota, Ted Maksym, Hanumant Singh, Frank Nitsche, and Matt Paget

t the ends of the Earth, climate change ing, and landing on a moving ship, to name a few. To is altering the polar landscape and sea- gather operational experience, we conducted a pilot study scape faster than ever in recorded history. of drones launching from the U.S. icebreaker Nathaniel B. In the Arctic, a drastic decline in sea ice is Palmer in April 2015 while en route to the ice shelves of unlocking trade routes and a new theater East Antarctica (Figure 1). for the world’s navies. In Antarctica, a Using two off-the-shelf models of multirotor drones, we collapse of the western ice sheet could raise global sea lev- successfully captured high-resolution aerial imagery of elsA and inundate the world’s coasts. Monitoring the state Antarctic sea ice. We also learned about some of the of sea ice is crucial. drones’ limitations, and we can give recommendations for Satellite observations drive the numerical models and how other teams might overcome them. forecasts, but to verify them, scientists need in situ measurements from the freezing seas themselves—at resolu- Sea Ice: The Canary in the Coal Mine tions and coverages that match the ever-improving mod- Sea ice is often referred to as the “canary in the coal mine” els and the extent of satellite coverage. Imagery taken from when it comes to monitoring the effects of climate change airplanes or helicopters is one option, but these missions at the poles. Sea ice, a relatively thin layer (meters thick, in are very expensive and logistically challenging. contrast to the kilometers-thick continental ice sheets) In the face of these obstacles, polar researchers are that forms each winter at the surface of the freezing polar beginning to explore the use of unmanned aerial vehicles oceans, is a dynamic and complex medium. It reacts to (UAVs), more commonly known as drones. As technology many different atmospheric and oceanic processes, mak- develops, new advanced sensors that can launch from ice- ing it a valuable area of study to scientists. The key area is breakers and survey the surrounding ice promise to pro- the marginal ice zone (MIZ), where the open ocean meets vide a valuable new tool in the arsenal of seagoing scien- the sea ice and a complex interaction between wind and tists. waves controls seasonal advance and retreat. Drone pilots face challenging and extreme conditions in Arctic sea ice is declining dramatically, but paradoxi- the Antarctic: high winds, temperatures well below freez- cally, mean Antarctic sea ice extent is increasing slightly

The Spreading Wings S1000 eight-rotor unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) successfully operated in the polar environment. Imagery obtained using its attached Panasonic Lumix GH4 camera helped to determine sea ice floe size distribution.

Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 17 [Maksym et al., 2012]. Antarctic sea ice is bounded on all of years, the industry has exploded with an incredible pace sides by a MIZ and the Southern Ocean. In contrast, the of development, seeing new platforms emerge on a near- Arctic has previously been totally covered by ice and is monthly basis. As multirotor drones have become ubiqui- bounded by continents. Sea ice is very effective at damping tous, they have become dramatically easier to fly, which waves, so as the Arctic ice decreases, models predict that allows the end user to focus more on integrating instru- the open water at its edges will allow more powerful waves ments and collecting data. to break up ice on the boundaries, forming MIZs, similar to Although the regulations surrounding these products processes in the Antarctic regions. have struggled to keep pace, they are now catching up. Most national aviation bodies now enforce strict flying The Need for Ship-Based UAVs in Sea Ice Research rules for hobbyists and set up formal licensing for those Aerial observations provide valuable assistance in studying operating UAVs for commercial gain, which in some these complex environments: They provide situational countries includes academic research. awareness and spatial context for surface-based measure- In addition to pilot certification, specific approval for ments from the ship and can aid ships navigating treach- UAV operations is becoming mandatory, tailored to the erous ice fields. However, helicopters cannot land on the operational environment and inherent risks, liability, and sparse sea ice field of an MIZ, and this introduces addi- environmental impacts. For this study, the National Sci- tional safety constraints to operating helicopters over ence Foundation (NSF) performed a special review of pilot these regions. competency, vehicle specifications, and operational proce- Enter drones. Scientists have long deployed autono- dures to permit the flights from the R/V Nathaniel B. Palmer. mous submersibles to survey below the sea ice [Williams The unfortunate prospect of harming the pristine et al., 2014]. Now aerial drones offer scientists the possi- Antarctic environment heightens the risk involved. For bility to gain remote bird’s-eye views of the ice as well now, in general, the U.S. Antarctic Program (USAP) pro- [Maslanik et al., 2002; Cassano et al., 2010]. The images hibits the use of drones by program personnel without they collect can be a valuable addition to existing obser- specific authorization while it develops a policy on the vational data sets of sea ice from satellites, ships, and air- safe and environmentally sound use of UAVs. This model craft. will also provide guidance for other national Antarctic In particular, global climate models lack information on programs to adopt. how waves and sea ice interact. One key indicator of the For this mission, the principal scientist, Guy Williams, annual advance and retreat of sea ice is the size distribu- was the pilot in command for all flights. He was trained by tion of the ice floes in the MIZ [Zhang et al., 2015]—we the TerraLuma group at the University of Tasmania in Aus- attempted to collect these data with our drone pilot study. tralia and certified by Australia’s Civil Aviation Safety Authority. He had 15 months’ experience prior to the mis- Ready for Takeoff—But Are You Certified? sion and completed more than 10 hours on each platform. UAVs are not new, and many geospatial surveying groups have developed and built their own platforms. (See “Drone Flight Testing in the Antarctic Squadron to Take Earth Monitoring to New Heights,” Our pilot program, overseen by the NSF on a voyage of the http://bit.ly/Drone_Squadron, for more on scientific stud- USAP, was centered on multirotor UAV operations devel- ies using unmanned aircraft.) However, they required sig- oped by the TerraLuma UAV facility at the University of nificant work and pilot skill to operate. In the past couple Tasmania. For testing, we chose two off- the-shelf models manufactured by DJI Ltd.: the popular Phantom 2 Vision+ quadcopter and the more advanced eight-rotor Spreading Wings S1000. Both models successfully operated in the polar environment and retrieved imagery for the deter- mination of sea ice floe size distribution. The team scheduled UAV operations around the primary science schedule and could fly only when wind speeds were 15 knots or less with plenty of daylight. As such, we completed nine flights on three separate occasions.

