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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-88828-8 - Ecology and Conservation of the Sirenia: Dugongs and Manatees Helene Marsh, Thomas J . O’Shea and John E . Reynolds III Index More information

Index

aardvark 41–45 commercial exploitation and value abundance estimation 329–336 270–271, 274, 275 acid detergent fibre (ADF) 108–109 conservation actions 374–375, 408–409 activity patterns 157–158 conservation status assessment 370–375 adaptive management 405, 423–425 dentition 118 adoption 233 diet 85, 93–94, 140 adverse conditions See also climatic digestion studies 128 conditions disease 294, 296 reproduction delay tendency in 242–248 estimated capacity of range states 395 aerial surveys 332–335, 362 evolution of 60–61, 64–66 detection probability 332–335 food acquisition 112–113, 116 Afrosoricida 44 food consumption estimate 129 Afrotheria 41–46 global climate change threat 307, 312 genomic investigation relevant habitat loss 141 See Supplementary Material habitat use and habitat components Appendix 3.1 191–192, 201–203 age hunting 265, 272, 373–374 estimation of 213–217 incidental capture 277 life span 217–218 life span 217 sexual maturity and 225–227, 229–230 morphological adaptations for feeding aggressive behaviour 180–183 9 agricultural land use, seagrass loss movement patterns 167 and 364 physical appearance differences from aldosterone 195 other sirenians 5–7 algae population size and trends 373 carrying capacity projection and changes pregnancy and birth 231–232 in 194 reproductive activity timing 240–241, dugong’s diet 85, 86–87, 88, 89, 246 248 green turtle’s diet 139 rostral deflection 113 harmful algal blooms 305–311, 316 species range 8, 370–373 skin growth 300 threats’ summary 373–374 West African manatee’s diet 101 vocalisation 185–187 West Indian manatee’s diet 85, 95–96, Amphibolis antarctica 88, 90, 107, 112 97 anatomy See also specific anatomical features/ alligator weed 98, 112 structures Alternanthera philoxeroides 98, 112 fossil sirenians 50–52 Altungulata 40, 41 overview of extant sirenians 4–8 Amazonian manatee (Trichechus inunguis) reproductive See Supplementary Material audition studies 146–147 Appendix 6.1

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-88828-8 - Ecology and Conservation of the Sirenia: Dugongs and Manatees Helene Marsh, Thomas J . O’Shea and John E . Reynolds III Index More information

Index j 507

Andaman islands, dugong conservation Azolla 104 assessment 352–354 A. africana 101 Andes Mountains 39, 59 androgen 228 bacterial diseases 296–298 Anomotherium langewieschei 58 baiji 34 Anthracobunia 40 bather protection nets 317 anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) 195 Bazaruto Archipelago National Park 277, Antillean manatee (Trichechus manatus 345–346, 409–411 manatus) See also West Indian manatee behaviour (Trichechus manatus) activity patterns and time budgets chemical contamination 303 157–158 commercial exploitation and value aggression 180–183 270–271 anti-predator behaviour and habitat use conservation actions 387, 429–431 31, 167–172, 199 conservation status assessment 384–387 long distance movement patterns and diet 100 migration 158–167, 196–200 disease 296 sensation and perception 8, 146–154, 184, estimated capacity of range states 395 285 evolution of 64 social See social behaviour group sizes and composition 173 swimming and diving 154–157 hunting 265–266, 269–270, 272, Behemota 40, 41 274, 386 benthic animals 135–136 incidental capture 272, 278, 386 Bering Island 15–19, 21, 26–27 life span 217 Bering, V. 14 movement patterns 166 biocultural diversity 416 multivariate habitat use studies 189–190 biodiversity loss 397–399 population size and trends 385–386 biomass, plant 132–134 pregnancy and birth 231 blubber 23–25, 83, 302 quiet/sheltered area use 201 boating activity effects reintroduction to Guadeloupe 429–431 dugong mortality and injury 280–281, species range 8, 371, 384 365 terminology 12 Florida manatee impact reduction threats’ summary 386–387 management 284–286 anti-predator behaviour 31, 167–172, 199 Florida manatee mortality and injury aquatic megaherbivore adaptive zone 280–284 66, 69 increasing human population and 323 aquatic weeds, manatee clearance of indirect effects 286–287 139–140 mortality and injury current threat Arabian Gulf, dugong conservation status intensity summary 279–280 350–352 quiet/sheltered area loss 199 archaeological evidence, hunting 265–266 body hair 8, 149–151 armoured catﬁsh (Pterygoplichthys sp.) 300 body shape, Steller’s sea cow (Hydrodamalis ascidians 89, 97, 136 gigas) 20 Ashokia antiqua 52 body size Atlantic Ocean, coexisting species and serial fossil sirenians 54, 75 replacements in western 68–73 sexual maturity and 220, 222, 224–225, auditory senses 146–148, 285 228–229 Australia Steller’s sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas) cultural issues 2 19–21 dugong conservation status 359–367 body surﬁng 183 Avicennia, dugong diet 87 Brachiaria 128 awareness, public 375, 383, 391, 405–407 Bradypus tridactylus 126

