Horticulture Professional

181668FNGLA_ManualCover_V2.indd 2 9/17/18 9:39 AM THE HORTICULTURE PROFESSIONAL ii THE HORTICULTURE PROFESSIONAL

Written and Illustrated by Gale Allbritton Magnolia Grex, LLC

Edited by Merry Mott Florida Nursery, Growers and Landscape Association

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any graphic, electronic, or mechanical means, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

ISBN-13: 978-0-692-19044-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018959517

Written and illustrated by Gale Allbritton, Magnolia Grex, LLC Edited by Merry Mott, Florida Nursery, Growers and Landscape Association Cover design by Creative Printing & Graphic Design Inc. All photographs licensed from iStock by Getty Images unless otherwise credited Book design by Gale Allbritton, Magnolia Grex, LLC

Printed and bound in the United States of America First printing October 2018

Published by Florida Nursery, Growers and Landscape Association 1533 Park Center Drive Orlando, FL 32835 USA

Visit www.fngla.org

Credits and permissions are listed on pages x - xi and are considered a continuation of the copyright page.

NOTICE TO THE READER Publisher does not warrant or guarantee any of the products described herein or perform any independent analysis in connection with any of the product informational contained herein. Publisher does not assume, and expressly disclaims, any obligation to obtain and include information other than that provided to it by the manufacturer. The reader is expressly warned to consider and adopt all safety precautions that might be indicated by the activities described herein and to avoid all potential hazards. By following the instructions contained herein, the reader willingly assumes all risks in connection with such instructions. The publisher makes no representations or warranties of any kind, including but not limited to, the warranties of fitness for particular purpose of merchantability, nor are any such representations implied with respect to the material set forth herein, and the publisher takes no responsibility with respect to such material. The publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material. The reader is notified that this book is an educational tool, not a practice manual. Since the law is in constant change, no rule or statement of law in this book should be relied upon for any service to any client. The reader should always refer to standard legal sources for the current rule or law. If legal advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of the appropriate professional should be sought. iv Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ix

Photo Credits x

Preface xii

Dedication xiii

The Florida Horticulture Industry 1 FNGLA Certification 1 FNGLA Certified Horticulture Professional (FCHP) 2 FCHP Program Policies 2 FCHP Examination 4 Trade and Professional Organizations 7 Societies and Clubs 7 The Florida Nursery, Growers and Landscape Association 8 Summary 10

Safety 11 The Safety Program 11 Employee Orientation and Training 14 Personal Protective Equipment 16 Equipment Hazards 22 Chemical Hazards 28 Production Area Safety 35 Outdoor Environmental Hazards 36 People Hazards 43 Hazard Abatement 44 Accident Statistics & Reports 44 Summary 47 References 48

Plant Biology 49 Plant Growth and Development 49 Plant Organs 56 Plant Metabolism 75 Plant Classification 78 Summary 81 References 82

Plant, Soil and Water Relationships 83 Soil Physical Characteristics 83 Soil Chemical Characteristics 90 Container Media 101 Plant-Water Relationships 113 v Plant-Light Relationships 116 Plant-Temperature Relationships 117 Summary 119 References 120

Fertilization Management 121 Mineral Requirements for Growth 121 Fertilizers 126 Nutrient Test Results 136 Fertilizer Application 138 Fertilizer Recommendations 140 Fertilizer Application Precautions 155 Fertilizer Applicator Certification 157 BMPs for Landscape Management 157 BMPs for Nursery Plant Production 160 Summary 161 References 162

Pest Identification 163 Insects 163 Disease 191 Nematodes 199 Weeds 204 Summary 208 References 209

Integrated Pest Management 211 Pest Identification 211 Scouting 212 IPM Control Methods 217 Pesticide Application 231 Summary 239 References 240

Plant Identification 241 Nomenclature or Plant Names 241 How to Write a Plant’s Name 245 Plant Selection 249 Plant Communities 264 Developing Plant Identification Skills 266 Summary 269 References 270

FNGLA Plant List 271 Hardiness and Heat Zones 272 Plant Selection 275 Plant Identification Exam 287 vi Summary 287 References 288

Irrigation 289 Water Issues 289 Irrigation System Design 290 Irrigation System Installation 297 Irrigation Management 299 Irrigation System Maintenance 305 Irrigation Management BMPs 309 Summary 310 References 311

Plant Propagation 313 Environmental Considerations 313 Propagation Methods 316 Propagation Structures 346 Summary 349 References 350

Plant Production 351 Nursery Production 351 Greenhouse Plant Production 354 Production Considerations 363 Cultural Considerations 365 Maintenance Considerations 377 Economic Considerations 386 Sustainable Production 388 Summary 390 References 391

Landscape Plant Selection and Maintenance 393 Planning 393 Plant Selection 396 Implementation 404 Maintenance 413 Summary 431 References 432

Turfgrass Selection and Maintenance 433 Turfgrass Selection 433 Planting a Florida Lawn 436 Turfgrass Types 439 Turfgrass Maintenance 452 Sustainable Lawns 461 Summary 462 References 463

vii Interior Plant Selection and Maintenance 465 Benefits of Interior Plants 465 Interior Plant Growth Requirements 469 Interior Plant Maintenance 476 Summary 486 References 488

Business Practices 489 Florida Horticulture Industry 489 Merchandising 492 Laws and Regulations for the Horticulture Business 497 Voluntary Compliance Issues 508 Summary 515 References 516

Glossary 517

Index 551

viii Acknowledgements

Our sincere thanks to Greg Charles, Joy Dorst, Susan League and Lloyd Singleton who made content contributions and provided advice on the subject matter composition of this book. We also thank Billy Butterfield, Bob Cook, Sheila Gmeiner, John Kane, Roger Kjelgren, Ron Mossman, George Rogers and Robert Shoelson for spending valuable time reviewing content and making suggestions for improvement. We wish to thank many others not included in this list who answered questions, provided policy guidance, opened communication channels to additional resources, provided support and encouragement, and helped generate ideas for content development. We especially wish to thank our family and close friends whose patience, love and support throughout the many hours of research, composing, editing and refinement were immeasurable. Without any of you, the production of this book would not have been possible.

Contributors and Advisors:

Greg Charles, Pinellas Technical Education Center Joy Dorst, Green Solutions Susan League, University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Lloyd Singleton, University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences

Reviewers:

Billy Butterfield, AmeriScapes Landscape Management Services Clarence Canada, Valencia College Bob Cook, Weeds and Seeds LLC Bill Copenhaver, Grassroots Groundcovers Bonnie Desmond, Pinellas County Parks Marc Frank, University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Sheila Gmeiner, Tallahassee Nurseries John Kane, Tallahassee Nurseries Roger Kjelgren, University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Ron Mossman, Florida International University Merry Mott, Florida Nursery, Growers and Landscape Association George Rogers, Palm Beach State College Robert Shoelson, Betrock Information Systems, Inc. Dale Wallace, The Plant Connection

ix Preface

The contents of this book are drawn primarily from the research and publications of subject matter experts within the Environmental Horticulture, Entomology and Nematology, Plant Pathology, Soil and Water Sciences, and Horticultural Sciences departments at the University of Florida’s Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS), publications of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP), and published documents of the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (FDACS). Resources from these and other contributors have been refined or rewritten into a collective body of work intended to support the learning efforts of individuals seeking to broaden their knowledge and gain expertise as certified horticulture and landscape professionals. This collective body of work was written and illustrated by Gale Allbritton, whose years of experience teaching horticulture and landscape practices helped develop the ability to synthesize and present information to audiences in ways that are relevant, appealing and effective. She possesses advanced degrees in Environmental Horticulture from the University of Florida and Instructional Systems Design from Florida State University, is credentialed by FNGLA in several certification areas, and is deeply committed to continued professional improvement through certification. Gale used her knowledge and expertise with industry certification programs to create a practical book that supports learning and retention of the subject matter. Ultimately, this book is designed to assist members of the horticulture and landscape industry in preparation for the successful achievement of FNGLA professional certification.

