May 2013 Research Report # 120 - A Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region An online supplement to Research Report #120

History tools became more refined, as did or teeth. Cooking techniques also housing and food. Homes became improved during this era as Native Indian Eras more nomadic, with a few wooden Americans began using cooking Unfortunately, much of the Native Americansshelters emerging. The weather stones of different shapes and sizes scholarship about American Indian became warmer during this period, heated in a convection earth oven to history begins with the arrival of causing the ice to melt and flood cook their food (Soule 1995). Columbus, so relatively little is plains to form. Plants and animals known about Native American life were abundant and much of what The oldest known civilization for the thousands of years prior we eat today was developed during on the entire continent of North to colonization (Fixco 1996). Yet, this period. Mounds also began to America, Poverty Point, emerged scholars commonly discuss several appear during this period as Native during this era. It was a hub city social and cultural changes the Americans settled in areas with an that was home to several thousand Native Americans were undergoing abundant food source (Soule 1995). people and more than 7.5 miles of prior to the arrival of the Europe- man-made ridges that stood 5 to 10 ans. For example, social hierarchies, Archaic Era (Poverty Point) feet high and were thought to be the chiefdoms, extensive trade, mounds The Archaic Era lasted from ap- foundations for houses (Soule 1995). and complex religious ceremonies proximately 2000 B.C. to 200 B.C. Several towns made up the system all emerged prior to the arrival of (Soule 1995). During the Archaic linked by waterways and trade Europeans (Neuman 1984, Soule Era, the climate was stabilizing and routes to Kentucky, Georgia, Ar- 1995 anderson and Gillam 2000, spear points began changing to fit kansas, Michigan and even Canada Perdue and Green 2001). There were the regional cultures, the fit of the (Soule 1995). The Poverty Point approximately nine broad Indian game, the raw stone materials that mound, which likely took millions cultural sequences that are discussed were available and the tastes of the of hours to build, is in the shape of briefly in the following sections: Pa- tribe. Populations began to grow a bird and is the largest of all the leo Indian, Archaic, Poverty Point, and rather than wandering to new mounds from this time, measur- Tchefuncte, Marksville, Troyville, places, many groups had several ing more than 680 feet at its widest Coles Creek, Plaquemine, Mississippi sites they frequented (Perdue and point and likely once standing more and Historic (Soule 1995). Green 2001). Because of the grow- than 100 feet tall (Soule 1995). The ing populations and stability, hor- Poverty Point site in the far north- Paleo-Indian ticulture developed during this era eastern portion of Louisiana can The Paleo-Indian Era refers to and tribes became more sedentary still be visited today. any time before 6000 B.C. when – evident by the piles of fish bones Indians were hunters that lived in found along shores, suggesting that Woodland Era small family groups. Indians in this people gathered and ate fish for long The Woodland Era began around era rarely stayed in one place very periods of time. Post molds from 700 B.C. and being sedentary long and often left very little behind this era also suggest more perma- became the norm. There was an in- when they moved (Soule 1995). It is nent structures were built (Per- creasing dependence on horticulture likely they hunted with short spears due and Green 2001). With tribes and by 300 B.C., maize was a com- tipped with Clovis points that were becoming more sedentary, long- mon crop (Perdue and Green 2001). left throughout the Southeastern distance trade also developed to help During this era, complex death United States, speaking to their his- them obtain goods that were not rituals also emerged, which suggests toric presence. In addition to hunt- readily available (Perdue and Green there was a social hierarchy of some ing, they also gathered wild plants 2001). In addition to these economic kind, with chiefdoms likely emerg- and nuts (Perdue and Green 2001). changes, as tribal bands became ing (Perdue and Green 2001). Meso-Indian sedentary, religious and emotional Tchefuncte Period The Meso-Indian Era lasted from ties to place also developed. The Tchefuncte Era lasted from approximately 6000 B.C. to about Common clothing included approximately 400 B.C. to 200 A.D. 1200 B.C. (Soule 1995). Clothing breechclouts for men, skirts for and Native life resembled that of during this era included animal women and pendants depicting the Poverty Point and Woodland skins, such as deer and bear and animals made from stone, copper eras. One notable difference between

LSU AgCenter Research Report #120-A Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Native Americans 1 these eras is that in the Tchefuncte diet of primarily maize, and pottery power over their people during this era more settlements began to techniques became more refined as time and established control by emerge in the coastal marshes, on elaborate designs were drawn on organizing projects to keep people levees and along bayous and rivers the surfaces and long-necked water occupied and by visually and physi- (Soule 1995). bottles came into use (Soule 1995). cally setting themselves apart from commoners (Soule 1995). Marksville Period Mississippian Era (Late Caddoan) The Marksville period lasted from Scholars don’t agree on when the In some tribes, head binding also approximately 200 A.D. to 400 A.D. Mississippian Era began or ended. began during this period. Infants (Soule 1995). Clothing and tools be- Some suggest the Mississippian era were placed on a board, a strap was came more ornate and many cultur- began around 800 to 1000 A.D., pulled very tightly around the head al changes took place. For instance, while others suggest the era did not and the bone was pressed to flat- religious ceremonies became more begin until around 1400 A.D. and ten it. Pressure was released when common and village farming was didn’t end until 1700 A.D. (Soule the head turned black and blue and practiced (Soule 1995). 1995, Perdue and Green 2001). then tightened again. This process During this time, shell-tempered took years to accomplish and was Troyville Period pottery, square houses and pyrami- extremely painful (Soule 1995). (Coles Creek, Early Caddoan) dal mounds became more common. With time, it gave the head a flat The Troyville period lasted from Most notably, stratification was appearance. 450 A.D. to 1100 A.D. (Soule 1995). common as the social order re- The clothing, tools and houses mained ranked. Due to vast popula- Often, the Mississippian Era is resembled the Marksville era. Inland tion growth, maize became a staple referred to as one of the most in- villages were growing and had of the Native American diet, with strumental in terms of social change ceremonial centers, while coastal some societies relying on maize for for the American Indians. Several villages typically were built on up to 50 percent of their diet (Per- scholars have studied communi- mound tops (Soule 1995). Mounds due and Green 2001). ties from this era with the hope of were still being constructed but gaining a better understanding of were larger, more numerous and of a Scholars suggest there are several how Native Americans were living different shape. The mounds of this scenarios that could have ushered in prior to European arrival and the era resembled a truncated pyramid this new era of stratification such ways in which colonization changed to accommodate religious temples as a surplus of goods, war or some life for the American Indians. One on the top where chiefs and reli- other catastrophic event that would commonly studied Mississippian gious leaders were buried. Chipped require a strong sense of leadership community is Moundville in central stone points became smaller and and organization (Perdue and Green Alabama (Perdue and Green 2001). the bow and arrow began replacing 2001). With a surplus of goods, the spear and darts (Soule 1995). trade and exchange with neighbor- Historic Period As village populations continued to ing chiefdoms also increased, which The Historic Period lasted from grow, a more advanced social system ushered in more social change as 1600 A.D. to the present (Soule developed that relied on a chief to the Native Americans living in the 1995). Because the historic period maintain social order. Southeastern United States were encompasses such a vast amount of able to obtain goods they were un- time and practices varied from tribe Plaquemine (Middle Caddoan) able to produce themselves. to tribe, it is difficult to generalize This era extended from 1100 A.D. the era. Most notably, there was a to 1450 A.D. Clothing was similar For the most part, the clothing, decline of Native American culture to other eras except feather head- tools and food of the Mississippian marked by the arrival of Europeans dresses emerged for adornment Era resembled that of previous who had advanced technology and (Soule 1995). Houses became dome eras. Houses were fortified huts an abundance of diseases. Agricul- shaped with woven mats. Villages with wattle and daub construction, ture remained a mainstay for quite were larger and surrounded by thatched roofs and woven mats, and some time after the European set- palisades for protection, with access villages typically had a large central tlers arrived, along with trapping, to the water, and canoes were a com- plaza surrounded by huts and forti- hunting and fishing. Villages typi- mon form of transportation. Chiefs fied by palisades of wood or cane cally were small and often located continued to gain prominence and (Soule 1995). At one or both ends along rivers and bayous. By 1700, became the strong religious, social of the plaza was a large pyramid however, the Native American and political leaders of the villages. mound for the temple or the chief ’s population had been considerably Hunting and fishing supplemented a house. Chiefs had a high degree of reduced (Soule 1995).