508 j Index

brevetoxins 307–310 climatic conditions bristles/vibrissae 114–116, 149, 151 body shape and 20 browsing, terminology of 80 Eocene 47 Bruta 36 global climate change See global climate buoyancy 23, 31, 155 change harmful algal blooms and 309 Cabomba 128 reproductive activity timing and 247–248 C. caroliniana 109 seasonal rainfall and habitat use 201–202 caecum 118, 126 Steller’s sea cow 19 caimans 167 survival and 252, 314, 316 calves coastal development 2, 282, 349, 354, 356, cavorting and play 182–183 358, 364, 391 feeding biology 183–184, 232–234, 241 cold stress 288–294, 298, 431 habitat selection 200 colon 121–123, 125, 128 mother–infant behaviour 31, 183–184 Commander Islands 24, 27, 30, 32, 58 neonatal size 231–232 commensals 299–301 protection from predators 31, 168, 171 commercial exploitation 11–12, 266–268, vocalisation 185, 186 273–275 calving community partnerships 407–411 calving interval 234–235 conservation actions neonatal size 231–232 adaptive management 405, 423–425 quiet/sheltered area use 171, 200 Amazonian manatee 374–375, 408–409 seasonality of 238–241 Antillean manatee 387, 429–431 sex ratio 231 aquatic protected areas 403–405 captive sirenians, sampling biases in study blueprint for 400–401 use 211–212 community partnerships 407–411 carbohydrates, food content 107–109 cross-species initiatives 411 carcass studies, potential sampling biases cultural protocol reinforcement 412–416 211 dugong See dugong conservation actions cardiac gland 23, 123–124 See also Figure 4.9 economic tools 425–429 Caribbean monk seal 34 education and awareness programmes Caribbean Sea, coexisting species and serial 405–407 replacements in 68–73 flagship species 411–412 Caribosiren 71 Florida manatee 284–286, 381–384, C. turneri 54, 70 431–433 Carnivora 3 future approaches and goals 433–434 carrying capacity 194, 292 legal protection and law enforcement cavorting 181, 182–183 402–403 cellulose 105, 108–109 monitoring 423–425 Central American Seaway 39, 72–75 multiple threat management 419–420 cetaceans 3–4, 37 See also dolphins; killer opportunism/creativity examples whales 429–433 chaetopterid worms 89 problem recognition and definition for chemical contaminants 141, 302–305, 399–401 315–316, 386–387 Red List inclusion and 327–329, 393 chemoreception 153–154 scientific research programmes Chetumal Bay 98, 173, 189, 302–303, 386 416–418 Chetumal Bay Manatee Protected Area 403 spatial risk management 420–423 chewing 96, 113, 118, 127 See also stock assessment 418 Mastication West African manatee 392, 411 ciguatoxins 306 conservation status cladistics 77 Amazonian manatee 370–375

Index j 509

approach to status assessments of extant Cymodocea 87, 88, 91, 110, 111, 135, 139 sirenians 340–342 C. rotundata 135 conclusions 393 C. serrulata 109 criteria for designation of 327–330 Cyperus 104 dugong status assessments 342–370 See dugong conservation status dams 313, 374, 390 assessments De Bestiis Marinis status assessment data generation anatomy 20, 23, 24, 25, 33 methods 329–340 care of young 31 summary of current IUCN 2 feeding and effects of winter 19 terminology 329–330 habitat 26 West African manatee 387–392 hunting 20 West Indian manatee 376–387 reactions to humans 28 consumption of meat and products 269, reproductive behaviour 29 270–271 writing of 18 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) deforestation 141, 374 376, 397–398 dentition Convention on International Trade in fossil sirenians 51, 53, 56, 58–61, Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and 75–76 Flora (CITES) 275, 341, 342, 370, mastication and 117–121 376, 387 tooth replacement 10 Convention on Migratory Species of desmostylians 38–41, 43, 46 Wild Animals (CMS) 338, 341, 342, detritus, microbial processes and 370–371, 375, 388, 390 131–132 Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) developed versus developing countries 342–343, 371, 388, 392, 411, 423 cultural conflicts 1–2 Copper Island 15, 27–28 human development index (HDI) See copper poisoning 304 human development index (HDI) coprophagy 97, 101, 106 terminology 12 Coral Triangle Initiative 358 dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene cordgrass 95 (DDE) 302 Core Biological Model 419–420 diet See also Supplementary Material cornea 153 Appendix 4.1 Corystosiren 55–56, 68, 70, 71 digesta samples, diet study use 81 Crenatosiren olseni 55, 56, 68, 70 digestion 4, 24, 121–127, 143 crime prevention, situational dinoceratans 43 402–403 dinoflagellates 306–311 critical habitat 382–383 Dioplotherium 55–56 crocodilians 167, 168 D. allisoni 55, 56, 71, 74–75 cropping 80, 81, 84, 98, 111–112, 121, 129, D. manigaulti 55, 56, 68, 70 135 disease 294–301, 316 cross-species initiatives 411 diuron 304 Cryptosporidium infection 299 diving 154–157, 167 Crystal River (Florida) dolphins 411 diet studies 98, 102 Domning, D. 16, 17, 48, 66–68 movement patterns 166 domoic acid 306–307 population size and trends 379 dugong (Dugong dugon) reproduction studies 235 activity patterns 157–158 cultivation grazing 137–139 age estimation studies 215–216 cultural conflicts 1–2 anti-predator behaviour 168–172 cultural value 1, 11, 368, 393, 414–416 boating activity effects 281, 287 cutin 108 calf dependency 233–234