xii xiv 1 The Florida Horticulture Industry

he word “horticulture” is derived from a establish a minimum level of competency TLatin word meaning “garden cultivation”. by which professional members of the green Over the years, the horticulture industry has industry are measured. developed far beyond this simple definition. Environmental horticulture, or the “green” FNGLA Certification industry, encompasses a wide range of Certification in the green industry is businesses, including nursery and greenhouse voluntary, as opposed to state licensing growers; lawn and garden suppliers; required in government regulated professions. equipment manufacturers; landscape design, Therefore, certification is not legally required installation and maintenance services; lawn to conduct business in this field. However, and garden stores; florist shops; and other certification helps the industry regulate itself by retail establishments selling plants and related providing a means through which consumers lawn and garden goods. can identify those who can competently Florida is a leading state in the nation in demonstrate professional skills and abilities. terms of overall green industry value, ranked Overall, certification raises the standards, second only to California. Nursery crops are one professionalism and image of an industry, of the largest agricultural commodity groups in making it good for business and individuals. Florida, along with fruits, vegetables and forest FNGLA administers several industry products. certification programs that encompass all Florida Nursery, Growers and Landscape aspects of the nursery and landscape industry. Association (FNGLA) is Florida’s oldest and These programs provide individuals the largest association representing the needs of opportunity to earn professional designations the environmental horticulture industry. Its which distinguish them from others. mission is to promote and protect the success Professionally certified individuals demonstrate and professionalism of its members. To raise proficiency through extensive written and the bar of professionalism, FNGLA worked practical exams in general horticultural with industry representatives to develop a knowledge, plant and pest identification, set of certification standards. These standards legal and regulatory issues, fertilizer use 1 FCHP Manual and irrigation efficiency consistent with to attend special training before taking the established Best Management Practices, plant examination. However, a training course is propagation and production, plant selection highly recommended, especially for those new and use, landscape installation and landscape to the industry. management principles. Preparatory courses are offered by Certification provides a way for the public various schools throughout the state, as to find the most qualified professionals, shows well as online, to help prepare individuals to professional commitment, allows companies take the examination. Contact the Florida to stand out from competitors, and provides Nursery, Growers and Landscape Association the opportunity to bid on jobs that require (FNGLA) state office, or visit www.fngla.org for FNGLA’s certification as a pre-qualification. information on when and where these courses are offered. FNGLA Certified Horticulture Professional (FCHP) FCHP Program Policies The FCHP program is administered by The FNGLA Certified Horticulture FNGLA and is open to all eligible individuals. No Professional (FCHP) program is a voluntary individual is refused because of membership program for the certification of employees status, gender, race, color, creed, national origin in the horticulture and landscape field, and or disability. closely allied professions. It is a standalone program, but is also a prerequisite for more Eligibility advanced levels of certification, such as the FNGLA Certified Landscape Contractor (FCLC) The program is intended for individuals and the FNGLA Certified Landscape Designer employed in the horticulture industry or those (FCLD) programs. who are studying to enter the industry. FCHP serves as the core of all FNGLA’s certification programs and includes fundamental principles of Florida’s nursery and landscape industry. While there is no minimum requirement, 90 days of employment in the industry is recommended, or an equivalent amount of education. All applicants will be required to adhere to FCHP is the industry’s only standard a code of ethics that must be signed as part of for measuring horticulture and landscape the exam application. However, membership in knowledge. The program promotes FNGLA is not required as a basis for certification. and credentials competent horticulture professionals, including nursery, greenhouse, Certification landscape and retail garden center employees. Certification is granted to individuals who The FCHP program has been in existence since have met eligibility requirements, have taken 1984. Currently, more than 2,000 individuals and passed the examination and have signed in Florida, the southeast and the Bahamas are an agreement to adhere to a code of ethics. professionally certified through this program. Certification is valid for a period of three years. To gain certification credentials, individuals Each person certified will receive a certificate must pass an examination designed to and an identification card. Logos and other measure the ability to meet standards set forth promotional material may be available and in this manual. Individuals are not required can be obtained from FNGLA. Certification will 2 The Florida Horticulture Industry expire on March 31st, June 30th, September Activity Continuing Education 30th or December 31st, whichever is closest to Hours the initial passing date. Semester College Course 8 Certification Renewal Industry Short Course 6 GI-BMP Class 4 Certification may be renewed for additional Industry Trade Show 2 periods of three years. As a basis for renewal, Garden Tour 2 the certified professional must submit FNGLA Chapter Meeting 1 evidence of satisfactory completion of 15 hours FNGLA Annual Meeting 1 education and/or service in some aspect of Industry Advisory Meeting 1 the horticulture industry. These hours must be Educational programs, including completed during the three-year certification classroom training, online courses, pesticide period. applicator training and hands-on activities are awarded 1 CEU per hour of instruction – Certified professionals are encouraged to up to 4 hours in one day. participate in a variety of continuing education opportunities. The activities illustrated in Volunteer work may also be credited at Figure 1 include the corresponding continuing 1 CEU per hour of volunteering – up to 4 in education value. one day. Contact FNGLA for specifics. Programs that wish to be considered for Figure 1. Examples of continuing education opportunities. continuing education hours may request Rights of the Certified Person a Continuing Education Unit (CEU) form from FNGLA. It will include the date, type Any person who is currently certified will of activity and number of CEUs to be given. have the right to advertise and represent When attending an event, certified individuals himself/herself to the public as an FNGLA should request an FNGLA CEU form at the Certified Horticulture Professional (FCHP), end of the program. These forms will not be and will have the right to wear and display sent to individuals. It is up to the individual the FNGLA Certified Horticulture Professional to request the CEU form following each emblem, logo and identification. Additionally, approved activity. the employer of any full time FNGLA Certified FCHPs seeking recertification must send Horticulture Professional will have the right to completed CEU forms to the FNGLA office to be publicize that fact. recorded in their file. The forms can be sent via mail, email or fax. At renewal time, the certified Advanced Level Certification individual will receive a renewal invoice and should return it to FNGLA along with the The principles tested in FNGLA’s Certified appropriate renewal fee. Any certificate that Horticulture Professional serve as the core for has not been renewed will expire 30 days after all of FNGLA’s industry certifications. Other the expiration date unless the FCHP requests an certifications include the FNGLA Certified extension from FNGLA prior to their expiration Landscape Technician (FCLT), FNGLA Certified date. Landscape Maintenance Technician (FCLMT), Retesting may be used for recertification FNGLA Certified Irrigation Technician (FCIT), instead of continuing education. This may FNGLA Certified Landscape Contractor (FCLC), necessitate the purchase of a new manual and FNGLA Certified Landscape Designer because the test will be based on the current (FCLD). For requirements, contact the FNGLA FCHP Manual, which is revised as necessary. office or see www.fngla.org. 3 FCHP Manual FCHP Examination corresponds to the requirements of a horticulturist on the job. The applicant is Candidates must pass a comprehensive responsible for information found in all parts written exam to demonstrate knowledge about of the most recent edition of the FCHP Manual. plant identification, selection and use; disease and insect control; plant biology; soil sciences; Plant Identification plant propagation and production; landscape management and other subjects contained Applicants may choose one of the separate within the FCHP Manual. Certification and regions or hardiness zones for the Plant recertification via examination is available Identification section of the exam. Plants are online. Some educational facilities are randomly selected from a list that is included authorized as FCHP examination sites and may later in this manual. The applicant need only conduct exams. Contact FNGLA for a complete study the plants indicated for the selected list of approved exam locations. region. The FCHP examination consists of four The sole intent of the Plant Identification parts that are taken individually. List is to limit the number of plants a person must study to prepare for the certification 1) Horticulture Practices tests general horticultural knowledge from all parts of exam. It is not intended as a plant selection or the manual. recommendation guide. The list has also been divided by plant type based on growth habit; 2) Safety covers general safety plus specific for example, trees, shrubs, vines, palms and industry safety knowledge and procedures palmlike plants, etc. Some of the plants listed included in the Safety chapter. may occur in more than one category because 3) Plant Identification requires the applicant of their usefulness in a variety of situations. to correctly identify 50 plants from photos However, for purposes of clarity, a given plant and is explained in more detail in the will only appear in one category. following section (see Figure 2). See FNGLA’s website (www.fngla.org) for 4) The Open Book exam tests the applicant’s links to online plant identification resources that ability to find answers to general will assist you in your studies. These materials horticulture questions from any part of the are intended for reference and to supplement FCHP text. more in depth preparation required by the Each exam section is designed to objectively applicant for the plant identification portion of measure knowledge and proficiency that the exam. photo collage by david macmanus david by collage photo Figure 2. Plant identi cation test photo example. 4 The Florida Horticulture Industry Examination Objectives Examination Methods