2 LSU AgCenter Research Report #120-A Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Native Americans The Native American diet was awarded for brave deeds. Body and Americans’ right to traditional be- rich and varied throughout this era. face painting also was common at liefs, forms of worship and the pos- Apart from fruit, Native Americans social events, religious ceremonies session of sacred items (Soule 1995). cooked all the food they consumed and for war (Soule 1995). Children Since the Historic Era is broad and and drank only pure water. They typically went nude until they hit a significant amount of change incorporated a number of wild veg- puberty. happened in this era as Europeans etables and fruits into their diet, as arrived and interacted with the well. Corn was cultivated actively as Until Native Americans began American Indians, it may be useful were beans, squash and pumpkins. adopting the European way of life, to further examine European colo- New foods, such as peaches, sweet homes made of wood and cane typi- nization and the effects it had on potatoes, watermelons and cabbage, cally were built in a circle around Native Americans living throughout also were introduced by the Europe- a large open space used for games, the United States and specifically in ans (Soule 1995). Other plants were dances, meetings and religious the Gulf of Mexico Region. used for tool making. For instance, ceremonies (Soule 1995). The roofs bass bark was used as bow strings usually were made of thatched European Settlements and rope; cane was used for baskets, palmetto leaves, grass and reeds, America beds, spears and fences; oak was standing approximately 15 feet European arrival in North used for firewood, mortars and boat high, with no windows and only a America meant extensive change frames; and Spanish moss was used small door. There often was a hole in for the Native Americans living in as head pillows, diapers and clothing the roof to allow smoke from a fire the region, as colonists laid claim to (Soule 1995). Animals also were used to escape (Soule 1995). Social life the land and the Native Americans commonly for food and tools, with included gatherings, feasts, dances, living on that land. When Columbus essentially no part of the animal games, sports, gambling and reli- arrived, he was cruel and greedy, being wasted. gious events. Spiritual preparation and his crew took hundreds of was important and preceded many Indians as slaves, cutting off their Clothing varied from tribe to events (Soule 1995). hands if they did not bring their tribe during this era. Before the owners gold. It was not uncommon European arrival, men usually wore Native Americans were very for Columbus to order mass suicides breechcloths made of deerskin. Dur- spiritual and considered all life to among the Native Americans that ing the winter months, a cloak and be sacred. They often acknowledged preferred death to slavery. In addi- leggings were worn. Moccasins were a Supreme Being, Creator or Great tion to taking slaves, his crew also used mostly for travel and occasion- Spirit that is above all other life, raped and pillaged. In all, it is esti- ally during cold months. Women and almost every ceremony had mated Columbus and his crew killed wore skirts that hung from the waist some religious connotations. The between 125,000 and 500,000 Native to the knees. During the winter, drum was a sacred symbol used Americans (Soule 1995). Unfortu- women wore robes and occasion- in religious ceremonies, as well as nately, as more Europeans arrived, ally leggings. Women’s moccasins social gatherings, and the beat cruelty often became the norm. came up much higher on the leg was representative of the Native than men’s (Soule 1995). Hair was American heartbeat (Soule 1995). By 1519, Spain was organizing particularly important among some Europeans did not really attempt larger invasions and conquering the tribes. Some wore their hair long, to understand the Native Ameri- Native American empires of the some in braids, and others shaved cans’ religious beliefs during this era mainland. Soon England and France their heads on the side and front, and often mistakenly believed that also were seeking colonial empires. leaving a ridge in the back that was Native Americans were pagan and After the Revolutionary War, decorated with feathers and rawhide illiterate savages. It is thought that Europeans flooded the new world strips (Soule 1995). If a woman was many early tribal ceremonies were and only furthered this cultural and mourning, she typically cut her hair discontinued due to the Catholic and historic shift. Despite common in- short. Gold and silver were worn, Protestant missionaries who fer- terest in colonizing the “new world,” necklaces were popular and teeth of- vently preached against them (Soule Spain, England and France each ten were blackened by rubbing them 1995). Historically, some ceremonies had a particular culture and specific with tobacco and wood ash. Teeth’s among the Native Americans even goals in colonization that allowed blackening was considered beauti- were prohibited by the government. each nation to have a unique effect ful by most tribes (Soule 1995). In 1978, however, the American on the Native Americans living in Some tribes tattooed their bodies as Indian Religious Freedom Act was the Gulf of Mexico Region. decoration, and tattoos often were passed and protected the Native

LSU AgCenter Research Report #120-A Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Native Americans 3 Spain cans established a number of mis- were not interested in either the In 1493, the Pope gave Spain a sions on the Georgia coast among human or the property rights of large donation to aid in the Ameri- the Guale Indians. As the Francis- the Native Americans but regarded can quests Columbus had started. cans tried to force Spanish beliefs them primarily as potential pur- This donation resulted in a moral and culture upon the Guale, the chasers of English goods (Perdue shift in Spanish exploration that Guale became increasingly angry and Green 2001). In 1584, Queen made religious conversion a cor- and killed all but one of the mis- Elizabeth authorized Walter Ra- nerstone of Spanish occupation sionaries and burned their churches leigh to discover, claim and occupy (Hussey 1932, Sturtevant 1962, (Perdue and Green 2001). any “remote heathen and barbarous Perdue and Green 2001). After this lands, countries and territories not donation, a series of laws and ordi- From the start, Spain’s mission- actually possessed of any Christian nances were passed that were meant ary goals were as much political prince or inhabited by Christian to protect the Native Americans and and economic as they were reli- people” (Perdue and Green 2001). push forward the Spanish goal of gious. The Spanish mission system Unlike the Spanish, the English religious conversion. For instance, that prevailed in Florida had the did not explicitly discuss how to in 1512, the laws of Burgos passed. primary goal of converting Native treat the Native American people Those forbade the Spanish from Americans to Christianity, but it and thus it became a decision the enslaving the Native Americans and also served a variety of other func- colonists had to make on their own. required them to pay Native Ameri- tions. Those in the system often In 1585, English colonists arrived can laborers with food, housing, pro- exploited the Native Americans to in Roanoke, built a settlement and tection and instruction in Christian- provide both food and a labor force beheaded the chief of the Roanoke ity (Sturtevant 1962, Weber 1992, for the Spanish settlers and required Indians. As time passed, the English Perdue and Green 2001). Ultimately, the Native Americans to conform to colonists at Roanoke feared retalia- priests were tasked with expanding Spanish moral expectations (Perdue tion and eventually fled the colony. the Spanish territory and attempted and Green 2001). This is not to say In 1587, another group of English to win Native Americans over with the Native Americans did not also colonists arrived in Roanoke to cre- love and generosity. In turn, the benefit from the mission system ate a settlement, but when one of Spanish hoped this would create a at times. During this period, Na- them sailed back to England in 1588 working class of Native Americans tive Americans were introduced to for supplies and failed to return un- who were willing to do the work new technologies, forged alliances til 1590, the colony vanished (Per- of Spanish America. As Spanish with other tribes that changed the due and Green 2001). bureaucracy continued to grow in political climate and found refuge North America, the missionization in the missions from their enemies These failures at Roanoke taught of Florida became one of the top (Perdue and Green 2001, Waters the English a few important lessons. priorities of the Spanish govern- 2005). Although the missions ini- First, new colonies needed greater ment (Perdue and Green 2001). tially were very attractive to many care. Second, more money was Native Americans, exploitation needed if they were going to be suc- Spanish Missions and poor treatment meant as many cessful. This need for more resources Since conversion was a prior- Native Americans fled the missions pushed the English government to ity for the Spanish government, as joined them (Perdue and Green seek charters that sponsored their several missionaries were sent to 2001). In other words, although the efforts to colonize the Americas. In Florida to begin converting the missions occasionally served as a 1606, the Virginia Co. received its Native Americans. By the 1570s, source of food or refuge for the Na- first charter and began to explore the Jesuits found ministering to the tive Americans, they were not wel- and settle in present day Virginia Native Americans difficult and fled come as permanent fixtures in the (Perdue and Green 2001). This time the colony (Perdue and Green 2001). region and by1708 there was only England specified that the Na- Franciscan priests arrived in 1573 to one Spanish mission left (Perdue tive Americans should be treated replace the Jesuits, and by the 1590s and Green 2001). respectfully, and Jamestown was the Jesuits had launched a major founded in 1607 among the Pow- missionary effort (Perdue and Green England hatan Indians. Other than the cul- 2001). These efforts were not always In contrast to the Spain’s religious tivation of tobacco and the legend met with gratitude and willing ac- goals, England sought colonization of Pocahontas, Jamestown never ceptance by the Native Americans, in America primarily for economic amounted to much, so in 1733 the however. For instance, in addition to reasons, with the hope of finding English continued to expand their the missions in Florida, the Francis- gold and silver. Initially, the English colonization into Georgia (Anderson

