BLOCKADE BEFORE BREAD: ALLIED RELIEF FOR NAZI EUROPE, 1939-1945 B y Meredith Hindley Submitted to the Faculty of the College for Arts and Sciences of American University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In H istory Chair: Richard Dr-Breitman Anna K. Nelson Weslev^K. Wdrk Dean of^ie CoHegeMArtsand Sciences D ate 2007 American University Washington, D.C. 20016 AMERICAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 3273596 Copyright 2007 by Hindley, Meredith All rights reserved. INFORMATION TO USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. 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BLOCKADE BEFORE BREAD: ALLIED RELIEF FOR NAZI EUROPE, 1939-1945 BY Meredith Hindley ABSTRACT This study provides the first analysis of Allied relief policy for Nazi-occupied territories— and by extension Allied humanitarian policy— during the Second World War. When the war began, Britain implemented an economic warfare campaign that sought to prevent Germany from importing any goods that would fuel the Nazi war machine. Food and clothing, the building blocks of relief programs, were included in the ban. In order for relief goods to pass Britain’s blockade against Germany, humanitarian organizations had to prove to Britain, and later the United States, that the goods would not aid the German war effort. Consequently, from the being of the war, a fundamental contradiction existed between Allied strategy and the humanitarian impulse. How the Allies negotiated that contradiction while pursuing victory is the subject of this study. Over the course of the war, relief programs were allowed for political reasons or when conditions became so inhumane as to demand action. As a result of having to address the relief issue, a decision-making rubric for responding to humanitarian crises was in place long before the Allies had knowledge of the Final Solution. The existence of such a policy reinforces the need to see Allied response to the Holocaust as grounded in decisions regarding the conduct of the war. The study also shows an unprecedented critique of Allied ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. strategy by the British and American people, Mass movements in favor of relief developed both countries that forced British and American officials to justify the conduct of the war. iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Perhaps one of the most satisfying parts of completing this project is getting to acknowledge those who have helped me along the way. An American University College of Arts and Sciences dissertation fellowship allowed me to conduct research in Washington, D.C. and London. A grant from the Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institute supported two weeks of research at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library. A Cosmos Club Foundation Young Scholar Award allowed me to do research at the Quai D’Orsay in France and the Hoover Institution at Stanford University. Talbot Imlay lent his insights on British war planning, gave me a place to write, and shared the giddiness that comes from making great finds in the archives. Andrew Apostolou lent his knowledge of wartime Greece and offered poignant observations. Drew Erdmann asked questions that made me think and frame my argument. Keith Neilson helped me make sense of the Foreign Office records keeping system. He also vouched for me at the PRO after a theft nicked my wallet on the Tube. Bob Beisner helped me focus my writing efforts and shared his own writing experiences. Neville Wylie traded information with me about the cast of characters that made up the staff of the Ministry of Economic Warfare. Marc Selverstone, Jason Parker, and Richard Wiggers shared their work on Anglo-American relations and cheered me on. I have also been benefited along the way for the historical insights and good company provided by Alan McPherson, Simon Kitson, Peter Jackson, Marlin Thomas, Rhodri Jeffrey-Jones, Mark Stoler, Elizabeth Stewart, Dennis Pool, David Nickles, and Doug Selvage. iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I would like also like to extend my thanks to the helpful staffs at the Public Record Office (Kew), Lambeth Palace Library, The Friends’ House, Peace Pledge Union, Quai D ’Orsay, National Archives and Records Administration, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Library of Congress, the Hoover Institution, and American University’s Bender Library. I wrote this study while I working at the National Endowment for Humanities. NEH’s Independent Study and Research Development program provided me with time off to conduct research to fill in the gaps that cropped up as I wrote. My colleagues— Amy Lifson, Anna Gillis, Peter Losin, Russ Wyland, and Michael Hall— gently encouraged my progress, gave me a push when I needed it, and made me laugh. Mary Lou Beatty, my boss and mentor, made it possible for me to go to finish my Ph.D. I owe her a tremendous debt. The writing life can be lonely at times, but good friends make it tolerable. There is no better friend that Sara Wilson. Spending time with her and her family— husband Ed and children Casey and Jared— is always a joy. My fiction book group— Jocelyn Beer, Katherine Cooper, Steve Gripkey, Paul Marquardt, Eric Robinson, and Gimena Sanchez— rescued my mind from the depths of World War II and provided adventures away from the laptop. Some special words must be said about my committee, Richard Breitman, Anna Nelson, and Wesley Wark. Despite the delays in finishing this project, they stuck with me, providing wonderful advice and incisive comments. I also could not have asked for a better advisor in Richard Breitman. He taught me how to ask questions, weigh evidence, and tell a story with insight. Finally, I have to thank my mom, Virginia Hindley, for supporting me throughout this process and putting up with my saying “I can’t talk now, I’m writing.” Any defects in this study are my responsibility alone. My views also do not reflect those of the federal government. v Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................ iv C hapter 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1 2. A CONTROVERSIAL STRATEGY ............................................................. 14 3. THE SENTIMENTAL AMERICANS .......................................................... 61 4. A NIGHTMARE CONTINENT .....................................................................121 5. MR. ROOSEVELT’S W ISH ...........................................................................178 6. MR. BLOCKADE BUSTER ..........................................................................242 7. FAMINE COMES TO GREECE ..................................................................295 8. EVERYBODY ELSE ........................................................................................357 9. TO THE EN D ......................................................................................................412 10. C O N C L U S IO N ................................................................................................457 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...........................................................................................................465 vi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CH A PTER ON E INTRODUCTION As Adolf Hitler’s plans for conquest materialized into stunning victories for Nazi Germany during 1939-1942, millions of European civilians found themselves living under brutal occupation governments. Operating on the general principle that the occupying forces should live off the land, the German army requisitioned and seized from local communities supplies deemed essential to the German war effort.1 While the severity of occupation policies varied across Europe, the advent of Nazi rule in Western Europe generally brought with it a reduced standard of living, rationing of consumer goods, and contraction of the local food supply. As the war dragged on, the civilian