The objective of the FCHP certification Applicants for the online examination must examination is to ensure the horticulture register online at www.fngla.org. Upon approval, employer and the public that examinees an email notification will be sent that includes possess qualifications expected from a certified login information and additional directions professional based on industry standards. needed to proceed with examination. This evidence requires the examinee Applicants will be required to have a copy of 1) possess reasonable knowledge about the FNGLA Certified Horticulture Professional Florida’s horticulture industry; (FCHP) Manual with them during the exam; 2) has knowledge of the general methods of the FCHP Manual can be used only during the plant classification and plant growth; Open Book portion of the exam. 3) can name basic plant parts and describe Once approved and following notification, their major functions to support plant life; applicants will be allowed 60 days to complete 4) can list environmental factors that affect all parts of the exam. A total of three hours is plant growth and provide examples of how allowed for the four-part examination. Each part each factor influences plant behavior; is administered and timed independently of 5) can identify common horticultural pests another. Each section is also graded separately, and describe symptoms of plant damage so sections can be taken all at the same time from each major pest group; or spaced out over the allowed 60-day period. 6) can correctly advise on safe use of common Since the exam is fully online, applicants are horticultural chemicals and IPM strategies; also allowed to choose the best time for taking 7) can identify common plants used in the the exam. industry within the region of the state from which the examinee is applying; The FCHP exam is a multiple choice and 8) can identify correct usage of regional true/false exam. The passing grade for each plants in keeping with Florida Friendly section is 70%. Online exam applicants receive LandscapingTM principles; their scores immediately following completion 9) can list basic factors that are generally of each exam section. Examinees are furnished considered influential on sales of plants their scores but they will not be permitted and describe the outcome of those effects; to review their certiﬁcation exams. Those 10) can identify sources of professional help in applicants who have passed all four sections of solving plant problems; and the exam will receive a certiﬁcate packet in the 11) can identify proper irrigation and landscape mail to their home address. management practices in keeping with recognized Best Management Practices. Manual

FNGLA’s Certification Committee, with assistance from industry professionals and research publications from the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS), publishes the FNGLA Certified Horticulture Professional Manual. The manual contains information required for certification preparation, plus lists additional relevant reference materials valuable to horticulture professionals. Figure 3. Applicant taking online exam. 5 FCHP Manual

FNGLA Certification Exam Application Figure 4. The online application for FNGLA certi cation exams. Americans with Disabilities Act

Re-examinations It is the intent of FNGLA to comply with the Examinees need only be re-tested on any Americans with Disabilities Act. Anyone who section(s) failed provided the re-examination has special needs, a disability such as a learning is within one year. Individuals are eligible for disability, deafness, blindness or other physical two re-examinations within one year of the disability which may cause undue difficulty previously failed section. Anyone who has in the normal testing procedure may petition failed the examination three times (original FNGLA for special testing. This testing will be and two re-examinations) will be allowed to administered in the appropriate manner. retest again only upon request to FNGLA, or after a designated waiting period. Applications Online applications are available at www. FCHP Examination Fee Schedule * fngla.org. All fees must be submitted to FNGLA prior to the examination. Online applications Examination & Re-examination Fee: require up to one week to process for credit FNGLA member ** (complete exam) $85 card payments and up to 30 days to process Each re-exam section $25 for check payments. Applicants are approved Non-member (complete exam) $150 only after all documentation and payment is Each re-exam section $40 received. See Figure 5 for more information on fee schedules. Each applicant for certification must have a current FCHP Manual at the examination. FNGLA’s Certification Committee (The FNGLA Certified Horticulture Members of FNGLA’s Certification Professional Manual is available through Committee have the responsibility of adopting FNGLA.) and amending policy, rules and regulations, and for approving the manual, its revisions, tests, Certification Renewal (every 3 years): testing procedures, etc. Certification manual FNGLA member ** $60 revisions and the overall administration and Non-member $90 operation of the FNGLA Certified Horticulture Professional program are done under the * Prices periodically subject to change. supervision of the FNGLA Certification Current fee schedule as of July 2018. Committee, the FNGLA Board of Directors ** Employees of FNGLA members will be and the Chief Executive Officer of FNGLA. allowed to pay member price. The Committee also has the final decision on qualifications for certification, pass or fail Figure 5. FCHP certi cation exam fee schedule. decisions, and revocations of certification. 6 FCHP Manual ▶ American Public Gardens Association terms knowledge, service, integrity and quality, (AABGA) at www.publicgardens.org and stresses “In Unity There is Strength.” ▶ Florida Federation of Garden Clubs at Leadership of the organization is provided www.ffgc.org by a Board of Directors who provide guidance ▶ Florida State Horticultural Society (FSHS) at and make policy decisions for efficient business www.fshs.org operations. The Board is comprised of member- elected representatives from geographic ▶ Florida Native Plant Society (FNPS) at www. fnps.org chapters, divisions and statewide officers. The daily business of the organization is conducted The Florida Nursery, Growers by a professional staff under the direction of the Chief Executive Officer, who is contracted and Landscape Association by the Board.

FNGLA Code of Ethics

Every member of FNGLA must subscribe to a professional code of ethics in order to join the organization. There is a similar code of ethics a certiﬁcation applicant must agree to before he/she can secure approval to take exams for becoming a certiﬁed industry professional.

Geographical Chapters The Florida Nursery, Growers and Landscape Association (FNGLA) is a nonprofit Membership in FNGLA is divided organization composed of growers, retailers, geographically into chapters. These local landscape professionals, allied suppliers chapters elect their own officers, conduct their and others professionally engaged in the own business and each elect a representative to horticulture industry. The association is a the statewide Board of Directors. FNGLA learns vibrant network of professionals who work in about issues affecting different parts of the unison to shape the future of Florida’s nursery state through chapter representatives. Much and landscape industry. FNGLA is one of of the “grass roots” activity of the organization the largest state nursery associations in the takes place at the chapter level. Members country, with close to 2,000 members. It is a and certified professionals are encouraged member-driven association that recognizes the to attend their local chapter meetings. need for individual industry members to unify. Information about time and place for chapter The motto of the organization incorporates the meetings can be found at www.fngla.org.

Code of Ethics of the Florida Nursery, Growers and Landscape Association To regard the nursery industry as an honorable and necessary profession, and to conduct myself and my business in such a manner as to enhance the standing of my vocation in its public appearance. To deal fairly and justly with my customers and to condemn all forms of practices which tend to discredit the nursery industry or injure its public relations. To strive constantly and assiduously to improve my qualifications and proficiency in the industry and thereby merit the approbation and esteem of others. To adhere to the Bylaws of the Association and to foster its objectives.