4 LSU AgCenter Research Report #120-A Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Native Americans 1933, Perdue and Green 2001, Sweet (Perdue and Green 2001). Similar nent village to another seeking food, 2005). With time, the plantation to the other European colonists, shelter and riches, tell us a lot about agricultural model became a way of the French came to America for the Southeastern Native Americans life, and both the English and the economic reasons. By the start of living in the region at the time. Native Americans became agricul- the 17th century, they entered the By the fall of 1539, De Soto had tural people who were colliding in Indian trade network to obtain furs reached the Apalachee Indians in their efforts to control the land (Per- and skins, and by the end of the northern Florida. When he realized due and Green 2001). As the English 17th century, the French began to the Apalachee did not have the gold, outgrew their space, they looked to expand their exploration beyond silver, or jewels he was seeking, how- the Native Americans for more land, Canada. The French regarded ever, he continued traveling into the and if the natives were reluctant the Mississippi River as particu- interior of the Southeast (Perdue to surrender lands willingly, colo- larly valuable because it connected and Green 2001). When he reached nists tried to take it (Wright 2002). Canada to the Gulf of Mexico and present day Mobile, more than 5,000 The struggle for land often turned provided alternative trade routes Indians attacked his men, resulting violent, and many English colonists (Perdue and Green 2001). In 1699, in 22 casualties and approximately came to view the Native Americans they built a post at Biloxi Bay; in 148 injuries. De Soto himself was as being “in the way” of English 1702, they established a community injured but managed to escape and colonization and expansion (Perdue in Mobile; and in 1718, they founded direct a counter attack. Ultimately, and Green 2001). New Orleans (Gallay 2002). It was Mobile fell to the Spaniards, and at this time that the French colony more than 3,000 Native Americans Although it was rare, slavery was of Louisiana came into being, serv- were killed (Perdue and Green 2001). known by the Native Americans in ing as a means of creating alliances De Soto and his men continued trav- the South, and the English were with Southern tribes and blocking eling, eventually crossing the Missis- particularly known to purchase English expansion. In particular, sippi River. Although De Soto died and capture Indians to be sold into an alliance with the Choctaws, the in 1542, his men continued on and slavery (Perdue and Green 2001). largest Native American group in reached Mexico in 1543, some four Slaves often caught English diseases the area, became the cornerstone of and a half years after their journey and died in slavery or were able to France’s strategic plan to expand began (Perdue and Green 2001). escape, return to their home and or- (Perdue and Green 2001). Despite ganize a counter attack. As a result their seeming success, the French Just prior to the arrival of the of these retaliations, the English faced resistance from several fronts, European traders in the 18th cen- colonists began relying more heavily as well, especially from the Natchez tury, the Native Americans in the on African slaves and began ship- and Chickasaws. Gulf of Mexico region already were ping Native American slaves to the undergoing massive change. Once Caribbean. The Yamassee who lived Gulf of Mexico Region the Europeans arrived, the Native at the Carolina-Georgia coast, the When the Europeans arrived in Americans contracted European Chickasaws from northern Mississip- the Southeastern United States, diseases for which they had no im- pi and the Chitimacha and Natchez they entered a dynamic society but munity and their populations drasti- from Louisiana were enslaved in also introduced the need for new cally declined. Those who were able particularly large numbers (Perdue changes among the Native Ameri- to survive one disease often were and Green 2001). Those captured cans. The European invasion in still on the mend when an outbreak often were women. For instance, the region officially began when of a new disease would strike. Na- two-thirds of the Louisiana Native Ponce de Leon arrived in Florida tive Americans believed disease had Americans enslaved during the mid- in 1513 (Perdue and Green 2001). a spiritual cause, such as sinfulness, 18th century were female (DuVal Although Ponce de Leon originally and typically sought to purify them- 2008). settled in the Caribbean, he needed selves of this sinfulness in sweat labor to work on his sugar planta- baths or icy rivers. Some Native France tions, which pushed him inland. Americans died attempting to treat Unlike Spain and England, France He tried to colonize several regions their illnesses in these somewhat entered the Southeastern United but failed repeatedly, resulting in extreme ways. Those who were able States with greater experience with a great number of deaths (Perdue to survive both the diseases and the Native Americans. For almost two and Green 2001). In 1539, De Soto extreme treatment often commit- centuries, France had interacted traveled to Florida with 600 men, ted suicide because they could not with Native Americans in Canada seeking riches for Spain. His writ- bear the scars from treatment that and the Great Lakes country ings, as he traveled from one perma- reminded them of their impurities

LSU AgCenter Research Report #120-A Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Native Americans 5 (Perdue and Green 2001). It is esti- in drastic changes for the Native to the “superior Anglo-American mated that almost 93 percent of the Americans, particularly in regard to culture.” This dangerous assump- Native American population across trade. tion brought about another policy the United States died between 1492 known as the “civilization policy” when Columbus arrived and 1900, The American Revolution was a that would attempt to achieve the with many of the deaths happen- disaster for Southern Indians, since cultural transformation of the Na- ing in the first 100 years of contact the newfound power among Eng- tive Americans (Perdue and Green (Denevan 1992, Perdue and Green lish colonists resulted in intensified 2001). Under this policy, when 2001). One of the most crucial ef- demands for Native American land tribes ceded land, they were given fects of these diseases was that the and resources. The 1783 Treaty of livestock, agricultural implements diseases killed many of the Native Paris was particularly problem- and instruction on their use by the Americans’ spiritual leaders. Often, atic for Native Americans because federal government. By creating this spiritual leaders were elders, and as Britain gave the former colonists – policy, Washington and Knox hoped a result of their age and frailty also the new Americans – title of all the Native Americans would have an were the most likely to contract and land claimed by the king between incentive to become civilized. By be- die from the new European diseases the Great Lakes and Florida east of coming civilized, the Native Ameri- (Perdue and Green 2001). Similarly, the Mississippi River. This left the cans would need less land and would children often were unable to fight English settlers to determine what want more money, resulting in a off the diseases. Because of this, the rights the Indians had to the land willingness to sell their land to the disease outbreaks killed both the they had occupied for hundreds of colonists (Perdue and Green 2001). Native American past and the Na- years (Perdue and Green 2001). The policy was first articulated in tive American future Population de- The 1780s were marked by con- 1790 in the Treaty of New York cline after European arrival marked tinued war in the Southern frontier. between the United States and the the end of a cultural era. Chiefdoms During this time, George Wash- Creek Indians and was duplicated in dissolved, tribes combined, mound ington and U.S. Secretary of War 1791 in the Treaty of Holston with building stopped and pottery mak- Henry Knox wrote a policy that the Cherokee Indians (Wright 1981, ing halted. Unfortunately, this vast suggested expansion should be done Perdue and Green 2001). population decline also obscured with “honor.” The basic idea of this Civilizing the Southern Native much of the Native American cul- policy was that expansion would ture from this time. Americans meant a comprehen- continue by purchasing land from sive cultural change. Gender roles The Imperial Wars the Native Americans in peaceful would need to be reversed, since It was not long before the Euro- negotiations and treaties (Horsman men would need to become farmers pean colonists from England, France 1961, Berkhofer 1988, Perdue and and the heads of households, while and Spain began having conflicts Green 2001). By agreeing to give women should become homemakers. with one another. The struggle to away some land, Native Americans Civilized crops such as wheat and master the continent began in 1689 were granted sovereignty within the cotton should replace maize. Cotton with a series of wars that continued boundaries of the land they re- would be turned into clothing, and until the War of 1812 (Starkey 1998, tained. The idea that Native Ameri- adults would wear shoes, keep time Perdue and Green 2001). Although cans would retreat from their land with clocks and furnish their log these conflicts often happened in the and be eager to sell proved unfound- houses with chairs, beds, tables and Northern states, Native Americans ed, however. Instead, the Native rugs. Children would need to attend in the South often were recruited Americans were highly invested in school and learn to speak, read and by both the English and French the land they already occupied and write in English. They would need armies (Perdue and Green 2001). were determined to preserve what to study math and listen to history The French and Indian War is one remained of their territories (Perdue lessons that taught them George notable example of such conflict. and Green 2001). With time, the Washington was the father of their The Cherokees participated in the competition for land intensified, and country (the one their ancestors French and Indian War, which expansion with honor was discarded had been living in for hundreds of ended with an English victory, and for more forceful means of obtaining years). Finally, the entire family as a result, the French relinquished Native American land. would need to attend a protestant Louisiana to Spain, and Spain relin- Civilization church on Sunday (Perdue and quished Florida to England (Perdue In many ways, this “expansion Green 2001). Remarkably, many of and Green 2001). These land trades with honor” plan assumed the Na- these changes did happen among among the Europeans resulted tive Americans would want to adapt Southern tribes. In the late 18th