510 j Index

dugong (Dugong dugon) (cont.) reproductive activity timing 230, 234, cardiac gland image 123 237–249, 258–260 chemical contamination 302–305 reproductive rate 236 commensals 300 rostral deflection 113–114 commercial exploitation and value rough water 202, 204 270–271, 273–274, 275 salinity and fresh water access 194, 196 conservation actions See dugong sexual maturity 225–229 conservation actions spatial model of relative density conservation status assessments See (Australia) 413 dugong conservation status species range 8, 342–343 assessments survival estimation 257 cultural value 1, 11, 268, 391, 414–416 tidal cycles 202 dentition 117–121 ventral view 219 diet studies 80–92, 140–141 vibrissae photographic image 151 digestion 121–128 vocalisation 185–186 disease 294 water temperature response 197–200 divergence from Hydrodamalis lineage dugong conservation actions 33–34 Arabian/Persian gulf 351–352 estimated capacity of range states 394 Australia 364–366 feeding behaviour 111–112 Dugong Conservation, Management and food acquisition 83–84, 113–116 Public Education Program 407 food consumption studies 129 East Africa 347 food quality 106 East and South-East Asia 356, 358 fossil record of 57 incentive payment scheme 426–427 global climate change threat 311–312 Indian subcontinent and Andaman and group sizes and composition 172–175 Nicobar islands 354 habitat use and forage component 191 Okinawa case study 1, 11, 358, 412 harmful algal blooms and biotoxins Red Sea and Gulf of Aden 349–350 305, 311 spatial risk management 420–423 hunting ii, 264–269 Turtle and Dugong Management Plans incidental capture 276–279 414–416 leks 178, 180–181, 183 Vietnamese hunter turned educator 406 life history and reproductive biology Western Pacific islands 369–370 information sources 212 dugong conservation status assessments life history modelling 256–257 Arabian/Persian Gulf 352 mating systems/behaviour 178–181 Australia 360, 367–368 Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) East Africa 345, 347 342–343 East and South-East Asia 355, 357, 359 morphological adaptations for feeding global 342–344 9–10 Indian subcontinent and Andaman and mother–infant behaviour 183–184 Nicobar islands 353–354 movement patterns 159–160, 197–200, Red Sea and Gulf of Aden 348, 350 288–289 Western Pacific islands 369–370 multivariate habitat use studies dugong oil 267 190–191 Dugong v. Gates 1 photographic image of skeleton 17 Dugong v. Rumsfeld 1 physical appearance differences from Dugongidae 2, 4, 48–50, 52–58, other sirenians 5–7 68–73 population study methods 332–336 Dugonginae 53, 55–57, 68–71, 74 predation 167–172 duodenum 124–125 pregnancy and birth 229–232 Dusisiren quiet/sheltered area use 200–201 D. allisoni 74–75

Index j 511

D. dewana 57, 75 molecular genetical analysis based D. jordani 57, 75, 76 affinities 41–46 D. reinharti 57, 74, 75 morphologically and palaeontologically D. takasatensis 57, 75 based affinities and placements 36–41 East Africa, dugong conservation status Paenungulata and Tethytheria 38–41 assessment 345, 347 excavating East Asia, dugong conservation status definition of 80 assessment 355, 357, 359 evidence of 81–82, 111–116 Echinochloa 93, 193 predator awareness and 170–171 economic conservation tools 425–429 social behaviour and 175 ecotourism 386, 425–426 eyesight 152–153 education, public 375, 384, 405–407 eelgrass 98 facial appearance 7–8, 149 Eichhornia 93, 104, 128, 129 fatty acid signature analysis 83 E. crassipes (water hyacinth) 96–98, faecal samples 82 101–102 feeding biology Eimeria infection 298 Amazonian manatee’s diet 85, 92–94, elephant shrews 41–42, 44 140 elephants (Order Proboscidea) benthic animals and 135–136 digestion 125–126 calves 183–184, 232–234, 241 morphological similarities with changes and adaptations through time sirenians 37 66–76 sirenian evolutionary history 37–38, comparative overview and conservation 40–42 implications 140–142 Embrithopoda 40, 41, 43 digestion 4, 24, 121–128, 143 Endangered Species Act 1972 (US) dugong’s diet 83–92, 140–141 381–382 extant sirenians’ diet diversity Enhalus 87–88, 121 comparison 85 E. acoroides 88, 91, 112, 121 feeding behaviour 111–113 environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) food acquisition 80–81, 83–84, 113–116 hypothesis 400 food consumption 127–130, 132 environmental mortgages 426–429 food quality 102–111, 135 Eocene fossil sirenians 50, 52, 53–58, 59–61, Caribbean Sea and western Atlantic 66–76 Ocean sirenians 69 future research suggestions 143 major events impacting Sirenia 39 habitat use and forage component summary of fossil sirenians’ 191–194 distribution 49 habitats and food plants schematic Eosiren 53 illustration 9 Eotheroides 53 mastication 113, 117–121 epimeletic behaviour 183 methodology for diet studies 81–83 estradiol 221 morphological adaptation overview evoked potential studies 146–147 9–10 evolutionary history optimal foraging theory 79–80 conclusions on 76–77 plant biomass and productivity 102 divergence and characters of earliest sirenian–plant interactions See Sirenia and closest relatives 46–48 plant–sirenian interactions evolutionary tree 49 Steller’s sea cow 19, 22, 28, 32 fossil sirenians See fossil sirenians terminology 80–81 geologic timescale of 39 West African manatee’s diet 85, 100–102, introduction to 3, 35–36 140–141