8 2 Safety

griculture, which includes the nursery The Safety Program Aand landscape industry, continues to be among the most hazardous of occupations. A good safety program starts with a total Workers use numerous pieces of equipment commitment to safety. Safety requires an and materials that may cause injuries. However, investment of time and resources. Owners most so-called occupational hazards would and managers must make the commitment not pose a threat to workers if more attention first, but a successful safety program requires were paid to safety. Many costly mishaps could that employees take ownership of and make a be avoided if the right choices were made for commitment to the program. personal protection. The goal of a safety program is simply Nursery and landscape employees to avoid accidents. From the management encounter specific hazards on the job. Safe perspective, safety pays because it protects work place practices will help reduce risk. In today’s business world, the owners, managers, and work force of successful nurseries, landscape businesses and practically all companies make a concerted effort to provide a safe work environment that create and follow a safety program in the workplace. Figure 1. Factors in the creation of a safe work environment. 11 FCHP Manual should be closed and latched after each use Complaints about wearing personal to keep dust and other contaminates out. First protective equipment include excuses that aid kits should be checked for expired items it is uncomfortable or unnatural. However, and restocked on a regular basis. All workers personal protective equipment has proven should know where first aid kits are located, itself, and the people who use it are the smart who to see, and what to do if first aid treatment ones - the ones who know the risks. is needed. Every worker should use the specific Access to a first aid kit is not intended to be personal protective equipment recommended a substitute for medical attention. If emergency or furnished for any job. It is the employee’s treatment is necessary for severe injuries, call responsibility to use the equipment properly for help immediately and seek assistance from by following instructions on the package or a coworker. Emergency telephone numbers carton. Improperly worn personal protection is and instructions to request assistance and ineffective. transportation to the local hospital emergency room should be taped to the first aid kit. Disposable equipment should be used wisely to avoid waste, so supplies will be Personal Protective Equipment available when needed. Remember, dust masks are approved for a full day’s use. Sponge The location of dust masks, chemical rubber ear plugs can be kept clean using the application protection, and other protective plastic wrapper. Gloves can protect the hands, devices should be explained during the particularly when handling heavy loads; but, employee orientation. Though workers are not their use presents a real danger if they are always required by law to wear these devices, not taken off when working around moving they provide protection from common hazards machinery. and their regular use may reduce future liabilities. It is important that these devices are Eye Protection provided and employees are encouraged to wear them. Eye injuries can be easily prevented if appropriate eye or face protection is worn. Think ahead of time about eye injury hazards. Eye injuries are likely to occur from flying particles such as landscape debris, from splashing chemicals or fuel, or potentially injurious light radiation. Safety eyeglasses or face shields should be worn when operating any equipment that is capable of throwing dust or debris in the air (for example, string trimmer, blower, mower, etc.). Equipment operation manuals usually specify the use of and appropriate type of safety goggles or glasses. Safety eyeglasses should be chosen based on the specific hazards encountered. Be aware that ANSI standards rate eye wear for impact, coverage, chemical splash, dust and filtering for optical radiation. In addition to the above situations, safety glasses should be worn any time there is Figure 4. Hard hat, dust mask, safety glasses and gloves. potential danger to the eyes. 16 Safety Hearing Protection noise. A voice in conversation is approximately 65 dB; a shouting voice measures around 90 dB Most of us take our hearing for granted, and or more. As the decibel level rises, the sound when we are young, doubt that we would ever increases more rapidly than we can perceive it. develop hearing loss. However, loud noise can A sound of 90 dB is 10 times stronger than a be very damaging to hearing. Both the level of sound of 80 dB; a sound of 100 dB is 100 times noise and the length of exposure to the noise stronger than a sound of 80 dB. can present a risk for noise induced hearing loss. Proper hearing protection is one of the Prolonged exposure without protection to easiest, least expensive sounds in the 100 to 120 dB range, such as the and most effective ways to reduce this risk. Yet it is one of the most neglected components of a safety program. The intensity of sound, or its loudness, is measured in decibels (dB), indicating how much pressure sound exerts on a surface, such as the eardrum. Figure 5. Incremental gale allbritton increases in 10 dB correlate The higher the decibel to a ten-fold increase in level, the louder the noise level. by graphic

Sound Intensity Hearing Sensitivity Decibels (dB) Example 150 dB fireworks at 3 feet 140 dB firearms, jet engine Painful 130 dB jackhammer 120 dB jet plane takeoff, siren 110 – 115 dB maximum output of some MP3 players, model airplane, chain saw, leaf blower Extremely loud 106 dB gas lawn mower 100 dB hand drill, pneumatic drill 90 dB passing motorcycle 80 - 90 dB blow dryer, kitchen blender, food processor, Very loud shouting voice 70 dB busy traffic, vacuum cleaner, alarm clock 60 - 65 dB typical conversation, dishwasher, clothes dryer Moderate 50 dB moderate rainfall 40 dB quiet room Faint 30 dB whisper, quiet library Figure 6. Comparison of decibel levels for everyday sounds. 17 Safety photo by gale allbritton by photo Figure 12. Potting machine with easy to access power shuto button.

Think for a moment what it would be like closed toe shoes when operating any for arms to be inside a potting machine and gasoline powered lawn maintenance tool. suddenly the power comes on. Just thinking ▶ Never operate equipment while taking about such a thing is awful and should be medication. plenty of motivation to turn all equipment off ▶ Do not use tools or equipment with parts and lock it out before cleaning or repairing the that are loose, worn, cracked or otherwise machine. visibly damaged. Tag damaged tools “Out Power Tools and Equipment of Service” to prevent accidental start up or use. Mowers, tractors, sprayers, edgers, and trimmers are common machinery in the nursery and landscape industry. Each tool or equipment type has its own safe operating procedure and requires routine maintenance to keep it in safe and proper working order. Operating manuals describe safe practices for each power tool or piece of equipment. These manuals should be consulted in advance to assure safe operations. In general, when using nursery or landscape power tools and equipment: ▶ Read and follow the manufacturer’s routine and preventive maintenance schedule. ▶ Survey the area for potential hazards before beginning work. ▶ Never bypass kill switches. ▶ Wear safety glasses, a dust mask, and Figure 13. Always tag damaged tools and equipment. 23 photo by bob cook 24 Machine Guards Shields and FCHP Manual when working onoraround machinery.when working place, and cautious employees should be alert place. Even with guards and safety devices in is muchsafer withguards andsafety devices in federal OSHAandstate regulations. Equipment prevent many accidents andare required by ▶ ▶ ▶ ▶ ▶ ▶ ▶ ▶ ▶ Figure 14.Mower guard penetrated by stick.

cutting blades. or adjusting orrepairing rotating parts plug wire before cleaning, inspecting, Stop theengine thespark anddisconnect maintenance orrefueling. Allow theengine to cool before performing Turn theengine offwhennotinuse. Do notrunagasolineengine indoors. agasolinepoweredservicing tool. whileusing,Do notsmoke refueling or engine. Do notpourfuelinto the tankofarunning the chute. catcher orremoving cloggedgrass from Turn off mowers before dumping the grass mower,riding notacross aslope. Mow up and down a slope when using a the runningengine andcuttingblades. andclothingaway from bodyparts Keep Protective guards andsafety devices is operated inanunsafe way, andsenseless inconvenient. The result istheequipment replaced, usuallybecausetheyare considered over time, shieldsmay beremoved andnot welltypically guarded andshielded. However, has against such injuries. New equipment is orlandscapeworker protection thenursery eachyear.and crushinginjuries thousands ofavoidable cuts, pinches, bruises all of the equipment we use. They account for machines, and tractors trailers — practically hedgers, edgers, tillers, mixers, potting potentially hazardous pointsare onmowers, tasks for whichtheywere manufactured. These features, it would not accomplish the many and landscapeequipmentdidnothave these horticulture in ourindustry’s equipment.If pinch, and crush points that crush are common finger orleg, orto loseaneye. afewit onlytakes seconds to sever anarm, a few minutes to extra replace theguards, but may take machine isputbackinto operation. It rules thattheguards bereplaced before the or repair, require andwork insafety policy guards mustberemovedIf for maintenance atalltimes. guards inplace onallmachinery Guarding andshieldingisthebest Shear pointsthatcut,pinch An easyway to prevent isto injuries keep Safety