6 LSU AgCenter Research Report #120-A Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Native Americans century and early 19th century, mis- Creek War Between 1816 and 1821, federal sionaries began establishing schools The Creek War began in 1811 and agents were able to negotiate nine among the Cherokee and Chickasaw lasted for three years. Many schol- treaties with Southern tribes. The Indians, allowing many of the Na- ars suggest that this war happened Creeks surrendered a large tract of tive Americans to become comfort- as the tribe negotiated the tension land in central Georgia. The Chicka- able with English. Some Native between maintaining their culture saws sold western Kentucky, west- Americans even became Christians, and adapting to the “American” ern Tennessee and land in northern and a few men became farmers, way of life. As a result of this war, Alabama. The Choctaws gave up although that was rare (Perdue and about a fourth of the Creek popula- land in western Mississippi and Green 2001). tion died and they lost more than western Alabama, and the Chero- 20 million acres of land. The land kees ceded small parcels of land in Although the civilization policy they kept also was wrecked by war, northern Alabama, northern Geor- brought about some changes among and recovery was a long and diffi- gia, eastern Tennessee and western the Indians in the Southeastern cult process (Halbert and Ball 1995, North Carolina (Perdue and Green United States, it was intermar- Perdue and Green 2001). Between 2001). None of the Southern tribes riage between the Native Americans the Creek War and the War of 1812 gave the government everything and the Scottish, English, Irish in the North, Indian country was they asked for, and the government and French traders that had the weakened, devastated and defeated. often resorted to high-pressure most substantial effects on Native Because of this devastation, the tactics such as threats, intimidation Americans (Perdue and Green 2001). U.S. government proclaimed in 1818 and bribery to obtain the valu- When those marriages produced that the Native Americans were no able cotton land that was ceded children, Native Americans consid- longer a significant military threat (Perdue and Green 2001). After the ered non-native spouses as part of and that “our (American) views of War of 1812, the populations in the tribe. Similarly, the children of their interests, not their own, should Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi these interracial marriages adapted govern them” (Perdue and Green grew drastically, and few politicians not only to Native American life 2001). worried about justice for Southern but also to the customs and ideas tribes (Perdue and Green 2001). In of their non-native fathers. It was The land taken from the Creeks contrast, they became increasingly not uncommon for these children during the Creek War was reorga- convinced the tribes were obstacles to grow up speaking two languages nized in 1817 as Alabama and was blocking progress, and tensions con- and with the ability to participate admitted to the Union as a state tinued to increase. In other words, in either the Native American or in 1819. Between 1815 and 1829, the days of “expansion with honor” the Euro-American worlds (Perdue thousands of people from the region officially were over. and Green 2001). By the end of the flocked to Alabama in hopes of 18th century, all of the Southern finding rich land and high cotton Removal tribes had several bicultural fami- prices. The cotton boom crashed in In 1803, when Louisiana was be- lies (Perdue and Green 2001). Often 1819, and many of the newly settled ing purchased, Thomas Jefferson in adulthood, bicultural children planters went bankrupt (Perdue and began thinking of removing Eastern joined their fathers in trade and Green 2001, Dattel 2011). Recovery Indians to the region west of the sought formal education. They took much of the 1820s and depend- Mississippi River (Perdue and Green typically dressed like the American ed on opening more land quickly to 2001). Five of the largest tribes liv- settlers and furnished their houses grow more cotton. The only land ing in the Southeast were targeted similarly. As they explained to their that remained to be claimed was for removal – the Cherokees, Chicka- Native American relatives why they owned by Southern tribes. Nego- saws, Choctaws, Creeks and Semi- were living a blended lifestyle, many tiating treaties was slow, tedious, noles. Jefferson discussed his plan Native Americans began to em- expensive and uncertain because with Native American leaders, and brace the ideas and customs of their many of the tribes were reluctant or a group of Cherokee Indians agreed bicultural family members (Perdue refused to sell. As a result. President in 1810 to relocate to the west; a mi- and Green 2001). Many tribes will- Andrew Jackson believed confis- gration that occurred between 1817 ingly embraced many or all of the cating the land from the Southern and 1819. In 1820, the Choctaws new practices, while others resisted natives would be much easier and ceded 5 million acres of land in the the changes. For at least one tribe, faster. Congress refused to agree and Southeast in exchange for 13 million this struggle between change and upheld the sovereign rights of the acres of land in the West (O’Brien continuity turned violent. Southern tribes (Perdue and Green 1989, Perdue and Green 2001). By 2001). 1817, James Monroe proclaimed

LSU AgCenter Research Report #120-A Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Native Americans 7 Indian removal was the goal of his Cave 2003). The Indian Removal and 6,000 remained in Mississippi presidential administration. He Act allowed the president to enter (Perdue and Green 2001). Of those assumed that since removal already into negotiations with Southern who remained in Mississippi, many had begun on a small scale, continu- tribes and forge treaties that would later migrated west to join friends ing it would be relatively easy. Most stipulate an exchange of their land and family. of the remaining tribes rejected this in the Southeast for equal or greater plan, however, and refused to leave amounts of land in the West. The When Eaton finished with the their land in the Gulf of Mexico U.S. government would pay the Choctaws, he ordered the Chicka- region (Perdue and Green 2001). moving costs of the people and saws to send leaders to his home to provide support for the first year of discuss removal. The Chickasaws When Native American leaders residence in the West. Individuals agreed to move but inserted an rejected removal, tensions increased, also were to be compensated for the article into the treaty declaring it and the government looked for new value of improvements and land null and void if suitable land could ways to convince the Native Ameri- left behind. The language of the act not be found in the West. A group cans to leave. In 1824, Alabama emphasized removal was completely of land rangers were unable to find refused to recognize the sovereignty voluntary (Perdue and Green 2001, suitable land, but neither the state of tribes and began extending their Cave 2003). Although neither the of Mississippi nor the federal gov- state laws into the Indian nation – states nor the federal government ernment was willing to accept fail- although it refused to also extend could force Native Americans to sign ure, and a second treaty was signed civil and political rights offered the treaties, states could make it so in 1832 (Foreman 1974, Perdue and to others by the state (Jack 1916, miserable for the Native Americans Green 2001). When the Chickasaw Perdue and Green 2001). In 1832, that they believed their only hope arrived in the West, they were un- Alabama even went so far as to was to leave. able to find suitable land and negoti- prohibit the Creek government from ated with the Choctaw to share functioning. Georgia, Mississippi The first removal was negotiated land. In return, the Chickasaws gave and Tennessee followed Alabama’s by John Eaton, the secretary of the Choctaw $530,000 and forfeited lead and limited the functionality of war, with the Choctaws. Eaton told their national identity (Perdue and the Choctaw, Chickasaw and Chero- the Choctaw leaders if they refused Green 2001). As unfortunate as this kee governments, making it evident to sign the treaty the president was, they were desperate to escape their intensions were to make life would declare war on them and the harassment and threats in Mis- for the Native Americans so miser- send in the army (Perdue and Green sissippi. In 1855, the Chickasaws able that Indians would be happy to 2001). Fearful that would happen, were able to buy some of the land move west (Perdue and Green 2001). the Choctaw agreed to sell their from the Choctaw and reclaim their land in Mississippi and move west. national identity. These laws and practices had Removal began in the fall of 1831, complex and devastating effects on with the first of what was to be The Creeks signed a treaty in the Native Americans living in the three waves of 7,000 people each. 1832, although it was not explic- Gulf of Mexico region and Native They traveled with the Mississippi, itly a removal treaty. The Creeks American leaders cried out to the Arkansas and Ouachita Rivers as already had obtained land in the federal government for protection far as the water would take them West in a treaty signed with Georgia from the states, but both Adams and walked the rest of the way. The in 1826 in exchange for the sale of and Jackson refused to intervene. In winter was especially brutal, since their land in the state. In the early fact, Jackson openly defended the the Native Americans lacked proper 1830s, some 3,000 Creeks moved states and suggested that if Indi- clothing and the government agents to the land in the West. When the ans were unhappy they could leave did not provide enough food (Fore- Seminole war broke out in Florida, (Perdue and Green 2001). In 1830, man 1974, Perdue and Green 2001). however, there was fear that if the Congress debated an act proposed The second wave of Choctaws had Creeks aligned with the Seminoles by Jackson known as the Indian more favorable weather, but chol- the war could spread to Georgia Removal Act. Jackson presented the era killed many of the migrants. and Alabama (Green 1982, Perdue plan as necessary for state economic Because of the hardship of the first and Green 2001). Due to this fear, development and the survival of the two waves of migration, by the the army began rounding up Creek Native Americans. The bill passed third round of removal, only 900 of people, dragging them from their with a three-vote margin, and Jack- the remaining 7,000 agreed to go. homes and sending them west. They son signed the act into law on May In total, about 15,000 Choctaw left weren’t allowed to gather their be- 28, 1830 (Perdue and Green 2001, Mississippi, 2,500 died in the move longings or sell their land. In other