512 j Index

feeding biology (cont.) distribution of 62–63 West Indian manatee’s diet 85, 94–100, estimated capacity of range states 140–141 394–395, Table 8.9 feeding biology evolution of 64–65 Amazonian manatee’s diet See flood control and lock gates 97, 419 Supplementary Material food acquisition 84, 112–113, 116, 119 Appendix Table 4.2 food consumption study 127–129, dugong’s diet See Supplementary 133–134 Material Appendix Table 4.1 gestation length 229 West African manatee’s diet See group sizes and composition 172–175 Supplementary Material hair distribution 149, 150 Appendix Table 4.4 harmful algal blooms and biotoxins 305, West Indian manatee’s diet See 307–310 Supplementary Material hunting 265 Appendix Table 4.3 incidental capture 276 fibre, food content 108–109, 110–111 infectious disease 294–299 fish life history parameters and conservation West African manatee’s diet 101 implications 259 West Indian manatee’s diet 97 life history and reproductive biology fishing gear, incidental capture in 279 See information sources 212 incidental capture (fishing gear- life history modelling 253–256, 419–420 related) life span 217–218 fission–fusion societies 176 litter size, sex ratio and neonatal size flagship species 411–412 230–232 flippers/limbs mating systems and behaviour 179, dugong and manatee anatomy 5, 7 181–182, 228 food acquisition role 116 matrilineal use of space 187–188 fossil sirenians 75, 76 miscellaneous threats/mortality sources locomotion role 155 317–318 malformation of 301 mortality 307 Steller’s sea cow 22–23 mother–infant behaviour 184 Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus movement patterns 159, 160–166, 197, latirostris) See also West Indian 288–290 manatee (Trichechus manatus) multiple threat management 419–420 activity patterns 158 photographic image of skeleton 17 age estimation studies 214 population size and trends 378–380 audition studies 146–148 population study methods 332–333, 336, boating activity effects and management 339 280–286 quiet/sheltered area use 200–201 calf dependency 233 reproductive activity timing 237–240, calving intervals and reproductive rates 242, 244 234–237 reproductive cycles 221 cavorting and play 182–183 rostral deflection 114 chemical contamination 303–304 sexual maturity 224–226, 229–230 cold stress 288–290, 431 species range 8, 371, 377–378 conservation actions 284–286, 381–384, survival estimation 250–253, 261–257 431–433 terminology 12 conservation status assessment 377–384 threats’ summary 380–381 cultural conflicts and 2 ventral views 219 diet 95–100 vocalisation 185–187 digestion 122, 124–126 warm-water refugia use and loss See disease 294–297 warm-water refugia

Index j 513

water temperature response 197, multivariate habitat use study 190 288–290 sirenian conservation success of 403 fluke 5 spatial risk management project food See Supplementary Material Appendix 420–421 4.1 green turtles See turtles food resource (for humans) 11, 19, 27–28, group sizes/composition 172–176 264, 273–275 growth layer group (GLG) 213–216 fossil sirenians Guadeloupe, Antillean manatee additional complexities in manatee reintroduction project 429–431 evolution suggested by molecular Gulf of Aden, dugong conservation status genetics 63–66 347–350 See al so S u p p le me nt ar y M at er ia l Appendix 3.2 habitat classification of 48–50 critical 382–383 coexisting species and serial loss of 12, 141–142, 321–325, 374, 391 replacements 66–76 species distribution overview 8–9 current research position 48 use and components of See habitat use Dugongidae 48–50, 52–58, 68–73 and components Prorastomidae 48–51, 69 warm-water refugia See warm-water Protosirenidae 48–50, 51–52, 69 refugia Trichechidae 48–50, 58–63, 70–72 habitat acquisition programmes 383 fresh water habitat monitoring programmes 411, 425 access to 194–196 mating systems and behaviour 212–214, biodiversity in 398–399 216–220 freshwater plants 104 See also specific plants habitat use and components biomass and productivity values 104 conclusions 206 digestion of 128 forage 191–194, 198–199 funding, law enforcement 402 future research suggestions 206–207 fungal infections 298 multivariate habitat use studies 189–191 fur trade 27, 30 quiet/sheltered area availability 200–201 rough water 202–204 gastrointestinal tract 4, 23, 121–128, 143 salinity and fresh water access 194–196 generation length 339–340 seasonal rainfall 201–202 genetic analysis terminology 189 complexities of manatee evolution 63–66 tidal cycles 202 Steller’s sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas) water temperature 196–200 33–34 wilderness and anthropogenic change genetic diversity 318–321, 388 204 gestation length 229–230 hair 149–151 global climate change Halitheriinae 53–55, 70, 74 Amazonian manatee 141, 374, 375 Halitherium 69 overview of effects 311–317 Halodule seagrass loss 141 acquisition and processing of 111, 120, West African manatee 392 128 golden moles 41–42, 44 dugong’s diet 87, 88, 90 Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin 429–431 food quality 107 Gravigrades 37 H. uninervis See Halodule uninervis grazing, terminology of 80 H. wrightii See Halodule wrightii Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area Halodule uninervis cultural conflicts 2 dugong’s diet 88, 90, 91, 92, 133, 241 dugong carrying capacity estimation 194 feeding effects on 103 monitoring tools evaluation 424 food quality 107, 110