Toxicity Classes: Hodge and Sterner Scale Routes of Entry

Oral LD50 Inhalation LC50 Dermal LD50 Probable mg/kg ppm mg/kg Toxicity Rating / Lethal Dose (single dose to (exposure of rats for (single application for a 70 kg Commonly Used Term rats) 4 hrs) to skin of rabbits) (150 lb) Person 1 Extremely toxic 1 or less 10 or less 5 or less 1 grain (a taste or a drop) 2 Highly toxic 1 – 50 10 – 100 5 – 43 4 ml (1 tsp) 3 Moderately toxic 50 – 500 100 – 1,000 44 – 340 30 ml (1 ﬂ oz) 4 Slightly toxic 500 – 5,000 1,000 – 10,000 350 – 2,810 600 ml (1 pt) 5 Practically non- 5,000 – 15,000 10,000 – 100,000 2,820 – 22,590 1 liter (1 qt) toxic 6 Relatively harmless 15,000 or 100,000 or more 22,600 or more More than 1 more liter (1 qt) Adapted from Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, www. ccohs.ca Figure 20. Toxicity classes chart. handlers from exposure to pesticides, mitigate ▶ To help develop guidelines for the use of exposures that occur, and inform employees appropriate safety clothing and equipment. about hazards of pesticides. The WPS contains requirements for pesticide safety training, ▶ For the development of transportation regulations. notification of pesticide applications, use of personal protective equipment, restricted ▶ As an aid in establishing occupation entry intervals following pesticide application, exposure limits. decontamination supplies (water, soap and ▶ As a part of the information on Safety Data single use towels), and emergency medical Sheets. assistance. A pesticide safety training program Remember, these ratings are only ball park figures for lethal toxicity comparison. They say nothing about levels at which other acutely toxic, but nonlethal, effects might occur. See the toxicity class chart above for probable dosage ranges affecting humans. Worker Protection Standards

The regulations of the 1992 Worker Protection Standard (WPS), administered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) apply to all farms, forests, nurseries, greenhouses and retail establishments where pesticides are used in the production and maintenance of agricultural plants. The regulations are intended to protect workers and pesticide Figure 21. WPS statement on a pesticide label. 29 FCHP Manual ▶ Wear leather gloves when handling brush Poison sumac, also known as swamp and debris. sumac, is a coarse woody shrub or small tree with branched stems that grows along the If bitten by a snake, lay or sit down with the bite below the level of the heart. While waiting edges of areas with wet acid soil; it ranges in for emergency care, wash the bite with soap height from 5 to 25 feet. Elongated, oval leaflets and water, and cover with a clean, dry dressing. without marginal serration are arranged in ▶ Seek emergency medical attention immediately. ▶ Try to remember the color and shape of the snake, which can help with treatment of the bite. ▶ Keep still and calm. This can slow down the spread of venom.

Poisonous Plants Many plants are known to cause skin irritation in humans. People can respond to these plants in a variety of ways. Poison ivy, Figure 32. Poison ivy lea ets. poison oak and poison sumac contain toxins found in the plant sap that trigger allergic reactions when it comes into contact with skin. Poison ivy is the most commonly encountered poisonous plant in Florida’s natural areas. All parts of poison ivy, including the roots, are poisonous at all times of the year. Poison ivy is a woody shrub or vine with hairy- looking aerial roots. It grows to 10 feet or more, often climbing on trees, walls and fences, or trails along the ground. The plant is found in a variety of environments from deep woods to exposed hillsides. It is most abundant along old fence rows and edges of paths and roadways. Figure 33. Poison oak lea ets. Leaf forms vary among plants or even on the same plant, but they almost always consist of three leaflets. Flowers and fruit grow in clusters on slender stems between the leaves and woody twigs. Berrylike fruits usually have a white, waxy appearance. Poison oak, sometimes known as “oakleaf poison ivy,” is more distinctive than other types of poison ivy. It generally grows as a low shrub with upright stems. The leaves are lobed, similar to some types of oak leaves. Leaf size varies, even on the same plant, but they occur in sets of three leaflets like poison ivy. Figure 34. Rash and blisters from poison ivy exposure. 42 3 Plant Biology

lants are complex and variable living Plant Growth and Pthings that range from microscopic to the largest of living organisms. Phytoplankton, Development microscopic plantlike organisms that float near Horticultural plants are often described the surface of the ocean, are the main source as “higher plants” because of their generally of energy in most aquatic food chains. Like complex and elaborate physical structure. The plants, phytoplankton obtain energy through primary characteristic exemplifying higher photosynthesis, and are responsible for much of plants is the strong, stiffened vessel system the oxygen present in the Earth’s atmosphere. that plays a role in the transport of water, On the other end of the scale, a coast redwood photosynthetic products and minerals. This discovered in Redwood National Park near vessel system depicts the higher plant species Eureka, California in 2006, measured 378.1 feet known as vascular plants or Tracheophytes. A as the tallest living tree. nonvascular or “lower plant” does not have a The life span of plants is highly variable. vascular system and must transport water and Tree ring analysis confirmed a bristlecone nutrients from cell to cell throughout the plant. pine species, also found in California, to be the Lower plants also do not have true leaves, world’s oldest continuously standing tree at stems and roots. These characteristics keep slightly over 5000 years. Other plant species are nonvascular plants small in comparison to short-lived; these ephemerals emerge quickly vascular plants. Algae, mosses and liverworts when resources are freely available and die back are considered lower plants, but can be just to their underground parts after a short growth as important because of the effects they have and reproduction phase. Some microscopic on higher plants and the role they play in plantlike species may even complete several ecological relationships. In horticulture, lower life cycles within 24 hours. Because of the huge plants are usually studied from the perspective diversity among the over 400,000 plant species of their impact in the nursery and landscape in the world, it is important to remember due to the problems they may potentially cause there will always be exceptions to generalized on ornamental plants. This discussion will focus statements made about plants. on characteristics of higher plants. 49 FCHP Manual Life Cycle with a viable or living seed. When the seed is placed in the right environmental conditions, Many of the higher plants commonly used cell division is stimulated and plant growth by horticulturists are vascular plants that begins. Roots will emerge and grow downward, reproduce sexually by seed formed within a followed by a shoot that grows upward. The ﬂower or cone. Others are easily reproduced shoot, which soon develops leaves, is the stem by vegetative means, that is, from a portion of that later may become the trunk of a tree. the parent plant, such as a stem or leaf. There is The root and shoot form a main vertical axis another group of vascular plants, such as ferns, of growth. Vegetative growth continues for a where reproduction is slightly different. Ferns period of weeks or years depending on the type can also reproduce vegetatively but unlike of plant. During this time, the plant increases higher flowering and nonflowering plants, in size and becomes mature. Eventually the ferns require the presence of water to transport plant will produce flowers or cones. If sexual sex cells and reproduce from the spores found reproduction occurs, the fertilized flower or on the backside of leaves. cone will develop seeds, and the cycle begins Higher plants typically begin their life cycle over again.