8 LSU AgCenter Research Report #120-A Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Native Americans words, the Creeks marched west it certainly robbed the region of remain. For instance, some 6,000 with virtually nothing. Through- the political, economic and social Choctaw chose to remain in Missis- out the winter of 1836 and into the dynamics the tribes had contributed sippi when their tribe was removed, spring of 1837, more than 15,000 to the region’s history, and many but many did not receive the land Creeks were driven west – freezing, innocent Native Americans died or and citizenship they were promised starving and drowning along the lost everything they owned. in the removal treaty (Perdue and way (Green 1982, Perdue and Green Green 2001). Despite these circum- 2001). Although removal was devastat- stances, roughly 1,000 Choctaw re- ing for the larger Indian tribes living mained in Mississippi and obtained The Cherokees were the last to in the Gulf of Mexico region and land on their own. A few Creek In- sign a removal treaty in December resulted in them being forced from dians also stayed in Alabama when 1835 (Anderson 1991, Perdue and their homelands and ceding millions their nation moved west and became Green 2001). This treaty ended a of acres of land to the government, known as the Poarch Band of Creek legal battle that had started several smaller tribes that occupied mar- Indians (Perdue and Green 2001, years earlier when Georgia extended ginal lands often were able to avoid see section about specific tribes). its jurisdiction and declared the removal. Unfortunately, since they The Native Americans who did to Cherokee Nation was illegal. In were “invisible” to the 19th century remain in the region after removal 1838, Georgia and federal troops Southerners, they have also been faced other issues such as the greed began gathering up Cherokee people relatively invisible to many mod- and racism of their white neighbors. in camps in preparation for the trek ern historians. Examples of these west. Within these camps, many groups include the Tunica, Chiti- Retaining a Native American Cherokee languished throughout macha, Alabama, Coushatta and identity beyond 1835 in the South- the summer in stockades, and Houma Indians (Perdue and Green eastern United States became many died from sun exposure and 2001). increasingly difficult. In a culture starvation. Much of the death toll in which white landowners relied on attributed to the “Trail of Tears” Life in the “West” black slaves, there was little room occurred in the Cherokee camps When the Native Americans for the Native Americans, most of before the actual march even began arrived in their new homes in the whom were landless but free (Per- (Anderson 1991, Perdue and Green West, they faced a host of issues. due and Green 2001, Perdue 2012). 2001). Estimates suggest somewhere Almost every family had lost kin Historian James Merrell put it this between 4,000 and 16,000 Cherokee in the removal process, few people way: “They had become an anom- people died in the trek, as well (Per- received adequate compensation aly. Neither useful nor dangerous, due and Green 2001). for their land and wars were break- neither black nor white, they did ing out among and within tribes not fit into the South’s expanding In 1871, Congress ruled Indian (Perdue and Green 2001). Despite biracial society” (Perdue and Green tribes were no longer separate and these obstacles, the tribes recovered 2001). independent governments, which remarkably well before the Civil gave the American government a War began. Eventually four of the This biracial society masked the means to disregard any treaties five tribes were able to reconstitute distinct culture, history and prob- made with the Native Americans up tribal nations in the Southeastern lems Native Americans faced. One to that point (Soule 1995). Without United States (Perdue and Green of the most common issues for treaties to protect them, Native 2001). the Native Americans at this time Americans faced starvation, war, was education. Native Americans imprisonment, disease and deadly Life in the Southeast were expected to send children marches to new land. The “Trail of After Removal to African-American schools but Tears” is one of the most commonly A number of circumstances al- often refused to do so. They usually known marches. During the trail of lowed some Cherokees, Chickasaws, could not afford to hire a teacher tears, many Native Americans died Choctaws, Creeks and Seminoles to or build a school, however, leaving or were killed, and by 1890 more remain in the Southeastern United Native American children to re- than half the Native American pop- States while the government was main either uneducated or severely ulation once living in the Southeast- forcing their nations west of the undereducated (Perdue and Green ern United States had died (Soule Mississippi River. Some people were 2001). Some tribes, such as the Wac- 1995). Removal did not completely able to obtain land and be absorbed camaws, were able to secure funding empty Native Americans from the into the white population. Even from families to hire a teacher, but Southeastern United States, but those who did not receive the land funding often was tight and there they were promised were able to

LSU AgCenter Research Report #120-A Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Native Americans 9 were years the school had to close. cans to Catholicism (Soule 1995). lived among the tribe (Butler 1970, When they finally secured a teacher For those who converted to Catholi- Post 1962). Historically, the Ataka- from the state, the building they cism, their culture, beliefs, society pa were not of particular interest to were using was unsafe and inad- and religious practices essentially the European settlers in the region equate, forcing them to close again were abolished (Covington 1972). because they had little trade value (Perdue and Green 2001). and were relatively remote, living on In the early 1700s, war broke out lands the colonists were not inter- Most Native Americans embraced between the Spanish and the Eng- ested in (Post 1962). desegregation because it opened ac- lish over land. The Apalachee allied cess to education, but it also weak- with the Spanish and many of them The Atakapa lived in southwest- ened the community among South- were killed (Soule 1995). By 1704, ern Louisiana and in southeastern ern Native Americans. Without the Spanish missions and Apalachee Texas in prairies, marshes and distinctly Native American schools, towns had been destroyed by the swamps where they could hunt and there was less direct interaction British, and the remaining 400 Na- fish year-round (Post 1962, Butler among Native American children. tive Americans fled west, seeking 1970). By the late 18th century, Similarly, young Native Americans protection from the French (Soule there were three main bands of began leaving their Indian commu- 1995). After a lot of travel, the Atakapa, but the tribe remained nities to find employment (Perdue Apalachee ended up close to Fort relatively small (Butler 1970). It and Green 2001). Because of these Louis in Louisiana, and by 1720, it has been estimated that in 1650, issues and removal, recognition as was almost impossible to find any there were only approximately 1,500 Native Americans, creation of a Apalachee still in Florida (Coving- Atakapa, and by 1803, it appears land base, control of schools and ton 1972, Soule 1995). as if the tribe was almost extinct – churches and economic development with fewer than 100 people (Butler became major concerns of the Na- When the treaty of Paris was 1970). By 1908, there were only nine tive Southerners in the 20th century signed in 1763 and the French with- known Atakapa still living (Post (Perdue and Green 2001). drew from Louisiana, the Apalachee 1962). This decline happened for a were left with little protection and number of reasons but most often Specific Tribes they were one of the first tribes to is attributed to disease, starvation, The following section outlines request permission to move west war, maladjustment, alcoholism and some of the literature about a few of the Mississippi River (Soule other common issues Native Ameri- specific tribes living in the Gulf of 1995). In 1763, they obtained land cans in the region faced. As a result Mexico region. Although the tribes and moved to Rapides Parish. The of civilization and contact with discussed here do not even begin Apalachee eventually lost their land Europeans, little evidence exists to to cover the vast Native American in Rapides Parish, and without speak to the history, culture and culture and history in the region, we land, many joined the Natchez In- practices of the Atakapa (Butler hope readers will be able to recog- dians living in Cloutierville. Others 1970). nize how complex and nuanced the remained remote and continued to Native American history is. operate as a tribe in secret (Soule Bidai 1995). It was not until the 1980s The Bidai are a small southeast- Apalachee that a small band of Apalachee ern Texas tribe that little is known The Apalachee tribe inhabited the known as the Talimali band decided about. Historically, the Bidai lived Gulf of Mexico region long before it was safe to admit their native in present-day Madison, Walker and any European explorers arrived and heritage. In 1995, they organized Grimes counties in Texas. It has were originally found in the area and began the process of federal been suggested, however, that they around what is today Tallahassee, recognition, a process that remains also migrated to Natchitoches, La., Fla. (Covington 1972, Soule 1995). ongoing today. at times (Sjoberg 1951). When Spanish explorers arrived in the region, tensions between the Atakapa The Bidai name comes from the 1 Native Americans and the Spanish The Atakapa were given their Caddo word that means “brush- became commonplace. By the time name, which literally means “man wood,” which likely refers to the De Soto arrived in 1539, conflict eater,” from the Choctaw Indians, lands on which the Bidai lived was widespread, and by 1656, the because legend suggests the tribe 1 Spanish had claimed more than 40 practiced cannibalism, although this Atakapa is the traditional spelling of the tribe. Other claim has been both corroborated spellings include Atacapas and incorrectly “Tuckapaw.” More Apalachee settlements and convert- recent scholars have used the modern spelling of Attakapa ed more than 26,000 Native Ameri- and challenged by explorers who (Post 1962). For the purposes of this paper, Atakapa and Attakapa should be regarded as interchangeable.