Flight Log

Alexander Fraser On day 1, the ship was idle but Fig. 1. The Phantom 2 Vision+ UAV is launched from the U.S. icebreaker Nathaniel B. Palmer drifting with the winds and cur- on 13 April 2015. rents. We performed basic hover

18 // Eos 1 March 2016 the drone’s magnetometer close to the magnetic poles, which combines with its GPS to provide attitude and position. On day 2, four flights were undertaken with the S1000s flying astern of the ship. Again, they couldn’t achieve a GPS hold, and this pre- vented autonomous waypoint navigation for structured aerial mapping. There was also some erratic behavior (the cause was never fully resolved) during manual piloting of the S1000s and the Zenmuse Z15 gimbal system that provided pivoting support to a Panasonic Lumix GH4 camera (with an Olympus M.Zuiko 12mm f/2.0 Micro Four Thirds Lens) mounted to it. Winds were also stronger and gusting more than 20 knots, which increased the challenge of flying and landing in ATTI mode. Nonetheless, the drone was able to acquire aerial imagery (16.1 megapixels), facing both down (Figure 2) and toward the horizon. Day 3 flights were in the early evening: We had our first successful operation of the Phan- tom 2 in GPS mode, allowing it to carry out a preprogrammed flight plan, gathering images (14 megapixels) and 1080p video (HDTV high definition) around the ship at flying heights greater than 100 meters for more than 12 min- utes (Figure 3). The final flight with the S1000 did not achieve GPS hold, and the gimbal was no longer oriented correctly when it was in ATTI mode. After we returned home, we resolved this using a firmware upgrade to the Zenmuse Z15 gimbal that had become available during the voyage to address a specific balance issue affecting the A2 controller in ATTI mode.

256 Shades of Gray (and Beyond) Sea ice image analysis is often completed in gray scale, given the lack of color in detecting white sea ice on a dark ocean. Sea ice researchers joke that their line of work involves “256 shades of gray.” Nevertheless, Fig. 2. (top) Aerial image of pancake field, taken by the S1000 UAV on 9 April (day 2). these shades of gray provide a wealth of valu- (middle) Floe segmentation based on mathematical morphology for the aerial image able information. (following Paget et al. [2001]). (bottom) Probability distribution function of floe size distri- Both the S1000 and the Phantom 2 proved bution. capable of taking basic aerial imagery suitable for determining floe size distribution (Fig- testing over the ship’s helideck to introduce the crew to ure 2), with a basic correction using PTLens applied to the the operational protocols. This introduction included latter to remove the pin-barrel distortion of its mounted going over emergency responses to drones crashing into GoPro camera. The Phantom internally geotagged the the ship or personnel or going over the side and needing images, and we used an external GPS logger for the images recovery. collected by the S1000. In both cases, the geotagged images Both types of UAV were launched in attitude mode will allow us to perform future analysis and create mosaics. (ATTI), in which the drone automatically maintains orien- Ultimately, more sophisticated flight patterns are tation but not position. In general, the drones were required for sufficient image overlap, either in autonomous unable to operate in GPS mode, where the drone automat- or manual modes, to exploit this photogrammetry further. ically maintains both orientation and position. The There may be a limit to what can be achieved in the inability to use GPS mode is a known issue that previous dynamic sea ice field of the MIZ, as waves jostle the posi- teams working with multirotor UAVs in polar regions tion of small floes between images. However, optimized have reported. The problem is the poor performance of mapping surveys over large continuous floes sampled

Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 19 Fig. 3. The Phantom 2 Vision+ UAV took this image of the U.S. icebreaker Nathaniel B. Palmer on 13 April 2015 (day 3) during an assessment of floe size distribution conducted en route to the ice shelves near East Antarctica.

during “ice station”–type voyages, where the ship • Current consumer-grade multirotor UAVs are best moors against the floes and scientists can leave the ship to suited to gaining a quick bird’s-eye view of the ship and conduct experiments on the ice itself, promise to return surrounding ice. True aerial mapping with multirotor much greater detail in the surface morphology. drones will require more sophisticated models with better Natural extensions of this work include lidar laser performance. An alternative is to use fixed-wing drone air- scanning systems to map the three-dimensional struc- planes, but that brings the added challenge of landing and ture and hyperspectral imaging to measure biological retrieving them on the ship. productivity [Wallace et al., 2012; Lucieer et al., 2014; • Pilot experience, certification, and operational back- Turner et al., 2014]. However, these instruments are ground are critical to handle the challenge of polar opera- heavier and pricier—and therefore riskier. Deploying tions. Pilots must also have extensive training in mainte- drones and underwater vehicles in concert to take simul- nance (modifications, sensor distribution, firmware taneous measurements from above and below sea ice updates). In particular, pilots must be trained in ATTI mode may become feasible in the near future, presenting in 15- to 20-knot wind speeds and limited-area takeoffs another exciting prospect. and landings. Nonetheless, what was impossible several years ago is Onward and Upward now possible, and this theme will continue as unmanned This pilot study successfully proved the concept of rapid aerial platforms develop in response to the urgent need for deployment of multirotor UAVs for aerial sea ice imag- expanded in situ observations of sea ice. ing. The operations were conducted safely, with greatly reduced risk and cost compared to helicopter operations, Observations over the Beaufort Sea and did not interfere with the primary scientific objec- In late 2015, we completed UAV operations over the Arctic tives of the voyage. MIZ in the Beaufort Sea from the R/V Sikuliaq. Using the DJI We learned some important lessons: Phantom 3 Advanced UAV, the team achieved 5 hours of • The purchase price of an off-the-shelf drone is only a flights with GPS hold, attaining a maximum range and alti- quarter of the total expense. The final project cost for a tude of 500 meters (for a drone’s-eye view video, see research voyage also includes spares, cases, training, and http://bit.ly/Drone_Video). Initial calibration on the ice, certification. away from the ship, proved helpful.