Figure 1. Plant life cycle illustrating primary growth (elongation of roots and shoots) and secondary growth (increase in width). 50 Plant Biology Stem Modifications Stolons are smaller horizontal stems that creep above ground, rooting at nodes or Many herbaceous perennials have some curving over and rooting at the tip. Stolons type of modified stem that help plants adapt to may also be called runners. Runners produce different factors in the environment. Rhizomes, roots and leaves at the end only, giving rise stolons, tubers and corms are examples of to another plant; strawberries are examples of modified stems. They have unusual shapes and plants with runners. functions. Another type of modified stem is the The rhizome is a main stem of the plant that tuber, an enlarged portion of an underground grows horizontally under the ground with roots stem that is usually short and thick. Tubers emerging from the lower side and leaves from store nutrients used by plants to survive the the upper. Rhizomes store energy reserves for winter or dry months, and provide energy for renewing growth of the shoot after periods of regrowth during the next growing season. A stress, such as cold winters. good example of a tuber is the potato, with “eyes” that are the buds. photo by bob cook by photo photo by bob cook by photo Figure 20. Ginger rhizomes. Figure 22. A potato tuber sprouting buds (“eyes”).

Figure 21. Strawberry plants with stolons rooting at tips. Figure 23. Examples of gladiolus corms.

61 FCHP Manual of epidermal, vascular and meristematic tissue, among others. Since the primary function of leaves is photosynthesis, the structure of leaves must promote the acquisition of ingredients necessary to make sugar or plant food. Leaf growth begins with cell division near the shoot apex. Continued cell division and expansion increases the length and thickness of the leaf. Leaf growth is limited by heredity. Leaves grow to a predetermined size and stop. This type of growth, unlike stem and root growth is called determinate. Leaf Parts Figure 24. Examples of shallot bulbs. A leaf is composed of a blade and a petiole. Corms, in contrast, are short, thickened The blade is usually thin and somewhat underground stems, with vertical rather than transparent, allowing light to penetrate to the horizontal orientation. Bulbs are also short, innermost cells. The flat blade portion of the thickened underground stems with layers of leaf is attached to the stem by a leaf stalk called storage leaves making up most of the bulk. a petiole. One of the purposes of the petiole All of these modified stems can be used in is to rotate the leaf blade to track the sun’s vegetative propagation of new plants. position during the day. A petiole also provides greater flexibility to the leaf in winds or heavy Leaves rains and contributes to spacing of the blades for maximum exposure to direct sunlight. A Leaves have the important function of leaf blade that is directly attached to the stem manufacturing food for the plant. Leaves are without a petiole is said to be sessile. There supported by the stem in a manner that can may also be leaflike or scalelike appendages, expose the maximum leaf surface area to called stipules, at the point where the petiole light. Viewed from above, notice that rarely is joins the stem. a leaf positioned directly above the next lower leaf on the stem. This ranking (or vertical arrangement) allows most leaves to absorb a maximum amount of light for photosynthesis. Some plants also have leaves that move perpendicularly to sunlight, thereby increasing the amount of light they absorb. Similarly, leaves of other plants move parallel to sunlight to decrease the amount of heat they absorb, especially in dry conditions. Leaves are the most diverse of all plant organs; they can be tubular, needlelike, feathery, cupped, sticky, fragrant, smooth or waxy. Leaves range from pin-

head size to the huge fronds of palms. gale allbritton by photo Like all organs of a plant, leaves consist Figure 25. Sycamore leaf structure. 62 Plant Biology venation. Pinnate venation has a single main vein or midrib running the length of the leaf with smaller lateral veins branching off like the divisions of a feather. Palmate venation has several principal veins that originate from the base of the leaf blade, with additional branching veins. Leaf Types

Plants have different types of leaves, all of which serve the same function. Over time, plants have acquired the leaf type that provides the best chance of surviving the environmental Figure 26. Sessile leaf attachment. conditions in which they exist. If a leaf is held up to light, the pattern of Broadleaves are the most common leaves vascular tissues in the leaf may be revealed. on flowering plants. They are typically flat and Leaf veins are extensions of the plant’s vascular broad, creating a large surface area to capture system. Xylem and phloem, the vascular tissues sunlight and undergo photosynthesis. Leaves of a plant, form in strands called veins. Veins of this size cannot survive the winter exposure, are the fingerprint of a leaf and can be used so most of these species are deciduous in to help identify plants. Most dicots and some colder climates, meaning they lose their leaves nonflowering plants have netted venation. in the fall and regrow them in the spring. Arrangement into parallel or net venation can Leaves on coniferous plants grow as scales, be helpful in plant identification. single needles, or in groups called fascicles. Parallel venation is comprised of several Needlelike leaves range from long, thin prominent veins running lengthwise on the leaf. bundles in pines to the shorter, soft single Parallel venation occurs primarily in monocots, needles of some cypress species. Scales are such as lilies or grasses. Net venation consists tiny overlapping green structures that cover of one or more prominent veins and a meshed the twigs of the plant. Certain juniper species network of branching veins. Net venation is and cedars have scalelike leaves. a characteristic of dicots; this vein pattern A benefit of needles and scales is that the can be divided into pinnate and palmate plant can keep them all year long even during

Figure 27. Leaf vein patterns illustrating (left to right) parallel venation, pinnate venation and palmate venation. 63 FCHP Manual

Figure 28. Examples of simple leaves with serrate, lobed and smooth margins. winter. This evergreen quality means that the plant can still photosynthesize during winter. However, a disadvantage of these leaf types is a much smaller surface area than broadleaves, reducing the amount of photosynthesis the plant can undertake. Two main leaf forms are simple or compound. Simple leaves have a flat undivided blade, while compound leaves are distinctly divided into two or more leaflets that form one plane. Leaflets lack axillary buds, but each compound leaf has a single axillary bud at its base. A major advantage of compound leaves over simple leaves is that they permit light to pass between the leaflets to lower ranks of Figure 29. Example of a palmately compound leaf. leaves. They also tend to be lighter in weight and, therefore, require less support from their stems. Compound leaves are either palmately or pinnately compound. Palmately compound leaves are comprised of leaflets attached at the same point meeting at the petiole and radiating like spokes on a wheel. Pinnately compound leaves have leaflets attached along a central stalklike rachis. A rachis is the main axis of compound leaves, which merges with the petiole at the base of the leaf. Odd-pinnately compound leaves have a single leaflet on the tip of the rachis, and even-pinnately compound leaves have a pair of leaflets at the tip of the Figure 30. Examples of even-pinnately compound (left) and rachis. odd-pinnately compound (right) leaves. 64 FCHP Manual graphic by gale allbritton by graphic Figure 63. Structural comparison of monocotyledons and dicotyledons.

Monocotyledon or monocot (Liliopsida) and individuals within the same species often seedlings have only one seed leaf. Grasses, lilies, interbreed freely. One family may have only orchids and palms are examples of monocots. a single living species to represent it, while in Leaves typically have parallel veins, and floral other families there can be so many species it is parts are borne either singly, in threes or in difficult to separate them. multiples of threes. These plants lack vascular Sometimes naturally occurring and cambium so there are no woody members of recognizable categories such as varieties, this group. Palms, which are monocots, have subspecies, and forms, occur within a species. a tough fibrous nonwoody trunk. Plants with They are not nearly as common or important in more than two seed leaves are gymnosperms. horticulture as the cultivar. Classes are further divided into orders, Cultivar is defined as a cultivated variety. which are divided into families. Families are composed of plants that share common flower, Cultivars are composed of plants that are fruit and sometimes leaf characteristics. The distinguishable as different; when reproduced, grass family, the orchid family, the palm family, they retain their differences. In practice, we and the legume family (beans and peas) are a find two types of cultivars: clonal cultivars that few common and familiar examples. Families are maintained by asexual propagation, and also differ, so they are further divided into seedling cultivars that are maintained through genera (plural of genus). A genus consists of extensive breeding. In the case of seedling one or more species, while some large genera cultivars, breeding lines have been established are divided into subgenera. so the cultivar can be produced “true” from seed. Groups and series include more than one The species is the most common unit of similar cultivar. classification for both the botanist and the horticulturist. While there can be variation Classification continues to change because within a species, there are more often of the discovery of new species and new similarities. The members of a species usually knowledge about species that have already resemble each other more than other plants been described. A basic understanding of 80 Plant Biology