10 LSU AgCenter Research Report #120-A Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Native Americans (Sjoberg 1951). The Bidai were an abama to the Illinois River (Thorn- more than 4,000 Cherokees died in agricultural group who cultivated ton 1984). The Cherokee were the the removal process from diseases, maize and relied on hunting. Fish- first of the “Five Tribes” to estab- accidents, cold, gunshot wounds ing also was important to the Bidai lish a centralized government and and starvation (Thornton 1984). and they often moved along the the earliest laws (Perdue and Green With time, the Cherokee were able coast during the summer months 2001). Within a decade of starting to re-establish their tribe, and today to fish (Sjoberg 1951). Like other their government, the Cherokee had the Cherokee nation has the largest Native Americans in the Southeast, drafted a national constitution that membership of any of the federally the Bidai made baskets and shared increased the power of the principle recognized tribes in America. customs such as religion, chiefdoms chief and called for a two-house leg- and music with their Southeastern islature, a national court system and Chickasaw neighbors. By the middle of the an elected primary chief. The consti- The early Chickasaw settlements 19th century, many of the Bidai tution also proclaimed sovereignty were in Kentucky, Tennessee, had died from disease. The survivors within the nation’s boundaries, and Alabama and Mississippi (Gibson often blended with other tribes, such following a vote, the constitutional 1971). They ended up traveling and as the Atakapa, Akokisa, Caddo government of the Cherokees took migrating throughout the region, and Koasati. As a result of death office in 1828 (Perdue and Green creating settlements that extended and joining with other tribes, their 2001). south to the Gulf and as far north unique recorded history spans little as the Ohio River. Their neighbors more than a century and a half A number of changes led Euro- included the Choctaw, Natchez, (Sjoberg 1951). peans to the assumption that the Creek and Cherokee tribes, and Cherokees were the most “civilized” their lives closely resembled that of Caddo of all Native Americans. In 1820, their neighbors (Gibson 1971). The Despite being overlooked by many the tribe had their own writing sys- Chickasaw and Choctaw were so scholars, the Caddo Indians once tem, and by 1835, nearly 25 percent closely related that they essentially were one of the strongest tribes of all Cherokee were literate in their spoke the same language, just in a on the Texas-Louisiana frontier own language and slightly more different dialect. The tribe ranged (Smith 1989). The Caddo lived in than 50 percent of all Cherokee in size from 3,500 to 4,500 members this region for approximately 3,500 households had at least one member and had a strong warrior tradition, years before coming in contact with who could read Cherokee (Perdue resulting in continuous population European settlers, and by the time and Green 2001). In 1828, Cherokee loss (Gibson 1971). Europeans arrived, the Caddo were Phoenix, a bilingual newspaper first approximately 8,000 in number and was published and it discussed both Ultimately, what set the Chicka- were living at the bend of the Red local and world news. This publica- saw apart from their neighbors was River near the Arkansas, Texas and tion served as a means to educate that they were unconquerable. Their Oklahoma borders (Smith 1989). A the American public about the preoccupation with war gave them smaller band of the Caddo known as Cherokees since many American set- a strong defense that allowed them the Yatasi moved south and settled tlers subscribed to the publication to defeat any challengers (Gibson near Natchitoches, La. (Smith (Perdue and Green 2001). The same 1971). Most often the Chickasaw 1989). The Caddo were granted year Cherokee Phoenix was founded, Indians are remembered for their Louisiana state recognition in 1993, the state of Georgia took action to defeat of large French and Indian with an estimated population of prohibit the functionality of the armies in 1736, 1739 and 1752 (St. 2,000 members living near the Cherokee Nation (Thornton 1984). Jean 2004). Shreveport area, where many still The recounting of these great vic- live today (Soule 1995). The following years were tumultu- ous and culminated with Cherokee tories, however, masks the role that Cherokee removal in 1838 – when the tribe alliances with other Native Ameri- The Cherokee were one of the was disarmed and removal began. cans had in their success. The Chick- most important tribes in the South- Tribal members were gathered up asaw allied with their neighbors, eastern United States, and their and put into removal camps, where who often sent military aid, escorted land was once quite vast – extend- thousands died waiting to march British convoys, relayed messages ing from the Ohio River south to west. It is estimated that 13 groups and offered a safe place for refugees present-day Atlanta, Ga., and from of 1,000 individuals eventually (St. Jean 2004). It was only with Virginia and the Carolinas west traveled northwest toward Indian this aid that the Chickasaw were across Tennessee, Kentucky and Al- Territory (Thornton 1984). In all, able to maintain their lands and independence in the face of strong

LSU AgCenter Research Report #120-A Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Native Americans 11 enemies (Perdue and Green 2001). traditions because of the devasta- back a part of what was once their Because of the Indian Removal Act tion they faced (Soule 1995). 260-acre reservation, which was lost of the 1830s, most of the Chickasaw along the way (Soule 1995). tribe and their descendants now live In 1905, the Chitimacha fought to in Oklahoma. retain 505 acres of their once vast Choctaw territory but settled out of court According to legend, the Choctaw Chitimacha for 280.36 acres (GCIA 1991). In tribe originated from a sacred hill The Chitimacha once inhabited 1919, Congress placed the land in called Nanih Waya near Noxapater, two villages that were swampy and trust for the tribe and established Miss., long before white men lived easy to protect – one near Bayou a roll of 90 known members (GCIA on Earth (Soule 1995). Suppos- Lafourche and the Mississippi River 1991). No government aid actually edly, there was a passage down the and the other near Grand Lake on was received until the 1930s, when sacred mountain that led deep into Bayou Teche (GCIA 1991, Soule a school was built for the tribe, and the Earth, where the Choctaw lived 1995). Like other tribes, the Chiti- in 1946, the tribe was urged to form before coming to the Earth’s sur- macha were able to thrive in the a constitutional government, which face. Once there were animals, birds, Southeastern United States because ended the traditional chiefdom that trees, rivers and lakes on the Earth’s of the favorable environment and had existed in the tribe since prehis- surface, the Choctaw emerged from abundant food supply (GCIA 1991). toric times (GCIA 1991). this passage and populated the Earth (Bushnell 1910). The Choctaw According to Chitimacha legend, After World War II, several are closely related to the Chickasaws Europeans first arrived in the late Chitimacha began working in the and speak the same language in a 1600s but were pushed back. When oil industry, both on shore and off slightly different dialect. They also they tried to return, the medicine shore. They were very successful were excellent farmers who lived men cast a spell to curse the shore- in the oil field, which encouraged in central and southern Mississippi line, and the Spanish were defeated, others to find middle income jobs as well as southeastern Alabama once again retreating. In the pro- as mechanics, plant workers, car- (Soule 1995). cess, the Chitimacha were attacked penters, mental health directors and many were killed, almost de- and administrators (GCIA 1991, Choctaw society was divided into stroying the tribe completely. Only Soule 1995). In 1971, the Chitima- castes, and the social order was 40 men and women survived and cha became members of the first complex, as was the culture and the began to rebuild the tribe (Soule organized tribe in Louisiana to be tribe’s history (GCIA 1991, Soule 1995). Despite this great loss, the recognized by the federal govern- 1995). By 1540, the Spanish explor- Chitimacha continued to war with ment (GCIA 1991, Soule 1995). This er De Soto began trading with the the French, and peace didn’t come recognition entitled them to federal Choctaw (GCIA 1991, Soule 1995). until some 13 years later when aid that helped them revive their When one Choctaw man professed Bienville and the Chitimacha chief unique identity. Unfortunately, this to not know of any gold, De Soto met and reconciled. But many help came too late to save the Chiti- buried him alive. The Choctaw Chitimacha were killed, displaced or macha language and much of their retaliated, but thousands of Indi- enslaved in the process (GCIA 1991, traditions and culture (Soule 1995). ans were left homeless, mutilated or Soule 1995). dead after the conflict (Soule 1995). Today, there are approximately It was another 150 years before In 1762, when Cajuns began ar- 850 Chitimacha, 350 of which live white men returned to Choctaw riving in the area, intermarriage on the reservation in Charenton, La. territory, and when they returned, became common. Within a century, In 1974, the tribal center was built the Europeans listed more than full blooded Chitimacha were rare, and has since been expanded to 115 Choctaw villages – suggesting and the tribe began to speak Cajun include a police station, fire station, the tribe had recovered well (Soule French instead of its own language. health and social services, tribal 1995). Several also converted to Catholi- courts, a senior/youth center, the cism (GCIA 1991, Soule 1995). By tribal school, the public works de- The Choctaw also extensively the 1800s, the remaining Chitima- partment and the tribal government traded with the French, and by cha were struggling to survive, and center (Soule 1995). More recently, 1720, the Native Americans were by 1881, there were only 55 Chiti- the Chitimacha built a large casino wearing cotton and using copper macha left. Many of those spoke that has offered employment and and iron tools (Soule 1995). The other languages, such as Creole and economic opportunities for individu- French needed the Choctaw as Cajun French, and had lost much of als and the tribe. The tribe hopes guides along their trade routes to their history, culture, customs and to use some of this money to buy Canada, and as a result, many cities,