20 // Eos 1 March 2016 We also deployed a fixed-wing UAV, which used a 3DR IAHR International Symposium on Ice, vol. 3, pp. 201–206, Dep. of Phys., Univ. of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. Pixhawk autopilot and successfully operated autonomously Paget, M. J., A. P. Worby, and K. J. Michael (2001), Determining the floe-size distribution to produce a photo mosaic of the sea ice field at each ice of East Antarctic sea ice from digital aerial photographs, Ann. Glaciol., 33, 94–100. station while an autonomous underwater vehicle surveyed Turner, D., A. Lucieer, Z. Malenovsky, D. King, and S. Robinson (2014), Spatial co- registration of ultra-high resolution visible, multispectral and thermal images the sea ice from below. We were able to use a net effec- acquired with micro-UAV over Antarctic moss beds, Remote Sens., 6(5), 4003–4024, tively to recover the fixed-wing UAV when we needed to doi:10.3390/rs6054003. Wallace, L., A. Lucieer, C. Watson, and D. Turner (2012), Development of a UAV-lidar take off and land back on the ship. system with application to forest inventory, Remote Sens., 4(6), 1519–1543, doi:10.3390/ rs4061519. Acknowledgments Williams, G., T. Maksym, J. Wilkinson, C. Kunz, P. Kimball, C. Murphy, and H. Singh (2014), Thick and deformed Antarctic sea ice mapped with autonomous underwater vehicles, This project was funded by the Australian Research Council Nat. Geosci., 8, 61–67, doi:10.1038/NGEO2299. and supported by the Australian Cooperative Research Zhang, J., M. Schweiger, M. Steele, and H. Stern (2015), Sea ice floe size distribution in Centre program and by Grant-in-Aids for Scientific the marginal ice zone: Theory and numerical experiments, J. Geophys. Res. Oceans, 120(5), 3484–3498, doi:10.1002/2015JC010770. Research 25·03748 of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology in Japan. Research voyage Author Information NBP15-03 was conducted on board the R/V Nathaniel B. Guy D. Williams, Alexander D. Fraser, Arko Lucieer, Dar- Palmer and supported by the USAP. Antarctic UAV opera- ren Turner, and Eva Cougnon, Institute of Marine and Ant- tions were overseen and planned in coordination between arctic Studies, Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative NSF and USAP. Research Centre, School of Land and Food, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia; email: guy.darvall.williams@ References gmail.com; Peter Kimball, Stone Aerospace Ltd., Austin, Cassano, J. J., J. A. Maslanik, C. J. Zappa, A. L. Gordon, R. I. Cullather, and S. L. Knuth (2010), Observations of Antarctic polynya with unmanned aircraft systems, Eos Texas; Takenobu Toyota, Institute of Low Temperature Sci- Trans. AGU, 91(28), 245–246, doi:10.1029/2010EO280001. ence, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan; Ted Maksym and Lucieer, A., Z. Malenovsky, T. Veness, and L. Wallace (2014), HyperUAS—Imaging spec- Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, troscopy from a multi-rotor unmanned aircraft system, J. Field Rob., 31(4), 571–590, Hanumant Singh, doi:10.1002/rob.21508. Woods Hole, Mass.; Frank Nitsche, Lamont-Doherty Earth Maksym, T., S. E. Stammerjohn, S. Ackley, and R. Massom (2012), Antarctic sea ice— Observatory, Palisades, N.Y.; and Matt Paget, Commonwealth A polar opposite?, Oceanography, 25(3), 140–151, doi:10.5670/oceanog.2012.88. Science Industry Research Organisation, Land & Water, Can- Maslanik, J., J. Curry, S. Drobot, and G. Holland (2002), Observations of sea ice using a low-cost unpiloted aerial vehicle, in Ice in the Environment: Proceedings of the 16th berra, ACT, Australia

Now Accepting Applications for Editor in Chief of JGR: Atmospheres

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Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 21 ARCTIC RESEARCH ON THIN ICE Consequences of Arctic Sea Ice Loss

By Mats A. Granskog, Philipp Assmy, Sebastian Gerland, Gunnar Spreen, Harald Steen, and Lars H. Smedsrud Paul Dodd, Norwegian Polar Institute Dodd, Norwegian Polar Paul

22 // Eos 1 March 2016 ARCTIC RESEARCH Scientists embarked on a 6-month expedition in the ON THIN ICE Arctic Ocean to study the thinning sea ice cover, Consequences of Arctic Sea Ice Loss improve our understanding of sea ice loss effects, and help predict future changes.

n February and March 2015, scientists studying the highly dynamic, thinning Arctic drift ice north of Svalbard were forced to evacuate their ice camp several times as ice floes broke up under their feet. Although they never knew exactly when it would happen, they had come to Iexpect and prepare for ice breakups, which have become more common in recent years. During their work as part of the Norwegian- led research project Norwegian Young Sea Ice Cruise (N-ICE2015), an expedition launched to observe Arctic sea ice conditions, they were accustomed to watching for danger signs and moving quickly to salvage their gear and instruments when the ice broke up. The Arctic Ocean is shifting to a new regime: A younger and thinner ice pack is replacing older, thicker sea ice [Meier et al., 2014]. Large areas of the ocean that were previously covered by sea ice year round are now ice free for parts of the summer. This will have consequences locally and in a much wider area around the

The Norwegian research vessel Lance froze into the Arctic ice pack during the polar night in January 2015. Scientists used the ship as a research platform for studying the atmosphere, snow, sea ice, ocean, and marine ecosystem throughout the Arctic winter and spring.

Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 23 Drift tracks of research vessel Lance in winter and spring 2015 in the region north of Svalbard. Ice camps were set up three times on ice floes near 83°N, then evacuated and reestablished when ice broke up near the ice edge. The Norwegian Young Sea Ice Cruise (N-ICE2015) field campaign ended in late June 2015 with a shorter 2-week drift along the ice edge. Credit: RADARSAT-2 images provided by NSC/KSAT under the Norwegian- Canadian RADARSAT agreement. RADARSAT-2 Data and Products © MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates Ltd (2013). All Rights Reserved. RADAR- SAT is an official mark of the Canadian Space Agency. Map created by the Norwegian Polar Institute / Max König

Arctic. Much of our current knowledge of Arctic sea ice What Provides the Heat to Melt the Ice? stems from the former old-ice regime, and we need new What causes the sea ice in this region to melt? This was knowledge to understand the system in its current thin- one of the key questions during the field campaign. Is it ner state and to improve our capacity to predict its caused by the 1°C warming since the 1980s of the Atlantic future. water (currently, a relatively warm 3.0°C) that flows into From the midst of the polar night to early summer the Arctic Ocean west of Svalbard [Onarheim et al., 2014]? (January to June 2015), the N-ICE2015 crew allowed the Is the heat in the warm water mixed toward the surface to Arctic waters to freeze around the Norwegian Polar melt the ice in the deep basin? Or is the ice melt solely Institute’s research vessel Lance to help provide this new triggered by the return of the Sun and solar heating of the knowledge. The concept of N-ICE2015 followed the prec- ice and ocean? How do storms affect the ice pack and the edent of many previous expeditions, including the Fram mixing of ocean heat to the surface? How does the freez- expedition by Fridtjof Nansen, Russian drifting stations, ing during the previous winter affect the conditions the Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean campaign in during spring? 1998–1999 [Perovich et al., 1999], and the Tara drift during To answer these questions, the team was primarily International Polar Year 2007–2008 [Gascard et al., 2008]. interested in observing the ocean heat content, vertical However, all of these expeditions were conducted in a mixing of the ocean heat toward the sea ice, and how sun- thicker ice regime. light penetrated the ice and snow and contributed to Lance, adrift in the ice, provided a base for 100 scien- melting of the thinner ice pack. Dozens of autonomous tists and engineers who spent 3 to 6 weeks on board the buoys deployed on the sea ice as far as 20 kilometers away vessel studying air-snow-ice-ocean interactions in a from the vessel measured the growth and melting of sea region with thinner sea ice. The scientists also investi- ice to give indications of ocean heat flux on a larger scale. gated how the marine ecosystem responds to these new conditions. Interdisciplinary work was an integral part of Is the Thinner Ice Pack More Susceptible N-ICE2015, as physical oceanographers, sea ice physi- to Atmospheric Forcing? cists, atmospheric scientists, and marine biogeochem- Signs that the movement (dynamics) of the ice pack has ists worked successfully side by side. changed have appeared as the ice pack has grown thinner.

24 // Eos 1 March 2016 How Does the Ecosystem Respond to Thinner Ice? The biologists involved were interested in finding out how organisms living in the sea ice and the underlying water column adapt to the thinner ice cover. Will under- ice phytoplankton blooms become more widespread in the new ice regime, as has been suggested by observations in other parts of the Arctic [Arrigo et al., 2012]? Or are ice algal blooms likely to experience negative effects from later freeze-up, earlier melt-out, and possibly det- rimentally high light levels transmitted through thinner ice? Scientists were keen to find out how ice algae cope under the new ice regime. Changes in the timing and magnitude of the ice algal and phytoplankton blooms would have downstream effects on the organisms that eat algae and phytoplankton and, eventually, the entire ice-associated ecosystem.

Collaboration, Coverage, and Outreach Research during N-ICE2015 was truly international and reflected the current interest in the Arctic. Scientists from institutions in several countries, including Canada, Den- mark, Finland, France, Germany, Japan, Korea, Norway, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, participated, and the crew came from many more nations. This unique opportunity brought together many experts in their respective fields to contribute to a better understanding of the Arctic. The N-ICE2015 research campaign also benefited from social media. Accounts on Instagram, Facebook, and Twit- ter showcased the research to a wide general audience on a regular basis (search for hashtag #NICE2015Arctic on Twit- ter and Instagram).