Taxonomic Hierarchy of Select Plant Species Kingdom Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae Division Magnoliophyta Magnoliophyta Magnoliophyta Coniferophyta Class Liliopsida Liliopsida Magnoliopsida Pinopsida Order Zingiberales Arecales Fagales Pinales Family Musaceae Arecaceae Fagaceae Pinaceae Genus Musa Serenoa Quercus Pinus Species Musa acuminata Serenoa repens Quercus virginiana Pinus elliottii

Figure 64. The common names of these species are, left to right, banana, saw palmetto, live oak, and slash pine. The Magnoliophyta division are flowering plants; Coniferophyta (also known as Pinophyta) are the conifers. Liliopsida is the current class name for the monocots; Magnoliopsida is the class name for the dicots, although modern classification systems often divide the dicots into several groups. References: Classification | USDA PLANTS. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://plants.usda.gov/classification.html Uno, G., Storey, R., & Moore, R. (2001). Principles of botany. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Higher Education classification is important for the ability to characteristics to the external identifying communicate with each other and for creating features of plant parts. Professional order that aids in learning. The chart on the horticulturists are encouraged to take a closer previous page illustrates the current taxonomic look at plants in the larger perspective of classification of several common plants. the surrounding environment and observe More information about plant classification not only physical characteristics, but how and naming systems is covered in the Plant environmental factors influence long term Identification chapter. growth and reproductive behaviors of the species. Doing so will provide a more intricate Summary understanding of practices best used for proper selection, production and maintenance Plant biology and taxonomy are plant of ornamental plants. sciences that focus on studies of plants from the cellular level to the internal structural

81 FCHP Manual References Armstrong, W. P. (2018, June). The anatomy of wood: Microscopic structure and grain of wood. Retrieved from https://www2.palomar.edu/users/warmstrong/trjuly99.htm Capon, B. (1990). Botany for gardeners: An introduction and guide. Portland, OR: Timber Press. Classification | USDA PLANTS. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://plants.usda.gov/classification.html Missouri Botanical Garden. (2009). Biology of plants. Retrieved from http://www.mbgnet.net/ bioplants/main.html Pearson Education. (2018). Plant structure and growth. Retrieved from http://www.phschool.com/ science/biology_place/biocoach/plants/intro.html Review of the Universe. (2002, October). Anatomy of plants. Retrieved from http://universe-review. ca/R10-34-anatomy2.htm Sengbusch, P. V. (2004). The structure of a plant cell. Retrieved from http://www1.biologie.uni- hamburg.de/b-online/e04/04a.htm Uno, G., Storey, R., & Moore, R. (2001). Principles of botany. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

82 4 Plant, Soil and Water Relationships

he relationship between soil (growing rocks and minerals as they become exposed to Tmedia), air, and water is one of the least oxygen, water and weak acids near the surface; understood aspects in production and this action further destabilizes the parent maintenance of plants. As a result, a signiﬁcant material. Biological weathering is the effect of amount of plant loss may be related either living organisms such as plant roots and soil directly or indirectly to an improper match organisms on the breakdown of rock. Different between these natural elements as they rocks are composed of different minerals, and relate to plant growth. A basic understanding each mineral has a different susceptibility to of the factors that inﬂuence success in this weathering. Different minerals contribute to relationship can be valuable in developing variation in soil characteristics. good management practices. Organic matter comes from decaying plant and animal life, excrement and other living Soil Physical Characteristics organisms. Organic matter improves water and nutrient holding capacity, aeration and soil Soil is composed of inorganic material, granulation. It also supports soil bacteria, fungi organic matter, water, air, and living organisms. and algae that aid in continuing decomposition. Differing amounts of these materials define the soil’s properties and therefore, the plant Water and air are contained in the spaces growth it can support. Inorganic material between soil particles. Water contains small in the soil is formed from the weathering of quantities of dissolved minerals that serve as bedrock or parent material and determines nutrients for plants. Air takes up the part of the a soil’s mineral properties. Weathering is the open space not occupied by water. Nitrogen, process by which rocks are broken down. carbon dioxide and oxygen are the primary Physical weathering occurs on rocks and other natural gases found in the space between soil sediments through processes such as freezing components. The oxygen is critical because it and thawing, wetting and drying, and shrinking allows for respiration of both plant roots and and swelling, leading to their breakdown into soil organisms. finer and finer particles. Chemical weathering Living organisms such as plant roots use is the chemical alteration or decomposition of oxygen and give off carbon dioxide during 83 FCHP Manual Media components must be stored off A rotary type mixer, such as a cement mixer the ground and protected from surface water. commonly used on ready-mix trucks, or a drum A concrete slab or bin is ideal for placement and paddle type mixer provides a good system of components received in bulk. Water flow for mixing media components in a nursery. patterns around the concrete slab must be Some nurseries use front end loaders to mix adjusted in order to eliminate the possibility media by turning the various components piled that surface water (potentially carrying on a concrete slab. This system is inexpensive pathogens, weed seeds and/or insects) but simply does not provide uniform mixing, could come into contact with the medium. especially of fertilizer amendments. Sanitation Bulk components should be covered with during this type of mixing procedure can also black plastic film or other suitable material to be a problem. prevent contamination with windborne seeds, Prepared media should be stored on a pathogens and other pests when access is not raised slab or in covered bin facilities. Media necessary. prepared with fertilizer amendments should The period of storage determines whether generally be stored in such a way to minimize bagged components are stored outdoors or at leaching. The salinity level of media stored for least under cover. Most bags will remain intact several weeks should be determined before it outdoors for 6 to 8 weeks, but if an annual is used since there can be release of fertilizers supply is purchased, indoor storage is needed. in the medium during storage and salt levels Covering bags stored outdoors with opaque could reach critical levels. This problem can be plastic film will extend the life of the bags. Even avoided by preparing or purchasing only the amount of media needed to satisfy the short- if outdoor storage is acceptable, consider the term demand. surface water drainage pattern and the ground surface because most bags are not watertight. Common amendments used during growth media mixing include micronutrients, dolomitic Mixing procedures must yield a limestone for pH adjustment and pesticides. An homogenous blend. This includes fertilizer approved insecticide for the control of fire ants amendments as well as growth medium must be incorporated in media of container- components. Variability in a soil media batch grown plants being shipped out of Florida. or between batches can result in differences in Superphosphate has been routinely added to plant growth and quality. media during mixing, but research has shown this form of phosphorus is readily leached from pine bark based media. Instead, phosphorus should be applied periodically as a part of the overall fertilization program. photo by debra butler debra by photo photo by gale allbritton by photo Figure 39. Potting media storage facility. Figure 40. Nursery soil mixing, storage and potting area. 112 Plant, Soil and Water Relationships Preblended Media Plant-Water Relationships There is a strong inclination among Water is essential for plant growth and is growers to purchase preblended potting probably the greatest regulator of how well or mixes from specialty firms. This trend toward how poorly a plant grows. Water is absorbed use of preblended media is most developed and used as a conveying vehicle for sugars, in expensive mixes utilized in greenhouse minerals and hormones within the plant, as production of small to medium size potted well as in the process of transpiration to help plants. These blends are sold in bags or in bulk. control plant temperatures. Water is transported throughout plants Cheaper mixes are used primarily for almost continuously. There is constant landscape ornamental production beyond movement of water from the soil to the the liner stage and for large potted foliage roots, from the roots into the various parts plants. Use of local materials including peats, of the plant, then into the leaves where it is wood particles, bark and sand constitutes released into the atmosphere as water vapor. a considerable savings in component costs The total evaporative water loss from the soil and the ultimate cost of the mix. These mixes and plant surfaces to the atmosphere is called are generally less uniform and consist of less evapotranspiration. persistent peat and other particles than those Plants that are well watered maintain used in mixes consisting of high quality peat. their shape due to the internal water pressure BMPS for Mixing and of plant cells. This internal water pressure is known as turgor pressure, and is necessary Handling Growing Media for plant cell expansion and consequently for ▶ Test the media pH, electrical plant growth. Loss of turgor pressure due to conductivity, and wettability before insufficient water supply can be noticed as use. wilting. ▶ Select media components that ensure The major economic consequence of adequate water holding capacity of insufficient water in plants is reduced overall the mixture. growth. When too little water is available ▶ Do not make changes to current in the root zone, the plant will reduce the growing media without first amount of water lost through transpiration experimenting to see if changes may by partial or total stomatal closure. This affect cultural practices. closure results in decreased photosynthesis When mixing, thoroughly blend ▶ since the CO2 required for this process enters components, but do not overmix, the plant through the stomata. Decreased especially if a medium contains photosynthesis reduces biomass production vermiculite or controlled-release and results in decreased plant growth. fertilizer. ▶ Do not store media that contains Soil-Water Relationships fertilizer, especially if the media is moist. The nutrient content may The role of soil in the soil-plant-atmosphere change or be lost. continuum is unique. Soil properties directly ▶ Avoid contamination of components affect the plant’s availability of water and for finished media by keeping nutrients. Soil water indirectly influences amendments in closed bags or by plant growth through its effect on aeration, covering outdoor piles. temperature, and nutrient transport, and its ▶ Do not allow mixes containing peat uptake and use in metabolism. Understanding moss to dry out; rewetting is difficult. these relationships is helpful in determining good irrigation design and management. 113 FCHP Manual photo by united states department states united by photo of agriculture

