May 2013 Research Report # 120 - A Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region An online supplement to Research Report #120 History tools became more refined, as did or teeth. Cooking techniques also housing and food. Homes became improved during this era as Native Indian Eras more nomadic, with a few wooden Americans began using cooking Unfortunately, much of the Native Americansshelters emerging. The weather stones of different shapes and sizes scholarship about American Indian became warmer during this period, heated in a convection earth oven to history begins with the arrival of causing the ice to melt and flood cook their food (Soule 1995). Columbus, so relatively little is plains to form. Plants and animals known about Native American life were abundant and much of what The oldest known civilization for the thousands of years prior we eat today was developed during on the entire continent of North to colonization (Fixco 1996). Yet, this period. Mounds also began to America, Poverty Point, emerged scholars commonly discuss several appear during this period as Native during this era. It was a hub city social and cultural changes the Americans settled in areas with an that was home to several thousand Native Americans were undergoing abundant food source (Soule 1995). people and more than 7.5 miles of prior to the arrival of the Europe- man-made ridges that stood 5 to 10 ans. For example, social hierarchies, Archaic Era (Poverty Point) feet high and were thought to be the chiefdoms, extensive trade, mounds The Archaic Era lasted from ap- foundations for houses (Soule 1995). and complex religious ceremonies proximately 2000 B.C. to 200 B.C. Several towns made up the system all emerged prior to the arrival of (Soule 1995). During the Archaic linked by waterways and trade Europeans (Neuman 1984, Soule Era, the climate was stabilizing and routes to Kentucky, Georgia, Ar- 1995 anderson and Gillam 2000, spear points began changing to fit kansas, Michigan and even Canada Perdue and Green 2001). There were the regional cultures, the fit of the (Soule 1995). The Poverty Point approximately nine broad Indian game, the raw stone materials that mound, which likely took millions cultural sequences that are discussed were available and the tastes of the of hours to build, is in the shape of briefly in the following sections: Pa- tribe. Populations began to grow a bird and is the largest of all the leo Indian, Archaic, Poverty Point, and rather than wandering to new mounds from this time, measur- Tchefuncte, Marksville, Troyville, places, many groups had several ing more than 680 feet at its widest Coles Creek, Plaquemine, Mississippi sites they frequented (Perdue and point and likely once standing more and Historic (Soule 1995). Green 2001). Because of the grow- than 100 feet tall (Soule 1995). The ing populations and stability, hor- Poverty Point site in the far north- Paleo-Indian ticulture developed during this era eastern portion of Louisiana can The Paleo-Indian Era refers to and tribes became more sedentary still be visited today. any time before 6000 B.C. when – evident by the piles of fish bones Indians were hunters that lived in found along shores, suggesting that Woodland Era small family groups. Indians in this people gathered and ate fish for long The Woodland Era began around era rarely stayed in one place very periods of time. Post molds from 700 B.C. and being sedentary long and often left very little behind this era also suggest more perma- became the norm. There was an in- when they moved (Soule 1995). It is nent structures were built (Per- creasing dependence on horticulture likely they hunted with short spears due and Green 2001). With tribes and by 300 B.C., maize was a com- tipped with Clovis points that were becoming more sedentary, long- mon crop (Perdue and Green 2001). left throughout the Southeastern distance trade also developed to help During this era, complex death United States, speaking to their his- them obtain goods that were not rituals also emerged, which suggests toric presence. In addition to hunt- readily available (Perdue and Green there was a social hierarchy of some ing, they also gathered wild plants 2001). In addition to these economic kind, with chiefdoms likely emerg- and nuts (Perdue and Green 2001). changes, as tribal bands became ing (Perdue and Green 2001). Meso-Indian sedentary, religious and emotional Tchefuncte Period The Meso-Indian Era lasted from ties to place also developed. The Tchefuncte Era lasted from approximately 6000 B.C. to about Common clothing included approximately 400 B.C. to 200 A.D. 1200 B.C. (Soule 1995). Clothing breechclouts for men, skirts for and Native life resembled that of during this era included animal women and pendants depicting the Poverty Point and Woodland skins, such as deer and bear and animals made from stone, copper