514 j Index

Halodule wrightii conservation education by former acquisition and processing of 113 hunters 406 feeding effects on 103 contemporary legal 260, 268, 365, manatee feeding effects on 134, 137, 138 412–416, 421 West Indian manatee’s diet 97, 99, 133 current threat intensity 265 Halophila definition of 264 acquisition and processing of 111, 128 dugong ii, 265, 267–269, 365 dugong’s diet 87, 88, 90, 191 economical incentives against 428 food quality 110 Florida manatee 265 H. ovalis See Halophila ovalis methods ii, 264–265, 269–272, 374 H. spinulosa See Halophila spinulosa overview 11–12 Halophila ovalis poaching 268–269, 365, 386 dugong’s diet 90, 91, 133 spatial risk management 421–423 feeding effects on 103, 132–134 Steller’s sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas) 20, food quality 108, 111 26–28, 31 Halophila spinulosa West African manatee 264, 265, 268, dugong’s diet 88, 91 269, 272, 390 feeding effects on 134 hybridisation 64 food quality 106, 107 Hydrilla 84, 104, 129, 139–140 head, Steller’s sea cow 33 H. verticillata 96, 98, 102, 112, 127–129 health assessment 301, 340 Hydrocotyle umbellate 99 hearing 146–148, 184, 285 Hydrodamalinae 57–58, 72–76 heart disease 301 Hydrodamalis helminths 299 H. cuestae 75, 76 Hepu National Reserve 356 H. gigas See Steller’s sea cow herbicides 304 (Hydrodamalis gigas) herpes viruses 295–296 H. spissa 76 Hervey Bay 87, 91, 92, 247–248, Hymenachne 93 359–367 hyraxes (Order Hyracoidea) 38–40, 41–46 Holocene, major events impacting Sirenia 39 in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) hormone measurement 119, 121 110–111 horny plate 119, 121 See also Figures 2.6, incidental capture (fishing gear-related) 4.7 Amazonian manatee 277 horse, digestion 125, 128 Antillean manatee 278, 386 Human Development Index (HDI) dugong 276–278, 364–365 341–344, 370–372, 377, 393–394, 399 economical incentives against 428 conservation capacity 12, 321–325, Florida manatee 276 384, 400 See also Table 8.9 global climate change effects 316 human population, increase in 12, 321–325, human population increase effects 323 400 overview 275–279 Human Poverty Index 275 spatial risk management 420–423 human–sirenian interactions, overview West African manatee 276, 278 11–12, 27, 168 India, dugong conservation status 352–354 hunting infectious diseases 294–299, 316 Amazonian manatee 265, 266, 268, Integrated Conservation and Development 269–271, 272, 373–374 projects 425 Antillean manatee 265, 266, 269–271, international conservation conventions See 272–274, 386 also specific conventions archaeological evidence 265–266 Amazonian manatee 370–371 commercial exploitation and value 11–12, dugong 342–344 266–268, 270, 273–275 implementation capacity 341–342

Index j 515

overview 341 longitudinal studies, potential sampling West African manatee 387–388 biases 211 West Indian manatee 376 Lyngbya 194, 300, 311, 316 International Decade for Action – ‘Water for Life’ (2005–2015) 398 macroparasites 299–301 international trade 275, 341, 391 Macroscelidea 44 International Union for Conservation of mammary glands 4, 218, 223–224, 270 Nature (IUCN) Manatee Action Plan 392 current global conservation status 2 Manatee Conservation Program 408–409 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species manatee oil 274, 275 (Red List) 327–330, 393 Manatee Protection Plans 383 invertebrates mangroves dugong’s diet 85, 89 dugong’s diet 83 feeding effects on benthic communities manatee’s diet 95, 96, 101, 112, 192 135–136 Marawah Marine Protected Area 348, 351 West Indian manatee’s diet 85, 96–97 Marine Mammal Pathobiology Laboratory iron deposition 309 (MMPL) 291 Marine Mammal Protection Act 1972 (US) jaguars 167 412, 418 Marine Wildlife Strandings and Mortality Karenia brevis 307–310, 312 Program 169 kelp 30, 32, 57 mark-recapture analysis 250–251, 252, 261, killer whales 31, 168 335–336 kissing 183, 184 mastication 117–121 Komandorskiye Islands 15 mating systems and behaviour 176–182, 221, 228, 239 lactation 232–234 matrilinearly transmitted learned landmasses, Middle Eocene 47 behaviour, use of space 187–188 Latuca 128 maximum likelihood theory 250 legal protection 1, 402–405 Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) Endangered Species Act 1973 381–382 342–343, 371, 388, 392, 411, 423 Marine Mammal Protection Act 1972 mermaids, links between sirenians and 4, 7 412, 418 Messinian Salinity Crisis 54 lekking 178, 180–181 metal poisoning 304 Lemna 104 Metaxytherium 53–55, 57 L. aequinoctialis 101 M. arctodites 54, 57, 74, 75 life history M. crataegense 54, 70–71, 75 age estimation 213–217 M. floridanum 53, 56, 68, 70 comparative overview and conservation M. krahuletzi 53–54 implications 257–260 M. medium 53 future research suggestions 261 M. serresii 54 importance of understanding 209 M. subapenninum 54 life history modelling 253–257, 419–420 microbial processes, detritus and life span 217–218 131–132 study methodology 210–212 microfinance 426–429 survival estimation 249–253, 258, 261 migration 158–167, 196–200 life span 217–218 minerals, food content 109–110 life table analysis 249–250, 257 mining, seagrass loss and 364 lignin 108, 127–128 Miocene limbs See flippers/limbs Caribbean Sea and western Atlantic Lipotes vexillifer 34 Ocean sirenians 70–71 locomotion 154–155 major events impacting Sirenia 39