Tor Ivan Karlsen, Norwegian Polar Institute Norwegian Polar Ivan Karlsen, Tor Traditional media outlets, including news teams from The photo shows research vessel Lance following Norwegian Coast National Geographic and BBC, were invited on board the Guard vessel KV Svalbard in late February as it breaks a passage research vessel, which brought wider attention to the through the ice. KV Svalbard was assisting Lance up to 83N to redeploy research and the ongoing changes in the Arctic. The Nor- the research camp on the ice after the first floe had broken up. wegian national broadcaster NRK used the opportunity to

The ice is moving faster [Spreen et al., 2011], and the thinner ice may be more sensitive to breakup due to storms and waves. Understanding the dynamics of the ice pack is one of the key challenges for climate models. To this aim, the N-ICE2015 campaign (see http://bit.ly/N-ICE2015) and partners deployed two arrays of autonomous buoys on the sea ice several tens of kilometers away from Lance. Ski patrols using snow machines deployed the buoys during the cold of the polar night. Later in spring, buoys were deployed by helicopter. These buoys sent their positions and measurements via satellite in near-real time to track the movement and deformation of the ice pack, providing valuable data on ice dynamics for use in improving climate models and satellite products. Because the thinner ice pack might be more vulnerable to storms than the thicker ice decades ago [Parkinson and Comiso, 2013], the role of Arctic storms in sea ice loss has received attention recently. N-ICE2015 scientists moni- tored interactions of the thinner ice pack with storms using a combination of buoys that measured wave action in the ice pack and satellite observations.

Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 25 educate the audience about climate change in the Arctic European Union 7th Framework Programme, grant through Oppdrag Nansen, a television program that docu- 603887, the Norwegian Research Council, and the Euro- mented how four 13- year- olds followed the footsteps of pean Space Agency. Many participating institutions also Nansen by staying on board Lance for a week to study the provided support. ice and snow with the scientists on board. References Work for Years to Come Arrigo, K. R., et al. (2012), Massive phytoplankton blooms under Arctic sea ice, Science, 336, 1408, doi:10.1126/science.1215065. Although the field campaign from January to June 2015 was Gascard, J.- C., et al. (2008), Exploring Arctic transpolar drift during dramatic sea ice a key component of the project, work is far from over. In retreat, Eos Trans. AGU, 89(3), 21–22, doi:10.1029/2008EO030001. the months and years to come, the scientists will analyze Meier, W. N., et al. (2014), Arctic sea ice in transformation: A review of recent observed changes and impacts on biology and human activity, Rev. Geophys., 52, 185–217, the various observations to make sense of it all. New doi:10.1002/2013RG000431. understanding of the thinner ice regime in the Arctic will Onarheim, I. H., L. H. Smedsrud, R. B. Ingvaldsen, and F. Nilsen (2014), Loss of sea help reduce the uncertainty in predictions of how the ice ice during winter north of Svalbard, Tellus, Ser. A, 66, 23933, doi:10.3402/tellusa .v66.23933. conditions evolve. Core data sets will be made available to Parkinson, C. L., and J. C. Comiso (2013), On the 2012 record low Arctic sea ice cover: the broader scientific community, which can make use of Combined impact of preconditioning and an August storm, Geophys. Res. Lett., 40, them in developing and evaluating process and regional 1356–1361, doi:10.1002/grl.50349. Perovich, D. K., et al. (1999), Year on ice gives climate insights, Eos Trans. AGU, 80(41), and global climate models. 481–485, doi:10.1029/EO080i041p00481-01. Spreen, G., R. Kwok, and D. Menemenlis (2011), Trends in Arctic sea ice drift and role of Acknowledgments wind forcing: 1992–2009, Geophys. Res. Lett., 38, L19501, doi:10.1029/2011GL048970. This work was supported by the Centre of Ice, Climate and Ecosystems at the Norwegian Polar Institute and the Author Information Ministry of Climate and Environment and the Ministry of Mats A. Granskog, Philipp Assmy, Sebastian Gerland, Foreign Affairs of Norway. This work was also supported, Gunnar Spreen, and Harald Steen, Norwegian Polar Institute, in part, by funding from the Ice, Climate, Economics- Tromsø, Norway; email: [email protected]; and Lars H. Smed- Arctic Research on Change (ICE-ARC) project from the srud, Geophysical Institute, University of Bergen, Norway

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26 // Eos 1 March 2016 RESEARCH SPOTLIGHT

Early Agriculture Has Kept Earth Warm for Millennia AP Photo/Xinhua, Yu Xiangquan AP Photo/Xinhua, Yu

Farmers work on a rice paddy terrace in southern China. Mounting evidence suggests that early agriculture may have contributed to preindustrial warming of Earth’s climate.

odern human activity is known to have produced enough greenhouse gases to is very close to the 40-ppm amount originally drive climate change, but global slow the normal cooling trend. hypothesized by Ruddiman in 2003. M temperatures were already affected Now Ruddiman and 11 colleagues have The team also reviewed archaeological and by farmers millennia before the Industrial more thoroughly compared the Holocene paleoecological evidence. Studies show that Revolution. For years, scientists have been with past interglacial periods. They assessed the spread of rice irrigation is likely responsi- debating about the size of preindustrial ice core records from Antarctica, which pro- ble for much of the increase in atmospheric warming effects caused by human activities. vide a record of greenhouse gas levels and methane between 5000 and 1000 years ago. Now, according to Ruddiman et al., new evi- temperature-sensitive geochemical indices The spread of livestock across Asia, Africa, dence confirms that early agricultural green- going back 800,000 years. If preindustrial and Europe—as well as other agricultural house gas emissions had a large warming warming were due to natural causes, the activities like burning weeds and crop effect that slowed a natural cooling trend. Holocene trends should fit the patterns of residues—contributed as well. Earth’s climate has cycled between warmer past interglacial periods. Deforestation that accompanied early agri- interglacial and cooler glacial periods for Instead, the team found that Holocene pat- culture could be responsible for the carbon 2.75 million years as a result of cyclic varia- terns deviate from the norm—suggesting dioxide increase that began nearly 7000 years tions in the Earth’s orbit. The current Holo- human influence. The comparisons con- ago. New pollen data from Europe reveal cene epoch, which began about 11,700 years firmed that gas trends during the past few mainly preindustrial deforestation, and ago, is an interglacial period. millennia have been anomalous and thus archaeological data from north central China In an earlier study, Ruddiman compared anthropogenic. An interglacial period near suggest major forest loss as well. Holocene trends with data from previous 800,000 years ago is the best analogue to the More research is needed to reveal exactly interglacial periods over the past 350,000 Holocene in terms of natural orbital varia- how much carbon dioxide and methane was years. Instead of slowly decreasing—as tions. Toward the end of this analogous produced by these early agricultural practices, observed early in previous interglacial period, carbon dioxide (CO2) levels had the scientists say. It seems, however, that the periods—carbon dioxide levels began to rise decreased by 17 parts per million (ppm), but argument of whether early farming emitted 8000 years ago, and methane levels started by the same point in the preindustrial Holo- enough preindustrial gas to keep Earth warm increasing 5000 years ago. These increases cene, the CO2 levels had risen by 20 ppm. The has been largely put to rest. (Reviews of Geo- correspond with the onset of early agricul- anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions physics, doi:10.1002/2015RG000503, 2015) ture, which, Ruddiman hypothesized, may necessary to explain this 37-ppm difference —Sarah Stanley, Freelance Writer

Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 27 RESEARCH SPOTLIGHT

Oklahoma’s Dormant P Wave Amplitude Decay Faults Hide Huge Offers a Glimpse of Seismic Risk Potential Earth’s Structure

n October of 2014, two earthquakes sent shivers down the spine of Cushing, Okla., home to the world’s largest crude oil storage facil- I ity as well as operational sections of the Keystone pipeline. At magnitudes 4.0 and 4.3, the quakes were more than enough to make authorities nervous; known ties between wastewater injection and

induced seismicity prompted decision makers to shut down several 0) injection wells. Here McNamara et al. looked at seismic data from the 2014 Cushing earthquake sequence to better understand earthquake hazards and their potential impact on the local energy infrastructure. The researchers used continuous data from seismic stations around the epicenter to spot aftershocks of the Cushing sequence. They iden- tified eight quakes, which were relatively shallow (less than 6 kilometers) and aligned along the 5-kilometer-long, northwest oriented “Cushing fault.”

The 2014 earthquakes showed increased static stress in the Cush- (http://bit.ly/ccby2- 2.0 John, CC BY James St. ing fault and nearby Wilzetta-Whitetail fault zone. Using the U.S. A peridotite mantle xenolith glitters bright green. Mantle xenoliths are inclusions that Geological Survey (USGS) Prompt Assessment of Global Earth- occur when mantle fragments are caught up and included in eruptions, revealing a relic quakes for Response (PAGER) model, the researchers found that of the upper mantle where seismic waves scatter due to irregularities in mantle structure. this slow increase in stress could be unleashed in an earthquake as large as the one that hit nearby Prague, Okla., in 2011 with magnitude 5.6. the amplitude and traveltime of seismic waves can reveal vital The results suggest that the Cushing community and its costly information about the structure of the planet. Here Cafferky and energy infrastructure are at high risk for damage in future quakes. T Schmandt look at the amplitude of teleseismic P waves and map The researchers also emphasize the need to better understand the variations in the upper mantle across the United States to gain a better relationship between understanding of how seismic waves lose energy as they propagate. local seismicity and Seismic amplitudes decrease as waves travel through the mantle, the practice of and this decay behaves differently in material that is elastic or slightly wastewater injec- anelastic. Elastic attenuation refers to energy becoming less concen- tion. The USGS is trated as it spreads through increasingly large volumes of Earth, and now working to anelastic attenuation refers to wave energy lost by conversion to heat. include induced seis- A form of elastic attenuation known as scattering occurs when non- micity in its National uniformities in the mantle material cause seismic waves to deviate Seismic Hazard from their trajectory. Model; without it, To analyze these differences, the researchers looked at USArray mea- decision makers in surements of teleseismic P wave amplitude spectra from deep earth- Oklahoma could eas- quakes. The data were inverted in order to map variations in the upper

Brian Sherrod, USGS ily underestimate mantle attenuation parameter called ∆t* across the contiguous United Bricks cascade from a chimney damaged after the 2011 the risk. States. earthquake near Prague, Okla. U.S. Geological Survey The team advises The team found relatively high ∆t* in the south Rocky Mountains, geophysicists attributed the quake to wastewater injec- that the oil and gas Appalachian margin, and American southwest and low ∆t* across the tion into deep disposal wells in the Wilzetta North field. industry take mea- older, more stable interior. Where changes in ∆t* magnitudes varied, sures to reduce the variation was dramatic: roughly 2 to 7 times more than models of induced seismicity mantle temperature predicted. risk, including distributing wells over a larger area and avoiding The team interprets this as evidence that ∆t* variations are not only injections into active faults. Incidentally, the Cushing sequence the result of thermal influences. Instead, other drivers of the variations reactivated in October 2015—the same week this research was pub- could include partial melt, changes in mantle composition, and scatter- lished—and as a result, the Oklahoma Corporation Commission ing, which could be caused by sharp irregular boundaries or mantle fab- moved to limit wastewater disposal in the area to avoid a large ric developed by past or ongoing strain. They hypothesize that scatter- earthquake. This demonstrates the significance of studies like this ing—a form of elastic attenuation—has the potential to obscure the as resources for local leaders. Further work in seismology and signal of anelastic attenuation. Identifying the relationship between stress analysis is a stepping-stone to better earthquake forecasting these influences is an important step in improving scientific knowledge and safer communities. (Geophysical Research Letters, doi:10.1002/ of mantle convection and composition. (Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geo- 2015GL064669, 2015) —Lily Strelich, Freelance Writer systems, doi:10.1002/2015GC005993, 2015) —Lily Strelich, Freelance Writer