Figure 46. Map representing USDA Hardiness Zones (http://planthardiness.ars.usda.gov). There are a number of plants that cannot The regions are divided into 100F hardiness be grown successfully in Florida because zones. Each zone is further divided into 50F a summer temperatures are too high. For this and b half-zones. The USDA reminds map users reason, annuals such as pansies, petunias that the zones are just guides. Growing plants at and snapdragons grown in the North during the outermost edge of the coldest adaptation the spring and summer are grown as winter zone provides the potential that a rare, extreme annuals in Florida. cold snap lasting just a day or two could occur; The USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map ultimately, plants that have thrived in that zone consists of regions defined by the average for several years could be lost. It is important minimum temperatures over a 30-year period, to keep that in mind and also understand that not the lowest temperature that has ever past weather records cannot be a guarantee occurred in the past or might occur in the future. for future weather variations. 118 5 Fertilization Management

lants make their own food. When conditions The first three essential elements are Pare right and the soil is adequately fertile, carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O). plants act as solar powered factories that draw These three are derived from air and water and in nutrients then produce food for growth and are considered macronutrients. The remaining release oxygen in the process of photosynthesis. thirteen elements are obtained through the While the soil generally provides most of soil from minerals naturally present or from the nutrients needed for optimum plant added fertilizers. growth, there are times when fertilizers are Six other elements, nitrogen (N), phosphorus needed, especially during production. Thus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium the reason for fertilizing plants should be to (Mg), and sulfur (S), are also considered supply nutrients for achieving clearly defined macronutrients. Furthermore, nitrogen, objectives, such as increasing growth, flowering, phosphorus, and potassium, or N-P-K, are often or fruiting; establishment of newly planted referred to as fertilizer elements because they trees and shrubs; enhancement of foliage are the most often applied nutrients during color and plant appearance; and correction or plant production and maintenance. prevention of nutrient deficiencies. The seven remaining elements, boron Mineral Requirements for Growth (B), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn), and chlorine (Cl) The 16 elements that plants require to are referred to as micronutrients. Although the complete their life cycle are referred to as amount of these elements required for plant essential elements. Without any one of them, growth is relatively low, they are still essential. plants would not be able to complete their life The terms macronutrients and cycle. These necessary elements are obtained micronutrients refer to the relative amounts by plants from air, water and the soil solution. of elements needed by plants. Macronutrients Essential elements are not obtained by plants are required in larger quantities than in pure form; rather, they are in combined micronutrients, although no group is more forms, such as carbon from carbon dioxide important than the other. A common

(CO2) in the air or hydrogen from water (H2O). mnemonic device or tool to aid memory of the 121 Glossary

A active ingredient (ak-tiv n-gree-dee-uhnt) the chemicals in a pesticide product that act to kill, abatement (uh-beyt-muhnt) lessening, repel, attract, mitigate or control a pest, or that diminishing or reduction; removal or putting act as a plant growth regulator, desiccant or an end to nitrogen stabilizer abiotic (ey-bahy-ot-ik) physical rather than acute toxicity (uh-kyoot tok-sis-i-tee) biological; not derived from living organisms pronounced and immediate poisoning; symptoms are exhibited in a short period of abscission (ab-sizh-uhn) the normal separation time of flowers, fruit, and leaves from plants resulting from the natural aging process adhesion (ad-hee-zhuhn) the molecular force of attraction in the area of contact between absorption (ab-zawrp-shun) the process or unlike bodies that acts to hold them together action by which one thing is taken in or soaked up by another; assimilation; incorporation adjuvant (aj-uh-vuhnt) any additive that acclimatization (uh-klahy-muh-ta-zay-shun) enhances pesticide activity; examples are the process of becoming adapted to a new surfactants, spreader stickers, crop oils, anti- environment; the process in which plants adjust foaming materials, buffering agents, and to a change in its environment (e.g. change in compatibility agents temperature, light, humidity, photoperiod, or pH, etc.), allowing it to maintain performance adsorption (ad-zawrp-shun) the binding of a in new environmental conditions chemical to the surface of soil particles or plant parts acid (as-id) any of various typically water- soluble and sour compounds that in solution adventitious (ad-vuhn-tish-uhs) developing are capable of reacting with a base to form a from abnormal or unusual points of origin, salt, redden litmus, and have a pH less than 7 such as roots developing from stems or leaves 517 Index

A agents, 167, 191, 193, 490–91, 497 antifoaming, 238 abatement, 488 biological, 47, 203, 217 abiotic diseases, 191, 483 causal, 191–92, 197 absorption, 126, 140, 468 chelating, 134 adequate, 237, 295, 367 chemical, 28 accidents, 11–14, 24–26, 43–47 compatibility, 238 electrical, 26 detoxifying, 343 motor vehicle, 43 disinfection, 344 prevention, 14 drift control, 238 recurring, 14 reports, 45 infectious, 194 tractor, 26 agrochemicals, 216, 380 acclimatization, 328, 345, 353 AHS plant heat zones, 119, 272–74 acid, 93–94, 98, 125, 439 air pollution, 191, 216, 404 soils, 93–95, 434, 439 air quality, 274, 467–68 action, mode of. See mode of action (MoA) air temperature, 103, 314–15, 346, 359-61, 398 active ingredients, 28, 32, 131, 225–26, 375 algae, 30, 49, 83, 116, 195 chemical, 28, 32, 225-26 alkaline, 92–93, 107, 125, 434 fertilizer, 131, 375 aluminum, 91, 93, 97, 104, 355–56, 358 adherence, 161, 497 amendments, 87–88, 105-10, 112-13 adhesion, 90, 102 inorganic, 88, 108-10 adjuvants, 225, 238, 484 organic, 87–88, 105-8, 203 adventitious American National Standards Institute (ANSI), roots, 58 387, 513 shoots, 331–32 American Standard for Nursery Stock, 387, aeration, 83–90, 102, 104–13, 216, 402, 509 391, 513 aerial roots, 58, 399 analysis aerosol, 226 guaranteed, 129, 131–32, 134, 144 551