516 j Index

Miocene (cont.) Oligocene North Pacific Ocean sirenians 72–76 Caribbean Sea and western Atlantic Miosireninae 58 Ocean sirenians 69–70 Molgula 97 major events impacting Sirenia 39 monitoring 329–336, 423–425 summary of fossil sirenians’ monogamy 29–30, 177–178 distribution 49 morbilliviruses 294–295, 351 optimal foraging theory 79–80 Moreton Bay oral disk 7 behaviour study 158 organochlorine compounds 302, 303 dugong conservation status assessment organotin compounds 304 359–367 orientation 154 dugong diet studies 88 osteomyelitis 298 group size and composition study ovaries 172–175 ovarian cycle 220–221, 239 mark-recapture dugong population reproductive stages’ characteristics 236–245 study 336 multivariate habitat use study 190–191 pachyosteosclerosis 46, 51, 77 plant–sirenian interaction studies 132 paenungulates (Order Paenungulata) 3, 38, morphology, affinities and placements 40–41, 43–46 based on 36–41 Paleocene, major events impacting mother–infant behaviour 183–184, 186 Sirenia 39 mouth 117–121, 153 See also dentition palaeontology, affinities and placements movement patterns, long distance 158–167, based on 36–41 196–200 Panama 173, 386 mussels 89 Pangaea 39 mycobacterial infections 296 Panicum 93, 98, 128 mycotic infections 298 P. hemitomon 113 Myriophyllum spicatum 112 papilloma virus 295 parasites See Supplementary Material Nanosiren 55, 70–71 Appendix 7.1 Natantia 36 Paspalum 93, 203 Native Title 264, 408 See also Chapter 7 perception 146–154 endnote, 322 perissodactyls 38, 40 natural springs, warm-water provision 431 Persian Gulf, dugong conservation status navigation 154 350–352 near infra-red reflectance spectroscopy 82, Pezosiren portelli 48–51 88, 105 physical characteristics, overview 4–8 necropsy programmes 380, 419 Pistia 93, 104, 128, 129 neutral detergent fibre (NDF) 108–109 P. stratiotes (water lettuce) 98, 101 Nicobar islands, dugong conservation placental scars 223–225, 235 assessment 352–354 plant productivity 132–134, 240–241 nitrogen plant–sirenian interactions dugong’s diet 84, 89, 92 competition with green turtles 139 food content 105–107 current research position 130–131 North Pacific Ocean, coexisting species and effects on food plant communities serial replacements 72–76 131–137 Nuphar 99 feeding optimisation 137–139 future research directions 143 oil pollution 305, 351, 387 manatees and aquatic weed clearance okadaic acid 311 139–140 Okinawa, dugong conservation 1, 11, 412 sirenian population decrease and 142 olfaction 153 play 181, 182–183

Index j 517

Pleistocene power plant discharge, major events impacting Sirenia 39 warm-water refugia provision 163–165, North Pacific Ocean sirenians 74, 76 288, 290–294, 431 Plenisner, F. 18 predators 31, 167–172, 199 Pliocene pregnancy 229–232 See also calving; Caribbean Sea and western Atlantic reproductive biology Ocean sirenians 71–73 Proboscidea See elephants (Order major events impacting Sirenia 39 Proboscidea) North Pacific Ocean sirenians 74, progesterone 221 75–76 Prorastomidae 48–51, 69 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) protected areas 376, 387, 403–405 See also 303 Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 302, 303 protein, food content 105–107 polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) Protosiren 69 303 Protosirenidae 48–50, 51–52, 69 polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) Prototherium 53 303 protozoal diseases 298–299 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) 303, 387 quiet/sheltered habitat 200–201 Polygonum 93 population assessment methods radiotelemetry, survival estimation use 250 abundance estimation 329–336 rainfall, seasonal 201–203 generation length estimation 339–340 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands 341, 376, health assessment 340 388 percentage of mature individuals Red List 327–330, 393 estimation 339 Red Sea, dugong conservation status population trends’ estimation 347–350 336–338 red tides 307–310, 312 population distribution, overview 8–9 reintroduction 429–431 population size and trends renal pathology 301 adverse conditions and 242–248 reproductive biology See also calves; calving Amazonian manatee 373 calving intervals 234–235 Antillean manatee 385–386 external sexual dimorphism 218 comparison of sirenian range states’ food supply influences 142 estimated capacity 394–395 importance of understanding 209 dugong See dugong conservation status mating systems and behaviour 176–182, assessments 221, 228, 239 Florida manatee 378–380 pregnancy 229–232 history of modelling See Supplementary reproductive activity timing 237–249 Material Appendix 6.2 reproductive cycles 220–222 life history modelling assessment of reproductive parameters’ comparison/ population dynamics 253–257 overview 258–260 overview 10 reproductive rates 142, 235–237, 338 Steller’s sea cow history 24–27, 31–32 sea otter 29, 30 West African manatee 390 sexual maturity 222–230 Posidonia 54 Steller’s sea cow 29–30 P. australis 86 study methodology 210–212 P. coriacea 86 rescue and rehabilitation programmes 375, Potamogeton crisais 108, 109 383, 391 Potamosiren 58, 59, 60, 61 research programmes, conservation action P. magdalenensis 58, 59, 71 role 416–418 poverty 399–400, 425–429 respiration 155–157