28 // Eos 1 March 2016 POSITIONS AVAILABLE

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Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 29 POSITIONS AVAILABLE

Atmospheric Sciences Purdue University is an ADVANCE This position will become part of a The University of Wyoming is an Institution. Purdue University is an major research thrust in water Equal Employment Opportunity/Affir- Postdoctoral Research Associate EEO/AA employer fully committed to resources at the University of Wyo- mative Action employer. All qualified The Shepson Tropospheric Chemis- achieving a diverse work force. A back- ming. Groundwater resources are of applicants will receive consideration try Research Group at Purdue Univer- ground check will be required for immense imp011ance to societal and for employment without regard to race, sity has an opening for a Postdoctoral employment in this position. ecological needs. Approximately half color, religion, sex, national origin, Research Associate. The position of Wyoming water resources are from disability or protected veteran status or involves work aimed at developing and Hydrology groundwater, and subsurface any other characteristic protected by improving methods for quantification resources provide critical water to law and University policy. Please see: of sources and sinks of greenhouse Tenure-Track Assistant Professor agriculture, oil and gas development, http://www.uwyo.edu/diversity/ gases, focusing on aircraft-based Position GROUNDWATER HYDROLO- and municipalities. There are tre- faimess. We conduct background methods. This work is part of the Indi- GIST University of Wyoming mendous research challenges in investigations for all final candidates anapolis Flux Experiment (INFLUX). The Department of Civil and Archi- groundwater resulting from changing being considered for employment. Depending on interests, there may also tectural Engineering at the University climate signals and human popula- Offers of employment are contingent be an opportunity to lead, and to work of Wyoming invites applications for a tion patterns, and emerging tech- upon the completion of the background on a number of other problems in tenure-track faculty position in niques provide outstanding opportu- check. atmospheric chemistry, including: Groundwater Hydrology at the Assis- nities for groundwater hydrologists to 1. Nitrogen cycling in forest envi- tant Professor level. We seek a candi- better quantify the fate and transport Ocean Sciences ronments date with the interest and abilit y to of water in a changing west. We seek 2. Aerosol phase photochemistry develop and sustain a nationally a groundwater hydrologist with expe- Assistant Professor, Tenure Track. 3. Arctic halogen chemistry and competitive research program. The rience in laboratory and field The School of Oceanography at the analytical mass spectrometry successful candidate must hold an approaches for describing complex University of Washington invites Expertise in atmospheric/analytical earned doctoral degree in Civil Engi- subsurface processes. Areas of spe- applications for a full-time (100% FTE) chemistry and good computational neering or in a closely related disci- cific interest include, but are not lim- 9-month, multi-year tenure-track skills is essential. The position is for pline by the position start date. Reg- ited to, surface-groundwater interac- Assistant Professor (0116) position. A one year, but potentially renewable istration as a professional engineer or tion, unsaturated flow and Ph.D. or foreign equivalent is required annually. The position will be open professional hydrologist are desirable contaminant transport. on the date of appointment. We wel- until filled. Interested candidates but not required. The successful can- As a member of the faculty of the come applicants who have expertise in should send a CV with a list of 3 refer- didate must be able to teach courses Department of Civil and Architectural trace elements including metals and ences to: in fluid mechanics, hydraulics, Engineering, the successful candidate nutrients and their isotopes. Persons Prof. Paul B. Shepson hydrology, and water resources engi- will integrate his or her research with whose research is focused on under- Purdue University neering. Also, the successful candi- the goals of the new Wyoming Center standing the distributions, sources, 560 Oval Dr. date must have the demonstrated for Environmental Hydrology and Geo- sinks and biological consequences of West Lafayette, IN 47907 ability to develop an externally physics (http://www.uwyo.edu/epscor/ trace elements in the ocean are 765-494-7441 funded research program in ground- wycehg/) and provide academic sup- encouraged to apply. We expect the [email protected] water hydrology. port to the PhD program in Water successful applicant will enhance the Resources, Environmental Science and School’s existing expertise in global Engineering (http://www.uwyo.edu/ scale biogeochemical cycles, microbial wrese/). ecology, fluxes across ocean boundar- UW faculty have access to world- ies, and/or paleoceanography. class computational resources as University of Washington faculty described at: https://arcc.uwyo.edu/. engage in teaching, research and ser- The depat1ment is supported by 22 vice. The successful applicant will be tenured or tenure-track faculty and expected to contribute to the teaching offers ABET-accredited baccalaureate mission of the department at the grad- programs in both civil engineering uate and undergraduate levels. The and architectural engineering to University of Washington and the approximately 300 undergraduate stu- School of Oceanography promote dents. The department also offers diversity and inclusivity among our graduate programs at the Masters and students, faculty, staff, and public. PhD levels to roughly 60 graduate stu- Thus, we seek candidates whose dents. research, teaching, and/or service have Laramie is a picturesque and prepared them to fulfill our commit- friendly town offering a reasonable ment to inclusion, and have given cost ofliving, good K-12 public schools them the confidence to fully engage and easy access to outdoor activities in audiences in higher education from a the Rocky Mountain region. Additional wide spectrum of backgrounds. information on the Department, Col- Questions pertaining to this search lege, and Laramie is available at: http:// can be addressed to Dr. Rick Keil, www.uwyo.edu/civil , http://ceas.uwyo. Search Committee Chair (rickkeil@ edu and http://www.laramie.org. uw.edu). More information on the Applications must include: 1) a letter School of Oceanography can be found of application, 2) a curriculum vitae at http://ocean.washington.edu. including a list of publications, 3) a Applicants should submit A) a cover statement of research interests, 4) a letter, B) curriculum vitae with publi- statement ofteaching interests, and cation list, C) statements of research 5) contact information for at least three and teaching interests with reference references. Do not include supple- to how their teaching and/or research mental information such as off-prints demonstrate a commitment to diver- of papers, reference letters, or tran- sity and inclusion through scholarship scripts. Review of applications will or by improving access to higher edu- begin 1 5 September 2015 and continue cation for underrepresented individu- until the position is filled. The pre- als or groups, and D) the names and ferred start date for the position is Jan- contact information of four references. uary 2016. Submit applications in a Letters of recommendation from refer- single PDF file to: water_search@ ences should be sent directly by the uwyo.edu. referee before the application deadline.

