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Cenozoic palaeoecology, phylogeography and ecosystem dynamics of South American mammals (Sparassodonta and Chiroptera) Camilo López-Aguirre A thesis in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master by Research University of New South Wales School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences Faculty of Science February, 2017 PLEASE TYPE THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Thesis/Dissertation Sheet Surname or Family name: Lopez-Aguirre First name: Camilo Other name/s: Ernesto Abbreviation for degree as given in the University calendar: MSc School: BEES Faculty: Science Title: Cenozoic palaeoecology, phylogeography and ecosystem dynamics of South American mammals (Sparassodonta and Chiroptera) Abstract 350 words maximum: (PLEASE TYPE) Biogeographic studies of South American mammals have typically shown a mismatch between latitudinal trends of extant and extinct mammal richness. South America shows modern mammal biodiversity increasing towards the Equator, whereas evidence of extinct South American mammals is concentrated at higher latitudes. Consequently, most studies focusing on the ecology and evolution of the South American mammal fauna have been limited temporally (to either extinct or extant taxa) or spatially (specific localities or ecosystems only). In this study, new methodologies were implemented to include both extinct and extant taxa in analyses of two orders of South American mammals: the Sparassodonta and the Chiroptera. A novel multivariate statistical approach was used to study the endemic metatherian order Sparassodonta and to test several competing hypotheses about the extinction of this group. Non-competitive ecological interactions within the South American mammal assemblage appear to have been the main drivers for sparassodontan extinction rather than, as commonly assumed, the result of competition and/or abiotic fluctuations. Diversity loss and eventual demise of the sparassodontans was a gradual process that followed family-specific patterns which changed over time. New statistical tools were also developed to examine phylogenetic diversity and phylogenetic endemism spatially and temporally in New World chiroptera. Trans-continental migrations proved to be most significant in the evolution of the South American bat fauna. Multiple centres of significant endemism were found across the New World for most bat families, extending the hypothesis of dual centres of diversification, previously proposed for Emballonuridae, Phyllostomidae and Mormoopidae, to Molossidae and Vespertilionidae. Central America and southern North America played particularly important roles in the diversification of New World bats, as did the Andes in South America. Declaration relating to disposition of project thesis/dissertation I hereby grant to the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or in part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all property rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstracts International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). …………………………………………………………… ……….……………………...…….…February 20th, 2017 Signature Witness Signature Date The University recognises that there may be exceptional circumstances requiring restrictions on copying or conditions on use. Requests for restriction for a period of up to 2 years must be made in writing. Requests for a longer period of restriction may be considered in exceptional circumstances and require the approval of the Dean of Graduate Research. FOR OFFICE USE ONLY Date of completion of requirements for Award: ORIGINALITY STATEMENT ‘I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the project's design and conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged.’ Signed …………………………………………….............. Date ……………………………………………..............February 15, 2017 COPYRIGHT STATEMENT ‘I hereby grant the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all proprietary rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstract International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). I have either used no substantial portions of copyright material in my thesis or I have obtained permission to use copyright material; where permission has not been granted I have applied/will apply for a partial restriction of the digital copy of my thesis or dissertation.' Signed ……………………………………………........................... February 15, 2017 Date ……………………………………………........................... AUTHENTICITY STATEMENT ‘I certify that the Library deposit digital copy is a direct equivalent of the final officially approved version of my thesis. No emendation of content has occurred and if there are any minor variations in formatting, they are the result of the conversion to digital format.’ Signed ……………………………………………........................... February 15, 2017 Date ……………………………………………........................... List of Contents CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................... 9 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 10 CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................. 20 EXTINCTION OF SOUTH AMERICA’S SPARASSODONTANS (METATHERIA): ENVIRONMENTAL FLUCTUATIONS OR COMPLEX ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES? ................................................................................................................................. 21 CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................. 22 GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONALISATION, PHYLOGENETIC DIVERSITY, DIFFERENTIAL ENDEMISM AND THE EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY OF NEW WORLD BATS ......................................................................................................... 23 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 23 Methods ................................................................................................................ 28 Results .................................................................................................................. 34 Discussion ............................................................................................................ 40 CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................. 70 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ....................................................................................... 71 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 76 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................ 131 List of Figures Figure 1. Geographical distribution of all published records of Cenozoic mammal fossils in South America as compiled by the Paleobiology Database (PBDB): Location of fossil sites (A); mean abundance of published fossil records within a 100 km radius (B). ........................................................................................................... 19 Figure 8. Family-level spatial patterns of PD of New World bat families. Emballonuridae (A), Molossidae (B), Mormoopidae (C), Natalidae (D), Phyllostomidae (E), Vespertilionidae (F). ................................................................. 57 Figure 9. Geographical distribution of statistical significance of family-level PD of New World bats. Order Chiroptera (A), Emballonuridae (B), Molossidae (C), Mormoopidae (D), Natalidae (E), Phyllostomidae (F) and Vespertilionidae (G). ...... 58 Figure 10. Scatterplot of empirical family-level PD values and significance values of PD obtained from the randomization analysis. ......................................................... 59 Figure 11. Geographical distribution of statistical significance of family-level RPD of New World bats. Order Chiroptera (A), Emballonuridae (B), Molossidae (C), Mormoopidae (D), Natalidae (E), Phyllostomidae (F) and Vespertilionidae (G). ...... 60 Figure 12. Family-level spatial patterns of PE of New World bat families.

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