12 LSU AgCenter Research Report #120-A Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Native Americans rivers and bayous along these routes smaller bands migrated to northern can mixes that included the Apache, still bear Choctaw names today and central Louisiana (GCIA 1991, Comanche, Bidai, Atakapa, Wich- (GCIA 1991, Soule 1995). With Soule 1995). Today, there are two ita, Yscani, Opelousa and Mexican time, the French became the Choc- bands of Choctaw living in Louisi- tribes (Soule 1995). Most of their taw’s neighbors, and the Choctaw ana – the Apache band of Choctaw heritage came from the Spanish adopted many of the French ideas, and the Jena band of Choctaw. The Lipan Apache and Choctaws who cultural attitudes and even lan- Apache have approximately 1,500 migrated from Mississippi. They guage. members, while the Jena popula- eventually fled to Natchitoches and tion is much smaller, with only 188 Nacogdoches and are working on From 1754 to 1763, the Choctaw members (GCIA 1991). federal recognition, although they were almost in constant warfare, have met only four of the seven and in 1763, when the French and The Jena Band of Choctaw requirements (Soule 1995, Rivers Indian war came to a close and After World War II, some of the and Ebarb 2007). There currently Mississippi was ceded to England, Choctaw tried to join relatives in are approximately 900 members in the Choctaw nation became divided. Oklahoma, but after nine months of Sabine and Natchitoches parishes, Some aligned with the French, walking, they were told there was no plus about 900 living elsewhere in while others aligned with the Brit- land waiting on them. So in 1902, the United States (Soule 1995). ish (GCIA 1991). This divide led to they turned around and walked a civil war that lasted for several back to Louisiana, eventually set- Clifton Choctaw years. When the French retreated to tling near Jena (Soule 1995). By In 1764, some of the Choctaw liv- New Orleans, however, they essen- 1916, there were so few of the Jena ing in Mississippi moved to central tially deserted their Choctaw allies band left that they began marrying Louisiana and eventually became (GCIA 1991, Soule 1995). Eventu- non-natives, and it appeared as if known as the Clifton Choctaw. Little ally, most of tribe migrated west of the tribe soon would be nonexistent. was recorded about this splinter the Mississippi River. Between 1801 group, and what was recorded was and 1830, those who remained were In 1919, however, a Choctaw destroyed by the Union Army when methodically negotiated off their man named Bill Lewis moved to it burned Alexandria in 1864 (Soule tribal lands in Alabama and Missis- Jena with his 15 children, an act 1995). The oral history has been sippi. that may have saved the tribe from handed down through the genera- extinction because his children tions (Soule 1995). The Choctaw had a complex gov- intermarried with the Jena Choctaw ernment and hoped their formal le- and began repopulating the tribe In 1870, two tribal members gal institutions would protect them (Soule 1995). In 1974, the Jena band built the first tribal meeting house, from complete removal. In 1830, incorporated and received state rec- which also doubled as a school. however, they signed the Treaty of ognition. They immediately began They earned a living farming and Dancing Creek, agreeing to leave working toward federal recognition selling small woven baskets. When their homelands and not return, but didn’t gain it until 1995 (Soule big lumber companies moved into which sent them on their way to 1995). the region, they hired the Choc- Oklahoma (GCIA 1991, Soule 1995). taw but eventually became greedy It should be noted that this was a Through the year, it has been and bought up what little land the treaty the Choctaw could neither important to the Jena Choctaw to Choctaw owned there. In the 1950s, read nor understand. When they retain their language, customs and when the lumber companies left, arrived in Oklahoma territory (now traditions. Hides still are tanned in so did many of the Choctaw (Soule Arkansas), they were surprised to the traditional way, and many older 1995).Only 240 residents remained, find white men already had claimed members still make baskets, wooden representing only six surnames. It much of the land they were prom- mortars and pestles, blowguns and was not until 1978 that they were ised (Soule 1995). traditional ceremonial dancing “discovered,” and by then, they only dresses (Soule 1995). Recently, it owned 4.6 acres of land. In 1996, The 1839 Indian Removal Act has been estimated that there are the Clifton Choctaw had more than made the move compulsory, and at least 12 tribal members who still 200 families and 400-500 members about 18,000 Choctaw were moved speak the Choctaw language fluently scattered throughout the state. The to Oklahoma (Soule 1995). The jour- (Soule 1995). tribe currently is working toward ney took three years to complete. Apache of Ebarb Choctaw obtaining federal recognition (Soule Despite removal, a number of Choc- 1995). taw remained in Mississippi, while The Apache band of Choctaw was a growing group of Native Ameri-

LSU AgCenter Research Report #120-A Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Native Americans 13 St. Tammany Choctaw When the American colonies gained Creek In his book “The Choctaw of independence from England and the Efforts to remove the Creeks Bayou Lacomb,” Bushnell details United States began acquiring land from the Florida Panhandle began the history and experiences of a previously recognized as belong- in 1821 so the government could band of Choctaw who lived near ing to the Creek confederation, the gain valuable farming land (Debo Bayou Lacomb. They were called Coushatta began heading west to 1979, Ellsworth and Dysart 1981). the St. Tammany Choctaw (1909). the Spanish-held lands of Louisiana Removal didn’t begin until October Little is known about the history of (GCIA 1991, Soule 1995). The first 1832, and despite both the policy this group, likely because they were movement of the Coushatta and and active removal practices, Na- historically a part of other tribes Alabama into Louisiana occurred tive Americans remained scattered in the region such as the Choctaw around 1795, when 20 families set- throughout the area. Some groups or Acolapissa. The band claims to tled near the mouth of the Red Riv- were able to remain relatively intact, have lived in the region for several er in Rapides Parish (GSRI 1973, such as the Poarch band of Creeks generations, and mounds, pottery GCIA 1991). This group later moved who moved to Alabama (Ellsworth and clam shells speak to their occu- further west into Texas. A number and Dysart 1981). In the 1950s, the pation of the region. Similarly, there of the Coushatta had problems with Creeks were granted much of their are several Choctaw place names settlers in Texas, and many decided land back from the government and used throughout the region such to return to Louisiana to the banks in the 1970s, individual families re- as Abita, Chefuncte, Ponchitoawa, of the Calcasieu River (GCIA 1991, ceived payouts for the removal they Bayou Lacomb and Pontchartrain, Soule 1995). By the early 1860s, this had experienced more than a hun- which also speak to their historic settlement was called the “Indian dred years prior. Although many of presence (Bushnell 1909). Village” and had an estimated popu- the Creeks still faced poverty, racial lation of 250 (GCIA 1991). Around discrimination and unemployment, Coushatta 1880, the Coushatta were forced to this payout marked the beginning It is believed there were two move again because settlers were of the rebuilding of the Creek iden- branches of Coushatta Indians. pressuring them for their land. In tity (Ellsworth and Dysart 1981). One group lived in Tennessee and 1884, many migrated to Bayou remained there, while the other Blue in southeastern Allen Parish, Houma group lived near Alabama (Soule though small relocations continued There are several pieces of evi- 1995). The Coushatta community of throughout the Coushatta history dence, such as unique crops and Louisiana (Kaosati) likely emerged (Jacobson 1960, GSRI 1973, GCIA tools as well as contacts in South from the Alabama branch (Jacobson 1991). America, that suggest the Houma 1960). The Coushatta emblem is the likely originated in South America gar fish, and their name literally In 1993, there were 657 Coushatta (GCIA 1991). The French ex- means “lost” (Soule 1995). Suppos- on the official rolls. Many of them plorer LaSalle first encountered edly, the tribe received this name now live in Texas, but a large group the Houma in 1682 in Wilkinson because a small group of Native still remains in Louisiana (Soule County in Mississippi and West Americans were searching for the 1995). Recently, the Coushatta built Feliciana Parish in Louisiana and rest of their tribe that had traveled a casino, which has helped them buy referred to them as “oumans” in his ahead of them. When they were back a lot of their land and estab- journal (GSRI 1973, Soule 1995, asked by some white men who they lish housing, health services and Davis 2001, D’Oney 2006). In 1698, were, they didn’t understand and income assistance for tribe members d’Iberville visited the group and replied “Koashatt,” which meant (Soule 1995). The Coushatta lan- presented them with gifts, hoping lost (Soule 1995). As a result, some guage remains in its pure form and to establish a stronger and more per- scholars refer to the Coushatta as is spoken as a first language, with manent alliance between the Native Koasati. fluency among almost 80 percent Americans and the French (GSRI of the tribe (Gregory 1988, Soule 1973, Soule 1995). When he left in The earliest known records that 1995). Much of their culture also 1699, a war broke out between the mention the Coushatta are found in has survived, and their medicinal Houma and the nearby Bayogoula the reports from De Soto from his skills, basket weaving, bow and ar- Indians. In 1700, when the French expeditions to Georgia and Alabama row making, blowgun crafting, cook- returned to the area to negotiate (Jacobson 1960, GSRI 1973, GCIA ing, ancient dances and traditional peace between the two tribes, more 1991, Soule 1995). After 1541, there chants are encouraged among the than half of the tribe had died are no more records of the tribe tribe (Soule 1995). (GSRI 1973, Soule 1995). for over a century (Soule 1995).