30 // Eos 1 March 2016 POSITIONS AVAILABLE

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Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 31 POSITIONS AVAILABLE

Electronic materials are preferred; University of Washington is recog- Endowed Open Rank Position in GDL Foundation Fellowships in please send to [email protected] with nized for supporting the work-life Quantitative Geosciences Structure and Diagenesis “Assistant Professor Elemental balance of its faculty. The University The Department of Geological Sci- The GDL Foundation supports study Cycling Position” in the subject line. of Washington offers a wide range of ences at Michigan State University and research of chemical and mechan- Hard copies can be sent to Ms. Su Tip- professional development and net- [MSU] invites outstanding candidates ical interactions, structural diagenesis, ple, School of Oceanography, Univer- working opportunities for junior fac- to apply for a full-time academic year in sedimentary basins. Practical appli- sity of Washington, Box 357940, Seat- ulty and a comprehensive benefits endowed open rank tenure system cations are of particular interest. tle, WA, 98195, USA. Individuals with package, including access to campus position in geosciences starting in Fall We are currently seeking applica- disabilities desiring accommodations child-care and health/vision/dental 2016. We encourage applications from tions from M.S. and Ph.D. candidates, in the application process should plans for spouse, domestic partner, across a broad spectrum of geoscience post-doctoral researchers, and scien- notify Su Tipple, School of Oceanog- and/or dependents. Details can be research areas from individuals who tists for fellowships, up to $10,000, raphy (206-543-5060). Applications, found at http://www.washington.edu/ employ advanced quantitative and based on specific proposals for including letters of recommendation, admin/hr/benefits/forms/ computational analysis in their research and participation in meetings should be received prior to March 6, ben-summaries/faculty.pdf research. We are seeking candidates and conferences to share results. 2016, to ensure full consideration. who will develop a vigorous external- Submit applications (available at: The University of Washington Interdisciplinary/Other ly-funded research program, teach and www.gdlfoundation.org) by April 1, (UW) is located in the greater Seattle advise undergraduate and graduate 2016. metropolitan area, a dynamic, multi- CHEMICAL OCEANOGRAPHY - TEN- students, contribute to a collegial and cultural community of 3.7 million URE TRACK POSITION. inclusive environment, and engage in Student Opportunities people. The UW serves a diverse pop- The Department of Chemistry and collaborative endeavors. ulation of 80,000 students, faculty Biochemistry, at California Polytechnic MSU is committed to achieving PhD opportunities in ocean-atmo- and staff, including 25% first-genera- State University, San Luis Obispo invites excellence through diversity and sphere interactions emphasizing tion college students, over 25% Pell applications for a full-time, academic encourages applications from women, atmospheric chemistry, School of Grant students, and faculty from over year, tenure track position beginning persons of color, veterans, and persons Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, 70 countries. The UW provides a wide September 15, 2016. Area of research with disabilities, and we endeavor to Stony Brook University, NY. range of networking, mentoring, and specialization is in Chemical Oceanogra- facilitate employment assistance to Students with strong backgrounds development opportunities for junior phy. Appointments are anticipated at spouses or partners of candidates for in physics and/or chemistry and math faculty. the Assistant Professor rank. For details, faculty positions. wanted to study the chemical and The University of Washington is an qualifications, and application instruc- Details on how to apply will be physical properties of anthropogenic affirmative action and equal opportu- tions (online faculty application required), found at jobs.msu.edu under posting and ocean derived biogenic particles nity employer. All qualified appli- please visit WWW.CALPOLYJOBS.ORG number 2591. We will begin reviewing and their effects on ice cloud formation cants will receive consideration for and search/apply to requisition #103924 applications in March 2016 but the processes. Laboratory and field employment without regard to race, Open until filled. Application review position will remain open until filled. hands-on experience desirable. For color, religion, sex, sexual orienta- begins April 4, 2016. For further infor- Questions regarding this position can more information contact Daniel Knopf tion, gender identity, national origin, mation about the Department of Chem- be directed to M. D. Gottfried, Chair of ([email protected]) or age, protected veteran or disabled istry and Biochemistry see http://www. the Search Committee, at gottfrie@ Josephine Aller (Josephine.aller@ status, or genetic information. The calpoly.edu/~chem. EEO msu.edu. stonybrook.edu).

32 // Eos 1 March 2016 Postcards from the Field

Hello everyone,

Here I am in the Scottish Highlands. See those three parallel striations about half- way down the picture? They are the Parallel Roads of Glen Roy, a glacial leftover that once baffled scientists. Charles Darwin was here in 1838 and, to his later regret, he published an incorrect theory for their origins. Louis Agassiz eventually figured it out and set the record straight.

Wish you were here—the sheep aren’t great conversationalists!

Paul Williams, Royal Society Research Fellow at University of Reading, UK

View more postcards at http://americangeophysicalunion.tumblr .com/tagged/postcards-from-the-ﬁ eld. Have an Idea or Topic to Present at the Fall Meeting? Submit a Session Proposal Deadline: 20 April, 11:59 P.M. EDT You must be current in your 2016 membership dues in order to propose a session.

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