518 j Index

retina 152 reproductive activity timing and 241, Ribodon 59–60, 61, 71 244–248, 259 rice plants 101 tannin levels 109 rostral deflection terminology 80 comparison of extant species 9, 113–114 water-soluble carbohydrates and starch food acquisition and 9, 66 values 107–108 fossil sirenians 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, 75–76 West African manatee’s diet 85, 101 Rytiodus 55–56, 70, 71 West Indian manatee’s diet 85, 94–96, 97, 98, 100 salinity 194–196 Seagrass-Watch programme 424–425, 428 Salvinia 93 seasonal rainfall and habitat use 201 S. nymphellula 101 seaweed 19 San Miguel sea lion viruses 296 sengis 41–42, 44 Sargassum 86 sensation 8, 146–154, 184, 285 saxitoxins 306 sexual dimorphism 218 sea level, changes in 313–314 sexual maturity 222–230 sea otters (Enhydra lutris) 19, 26, 27, 28, 29, Shark Bay 30, 32, 306 dugong conservation status 359–367, 393 sea pens 89 dugong diet studies 88 Sea Sense 427 dugong group size study 173 sea turtles See turtles mating studies 180–181 seagrasses See also specific species shark fin trade 277, 346, 409–410 acquisition of 68, 80–81, 111–116 shark predation 31, 167, 168–172, 199 biomass and productivity 84, 102, sharksuckers 300 132–134 sheltered/quiet habitat 200–201 boating activity effects 281 situational crime prevention 402–403 conservation actions 424–425, 428 skeletal analysis, Steller’s sea cow 32–34 dieback 86, 87, 88, 91, 121, 139, 160, 194, skin 244, 245, 260, 314, 316, 338 stable isotope analysis 98, 99–100 digestion of 128 Steller’s sea cow 24–25 diversification through time sleep 19, 155 66–76 sloth 36, 126 dugong’s diet 83–92 snout deflection See rostral deflection feeding competition with green social behaviour turtles 139 cavorting and play 181, 182–183 feeding optimisation 137–139 group sizes and composition 172–176 fibre content 108–109, 110–111 mating systems/behaviour 176–182, 221, global climate change effects 313–315 228, 239 global decline in 141–142 matrilineal use of space 187–188 habitat use and components of 190–194 mother–infant 31, 183–184, 186 herbicide effects 304 vocalisation 168, 183, 184–187 loss in Australian region 364 South Pacific Regional Environmental mastication of 118–121 Programme (SPREP) 370 Messinian Salinity Crisis effects 54 South-east Asia, dugong conservation microbial processes and detritus status assessment 354–359 131–132 Spartina alterniflora 95, 112 mineral content 109–110 spatial risk management 420–423 nitrogen concentrations 106–107 Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife plant community structure and (SPAW) Protocol 376, 387 composition 134–135 sperm competition 228 quality as sirenian food 135 St Johns River (Florida) recovery from feeding 136–137 behaviour studies 158

Index j 519

diet studies 98 acquisition and processing of 113 mating systems and behaviour 181 feeding effects on 103, 132, 134, 137 population size and trends 378–379 West Indian manatee’s diet 97, 133 reproductive rate study 237 Syringodium isoetifolium survival estimation 252–253 acquisition and processing of 111 St Paul, voyage of 14 dugong’s diet 90, 91, 139 St Peter, voyage of 14–15 feeding effects on 103 stable isotope analysis food quality 107, 110 bone 32 detail of dietary information provided 82 tactile senses 149–151, 183, 184 skin 98, 99–100 tail 20 tooth enamel 52, 53, 54, 55 tannin levels 109, 128 starch, food content 107–108 Tanzania, incentive payment scheme Stejneger, L. 16–17 426–427 Steller, G. W. tapetum lucidum 152 biographical details 14–16 taste buds 153 De Bestiis Marinis 18 See De Bestiis taxonomy Marinis fossil sirenians 48–50 Steller’s jay (Cyanocitta stelleri) 14 marine mammals 3–4 Steller’s sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas) molecular genetic analysis based biology and natural history discovery and affinities 41–46 description 17–27 morphologically and palaeontologically conclusions on vulnerability of based affinities and placements 36–41 remaining Sirenia 34 Paenungulata and Tethytheria 38–41 encephalisation quotient 33 scientific names and global conservation extirpation of 27–28 status 2 first fossil record 76 Sirenia overview 3–4 Georg Wilhelm Steller and voyage of St terminology 77 Peter 14–17 telomeres 216–217 hunting of 265 tenrecs 41–42, 44 modern investigations and speculations terminology 12, 77, 80 on 29–34 terrestrial grasses 60, 94, 109, 128 See also photographic image of skeleton specific species sketches of 18, 21 testis summary of discovery and demise of 13 reproductive senescence 249 Steller’s sea eagle (Haliaeetus pelagicus) 14 seasonal testicular activity 241–242 Steller’s sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus) 14 sexual maturity 227 stock assessment 418 testicular cycle 222 stomach 121–124 Tethyan Seaway 39, 47–48 strandings 314, 315, 387 Tethys Sea 38, 39, 47, 50, 53 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Tethytheria 38–41, 45 Sea and Gulf of Aden 349 tetracycline, age estimation use 213, 213 Styela 97 Thalassia 87, 88, 106, 107, 120 survival estimation 249–253, 257, 258, T. hemprichii See Thalassia hemprichii 261, 338 T. testudinum See Thalassia testudinum swimming 154–157 Thalassia hemprichii Sycozoa pulchra 89, 136 dugong’s diet 90, 139 synapomorphies 37, 77 feeding effects on 112 Syringodium 87, 88, 98, 111 Thalassia testudinum S. filiforme See Syringodium filiforme feeding effects on 113, 138 S. isoetifolium See Syringodium isoetifolium West Indian manatee’s diet 99 Syringodium filiforme Thalassodendron 87, 88