14 LSU AgCenter Research Report #120-A Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Native Americans Throughout the 1700s, the Hou- by their Native American ancestors The Natchez Indians most com- ma migrated from place to place, has been lost (Davis 2001). monly are remembered for their and as their tribe died off, they part- defeat of the French in several nered with other tribes and other Today, many of the Houma tribal battles. French and Natchez rela- racial groups to survive (Parenton members are concentrated in Ter- tions were not always so tumultu- and Pellegrin 1950). This partnering rebonne, Lafourche and Jefferson ous. In the early 1700s, when the created a blend of cultures, making parishes (GCIA 1991). They support French explorer Iberville arrived the partner tribes almost indistin- themselves with fishing, trapping among the 3,000 Natchez Indians, guishable from one another. In 1706, and hunting. Others work on sug- the French established peace with the Houma and Tunica formed arcane plantations, offshore oil rigs the Native Americans (Woods 1978). an alliance, but in 1709, the Tu- or as toy makers (Soule 1995). They When the English arrived and began nica turned on the Houma, killing are now the largest Native American competing with the French for Na- many of them (GSRI 1973, GCIA group in Louisiana, with more than tive American allegiance, tensions 1991). The Houma who survived 17,000 members on their tribal roles. began to rise. With time, the Native this betrayal fled to Donaldsonville They also have 14 council mem- Americans essentially became pawns and New Orleans, and by 1718, the bers and a headquarters located in in the European rivalries for land Houma had scattered into three Golden Meadow (GSRI 1973, Soule (Woods 1978). villages – Bayou St. John, Grand 1995). The tribe applied for federal Village and Petit Houmas Village recognition but was denied because Eventually, the French decided near Bayou Lafourche (GCIA 1991, the Bureau of Indian Affairs is not to build a military post at Natchez Soule 1995). convinced the Houma communities called Fort Rosalie (Woods 1978). living in Louisiana today are descen- There were a series of conflicts be- From 1820 to 1840, the Houma dants of the historic Houma tribe tween the French and the Natchez, continued to migrate farther (Duthu 1997). Since the Houma and by the 1730s, the French had south until they reached the Gulf. don’t have historical treaties with almost exterminated the Natchez. They settled along the bayous and the government, they had to estab- From the first attacks in the early swamps in Terrebonne and La- lish their presence, show they are 18th century until the final war at fourche parishes in an area that was a distinct community commonly Ft. Rosalie in 1730, more than 240 shared with the French Acadians recognized as Native Americans by Natchez warriors were killed, and (GSRI 1973, GCIA 1991). With others and prove their history to re- approximately 440 Natchez Indians time, the Houma adopted much of ceive federal recognition. There are were sold into slavery. Those who the Cajun culture, including Ca- several factors that make meeting survived were homeless refuges left tholicism and much of the French these criteria nearly impossible. to wander and merge with other language (GSRI 1973, Gregory tribes (Mooney 1899). As a result, 1988, GCIA 1991). Natchez there likely are fewer than 20 Nat- The historian Le Page du Pratz chez today (Mooney 1899). In the 1920s, oil and gas were claims the Natchez originated in discovered on the Houma lands and Mexico and were forced east by Tunica-Biloxi they were tricked into signing a tribal disputes in their homeland Nobody seems to know where the quit claim that would allow anyone (Woods 1978). The French explorer Tunica-Biloxi originated, but some who occupied the land uncontested Iberville first came across the Nat- believe the ancestors were men- ownership for 30 years (Soule 1995). chez in 1699 in Adams County in tioned by De Soto in his journals in The Houma wound up losing that Mississippi and noted in his journals 1541 (GCIA 1991, Soule 1995). They land, but in 1940, they purchased 45 that the Natchez were different aren’t mentioned again by explor- acres of land in Dulac. By the early from other natives in the region ers until 1682, when the French 1970s, the Houma received state rec- because they were less savage than reported two large villages – one on ognition, although they still don’t other tribes and particularly strong the Yazoo River in Mississippi and have federal government recognition and organized (Seyfried 2009). The another on the Ouachita River in (Soule 1995). It is likely this lack of tribe had a complex social order, Louisiana (Soule 1995). In 1698, a federal recognition is a result of the political structure and moral code. small group of French missionaries complex heritage of Native, Euro- This system was in effect long before visited the tribe and established a pean and African ancestry (Davis the French arrived and served as a mission. They lived with the tribe 2001). Similarly, because of their way to preserve order, stability, soli- for 20 years, although this once adaptation and historical move- darity and continuity (Brain 1971). pleasant relationship eventually dis- ment, much of their history as told solved (Soule 1995).

LSU AgCenter Research Report #120-A Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Native Americans 15 After a series of wars and moves Authors in the early 1800s, the Tunica continued to dwindle until they had just 130 acres of land and only Amanda D. Cowley, Louisiana State University 50 members (Soule 1995). Blend- Mark J. Schafer, LSU AgCenter ing with a nearby tribe was one of http://www.lsuagcenter.com/en/communications/authors/MSchafer.htm the few options the Tunica had for retaining their tribal identity. That Troy Blanchard, Louisiana State University option presented itself when the Bi- loxi moved onto some land adjacent to the Tunica. The Biloxi were a Siouan tribe who lived near the Bi- loxi Bay in the 1690s and were first Acknowledgements encountered by the French Explorer This research was funded in part by the Bureau Iberville (Soule 1995).In 1763, the of Ocean Energy Management as part of a larger Biloxi moved and established two project studying ethnic groups and enclaves in new villages (GCIA 1991, Soule the Gulf of Mexico region. We would like to ac- 1995). One of these new villages knowledge Harry Luton from the Bureau of Ocean adjoined the Tunica, and after the Energy Management for his feedback and encour- Biloxi sold their lands in 1800, many agement throughout this project. We would also of the tribe’s people blended with like to thank Diane Austin, Thomas McGuire, Britny the Tunica (GCIA 1991). Others Delp, Margaret Edgar, Lindsey Feldman, Brian joined the nearby Choctaw or moved Marks, Lauren Penney, Kelly McLain, Justina Wha- to Texas (GCIA 1991). Joining the len, Devon Robbie, Monica Voge, Doug Welch, and Tunica was necessary, because when Victoria Phaneuf from the University of Arizona, for providing a database of literature and support. the French surrendered, the Biloxi Similarly, we would like to acknowledge Helen Re- were left without protection (Soule gis, Carolyn Ware, Bethany Rogers, and Annemarie 1995). Galeucia of Louisiana State University, for their comments and feedback. Finally, we would like to Today, the Tunica-Biloxi are a thank Huizhen Niu, Louisiana State University, for blended tribe that has approximate- her assistance with GIS mapping. ly 440 members (GCIA 1991). They have lost much of their language but retained some of their culture, crafts and traditions (Soule 1995). The Tunica received federal recogni- tion in 1980, which allowed them to restore their roads, construct houses and build a tribal facility (Soule 1995). Eventually, a casino was built, which helped many of the Tunica-Biloxi get off public assis- www.LSUAgCenter.com tance and raised their standard of living. Others have looked for work in the manufacturing industry.

Louisiana State University Agricultural Center Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service William B. Richardson, Chancellor and Director

Research Report #120 - A (online only) 5/13

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16 LSU AgCenter Research Report #120-A Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Native Americans