eras. One notable difference between LSU AgCenter Research Report #120-A Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Native Americans 1 these eras is that in the Tchefuncte diet of primarily maize, and pottery power over their people during this era more settlements began to techniques became more refined as time and established control by emerge in the coastal marshes, on elaborate designs were drawn on organizing projects to keep people levees and along bayous and rivers the surfaces and long-necked water occupied and by visually and physi- (Soule 1995). bottles came into use (Soule 1995). cally setting themselves apart from commoners (Soule 1995). Marksville Period Mississippian Era (Late Caddoan) The Marksville period lasted from Scholars don’t agree on when the In some tribes, head binding also approximately 200 A.D. to 400 A.D. Mississippian Era began or ended. began during this period. Infants (Soule 1995). Clothing and tools be- Some suggest the Mississippian era were placed on a board, a strap was came more ornate and many cultur- began around 800 to 1000 A.D., pulled very tightly around the head al changes took place. For instance, while others suggest the era did not and the bone was pressed to flat- religious ceremonies became more begin until around 1400 A.D. and ten it. Pressure was released when common and village farming was didn’t end until 1700 A.D. (Soule the head turned black and blue and practiced (Soule 1995). 1995, Perdue and Green 2001). then tightened again. This process During this time, shell-tempered took years to accomplish and was Troyville Period pottery, square houses and pyrami- extremely painful (Soule 1995). (Coles Creek, Early Caddoan) dal mounds became more common. With time, it gave the head a flat The Troyville period lasted from Most notably, stratification was appearance. 450 A.D. to 1100 A.D. (Soule 1995). common as the social order re- The clothing, tools and houses mained ranked. Due to vast popula- Often, the Mississippian Era is resembled the Marksville era. Inland tion growth, maize became a staple referred to as one of the most in- villages were growing and had of the Native American diet, with strumental in terms of social change ceremonial centers, while coastal some societies relying on maize for for the American Indians. Several villages typically were built on up to 50 percent of their diet (Per- scholars have studied communi- mound tops (Soule 1995). Mounds due and Green 2001). ties from this era with the hope of were still being constructed but gaining a better understanding of were larger, more numerous and of a Scholars suggest there are several how Native Americans were living different shape. The mounds of this scenarios that could have ushered in prior to European arrival and the era resembled a truncated pyramid this new era of stratification such ways in which colonization changed to accommodate religious temples as a surplus of goods, war or some life for the American Indians. One on the top where chiefs and reli- other catastrophic event that would commonly studied Mississippian gious leaders were buried. Chipped require a strong sense of leadership community is Moundville in central stone points became smaller and and organization (Perdue and Green Alabama (Perdue and Green 2001). the bow and arrow began replacing 2001). With a surplus of goods, the spear and darts (Soule 1995). trade and exchange with neighbor- Historic Period As village populations continued to ing chiefdoms also increased, which The Historic Period lasted from grow, a more advanced social system ushered in more social change as 1600 A.D. to the present (Soule developed that relied on a chief to the Native Americans living in the 1995). Because the historic period maintain social order. Southeastern United States were encompasses such a vast amount of able to obtain goods they were un- time and practices varied from tribe Plaquemine (Middle Caddoan) able to produce themselves. to tribe, it is difficult to generalize This era extended from 1100 A.D. the era. Most notably, there was a to 1450 A.D. Clothing was similar For the most part, the clothing, decline of Native American culture to other eras except feather head- tools and food of the Mississippian marked by the arrival of Europeans dresses emerged for adornment Era resembled that of previous who had advanced technology and (Soule 1995). Houses became dome eras. Houses were fortified huts an abundance of diseases. Agricul- shaped with woven mats. Villages with wattle and daub construction, ture remained a mainstay for quite were larger and surrounded by thatched roofs and woven mats, and some time after the European set- palisades for protection, with access villages typically had a large central tlers arrived, along with trapping, to the water, and canoes were a com- plaza surrounded by huts and forti- hunting and fishing.