520 j Index

threats Trichechus senegalensi See West African Amazonian manatee 373–374 manatee (Trichechus senegalensi) Antillean manatee 386–387 Tubulidentata 41–46 boating activity See boating activity effects Turtle and Dugong Management Plans chemical contaminants 302–305, 315, 414–416 386–387 turtles cold stress 288–294, 298, 431 conservation actions 411, 414–416, conclusions on contemporary 426–427 conservation implications 325–326 migration 171 disease 294–301, 316 reproductive activity timing 247 dugong See dugong conservation status seagrass ecosystems and 83, 138, 139 assessments tusks Florida manatee 380–381 age determination use 215 genetic diversity loss 318–321 dugong 6, 83, 116 global climate change See global climate food acquisition use 116 change fossil sirenians 52, 53–56, 66–68, 70, 71, harmful algal blooms and biotoxins 74, 75 305–311, 316 twinning 230–231 hunting See hunting Typha 104 incidental capture in fishing gear See incidental capture (fishing gear- United Nations Environment Programme related) (UNEP) 341, 397 increasing human populations and United States of America, cultural habitat loss 321–325 conflicts 2 miscellaneous 317–318 Uranotheria 40, 41 multiple threat management 419–420 uterus 223–225 summary of 263–264 West African manatee 390–392 Vallisneria 129 tidal cycles 202 V. americana 98 time budgets 157–158 V. spicatum 108 tongue 153 Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses Torres Strait 296 dugong conservation status assessment verminous pneumonia 299 360–367 vertebrates, West Indian manatee’s diet 97 dugong diet studies 87, 88, 90, 106 vibrissae 114–116, 149 dugong population study methods 334 viral diseases 295–296 dugong reproductive rates 244–247 vision 152–153 hunting ii, 265, 268, 269, 365, 412–416 vocalisation 168, 183, 184–187 spatial model of dugong population volatile fatty acids (VFAs) 108, 121, 124, 126, density 413 127 Treaty 268, 365, 413 Toxoplasma gondii infection 298 Warm Mineral Spring 431–433 tracking devices 157 warm-water refugia traditions, use of space 187–188 conservation actions 423, 431–433 trichechid herpes virus 1 (TrHV1) 295 loss of 290–294, 317, 417 Trichechidae 2, 48–50, 58–63, 70–72 provision of 163–165, 205, 288 Trichechinae 58–63 use of 197, 288–289, 376–378, 379 Trichechus inunguis See Amazonian water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) 96, 97, manatee (Trichechus inunguis) 98, 101, 102 Trichechus manatus See West Indian water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) 98, 101 manatee (Trichechus manatus) water temperature Trichechus manatus bakerorum 59, 62, 63 cold stress 288–294, 298, 431

Index j 521

global climate change effects 313–314, boat traffic effects 287 316–317 conservation status assessment habitat use and 196–200 376–387 movement patterns and 161, 166, diet 85, 94–100, 140–141 196–200 digestion studies 128 warm-water refugia 161 See warm-water estimated capacity of range states 395 refugia evolution of 60–66 water, food content 110 feeding behaviour 112–113 West African manatee (Trichechus food acquisition 113–115, 116 senegalensi) food consumption estimate 129 commercial exploitation and value freshwater needs 195–196 270–271, 274, 275 global climate change threat 311–312 conservation actions 391–392, 411 habitat use and habitat components conservation delivery capacity 399 192–192, 195–196, 202 conservation status assessment 387–392 illegal hunting 268–69 diet 85, 100–102, 140–141 mastication 119–120 estimated capacity of range states 395 morphological adaptations for feeding evolution of 60, 61 9–10 food acquisition 113, 116 physical appearance differences from global climate change threat 311–312 other sirenians 5–7 habitat use and components 192–193, 202 range states 371 hunting 264, 265, 268, 269, 272 rostral deflection 113–114 incidental capture 276, 278, 390 species range 8 morphological adaptations for feeding terminology 12 9–10 Western Pacific islands, dugong parasites 61–62 conservation status 368–370 physical appearance differences from other sirenians 5–7 Xenosiren yucateca 56, 71 population size and trends 390 population study challenges 331 Yangtze River dolphin 34 pregnancy and birth 231–232 reproductive activity timing 240–241 Zostera 87, 90 rostral deflection 113 Z. capricorni 90 See Zostera capricorni species range 8, 9, 371, 388–390 Z. marina 115, 128, 129 threats’ summary 390–392 Zostera capricorni West Indian manatee (Trichechus acquisition of 111 manatus) See also Antillean manatee dugong’s diet 88, 90, 91, 132, (Trichechus manatus manatus); Florida 133, 191 manatee (Trichechus manatus feeding effects on 134, 138 latirostris) food quality 108, 110, 111