'This Report Are the Portrayals of Television ''Stations Art& Tele'

110C.UnENT RESUME

E.1:0 166 336 OD 019 135 _ ,.. .. --. . e .TITLE Window Dressing on'-the Set: An Update. INSTITIliTON Commission on Civil Rights, Washington, D.C. PUB DATE ,...... Tan 79 , _ . NOTE', ;,. 104p.; For a related document 'see ED 144,115 ;Not available in hard copy due to small print -' r . : a.' EDRS: PRICE MF;!$0.8_3 Plus Postage: HC NOt Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS '',Affirmative Action; Characterization; ChildhOod Atq.tudes;'Dischtiminatory Attitudes (Social) ;Drada; *Equal ,ORportunities (Jobs) ;. *Ethnic. Stereotypes; *Females;' *Minority, Groups; News Reporting; icteleirision; Television-Commercials

ABSTRACT Analyzed \in 'this report are the portrayals of minorities and women in televiSion drama from '1975-1977 and the representation of minorities and women "in \the network news of 1977... Also: analyzed are 1977- emplbymeni' patternS\ at local, and network television ''stations art& tele'v\isionls effects on viewers and the first amendment. Data presented show that `race, and sex stereotyping in television drama continues. Zaken into consideration are the age. and occupational status of :characters and their diffbrehtiation by race and, sex.,,Representation, Of minorities and women in the network hews is 'described as being more; encouraging. Findingt regarding the employment status of minorities and women at television stations Indicate, that, despite increases in-,: the numbers of minority and ., female employees at televiSion stations, they are almost, completely absent from decision-imaking positions. Suggestions' are made for an effective affirmative-action, plan in televihion m pica men t The investigation.of the effects of tele'visibn on ch'ildren center around their, perceptions of and knowledge about' minorities and about sex and occupational roles as they Are -inflii'eaced4by televisiOn portrayals of minorities and women, the influence of -advertisinge and the effects of television violence on their behOtiOr.- Recoinmendatigns for dealing awith the findings of these analyses' race: `made acid statistical data collected for the study are appended.

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U.S. Of PARIMSNT OF HEALTH; - EOUCATIONS:WELFARE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENTo HAS BEEN REPRO.- DUGED EXACTLY AS .RECEIVED`FROM. THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN- ATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS 111 STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRE- SENTOFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITU-TE OF EDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY.

1A.R.eport of the,United StaWsCommission on Civil RightsJanuazy 1979. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights - Washington,..D.C., January 1979.

The President , The PreSident or the Senate The Speaker of the Ilotise of Representatives , t . . .

Sirs:

to Public The U.S. COmmission on Civil.Right preients to you this report pursuan Law 85-315 as amended. DreSs ng on' the It has been just OVer a-year sincethe Commission released I'indow the endings of . Set: Women and MinOritiesin Television. WindOw. Dressing reported broadcast, from 1969 through1974 and network studies cif network television drama contained a study of the news programs broadcastin 1974 and 1975.1 It also employinent status of women andminorities at 401OCal televisionstations, including all of those owned by the networks. \ whether the status of\women and ini' norities ..has: The current report investigates updates the improved since the,speriodS covered inWindow Dressing. This feport network entertainment and newsstudies with the mostrecent information available:.. television drama from1975 to an analysis ;of portrayalsof minorities and women on in the network news of 1977.It also 1977 and an analysis of minorities -and women headquarters and at contains an awilysis.of 1977employment patterns at network network-ownld stations. report:and request ,your .,We urge your consideration'of the facts contained in this good offices in implementing itsrecommendations.

Respectfully,

Arthur S. Flemming, Chairman 'Stephen Horn, ..Vice Chairman Frankie M. Freeman Manuel uRuiZ, Jr. Murray Saltzman

Director . Louis Nufiez, 4cting. Staff - .PREFACE

Television is a dominant factor inAmerican life. It transcends space,catapulting viewers :across the Nation andaround the world, introducing themto diverse peoples in various settings along the way. form: .:Television is preeminent as a communicatorof ideas and as an entertainment Just as in a momentOf triuniph- it showed the ' thrust into spacefairly and objectively, it can achieve equivalentstandardsof'presentation when grappling with 'cultural arid racial diveriity or whencovering men and women. Becauseof the rnedium'S capacity far fixing an imagein' the public mind, .its responsibilityfor' avoiding Stereotypic and demeaningdepictions becOmes central to its role. The --encompassing nature .of themedium, necessitates' that divefsity among deCisionniakers, newsmakers, and newscastersbecome an integral aspect of televisiOn.:-BecaUse the ,Commission's 1977 repdrt entitledWindow Dressing on the Set: Womern and Minorities in Televisiondocumented a troubling distance from this and goal, the Commission hasreconsidered television's treatment of women minorities.:

4 1

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Commission is indebtedto the following staff members who paflidipa.ted inthe preparation' of this, report: Helen FranzwaLoukas, Project, Director; Henry A. Gordon; and Carolyn. Reid-Smith. Gail Gerebenics, Office of GeneralCounsel, provided helpfullegal adviceleading to' the preparation of chapter 5, Rosa 'L Crumlin had the majorresponsibility for typing the manuscript and , preparing the tables. Typing assistancewas provided by Cheryl :Blake, Lucille Boston,, Gloria Ferrer, Mary Moore,Roberta Sanders, and 'Patsy Washington. The report was prepared under theoverall supervision of Caroline DavisGleiter, Acting Assistant Staff Director,Office of Progjam and Policy Review. Lawrence Reidnnan and Bonnie Mathewsserved as editors., Preparation for publication was the respOnsibility ofDeborah A. HarriSon, Vivian, Hauser, and Audree Holton Under the supervisionof Vivian Washington, Publication,Support Center, Office of Management, We appreciate the work of the followingstudents Who served as coders of alenews: Hector Corporan, Kendall Lambert,Catherine Lauwers," Theresa MarronkBrian Mosley, Bassey Obot, Fernando SaridoVal,Alexandra Sharpe, and Carl Dean Lionel Barrow of HowardUniversity's School of Comniunication.s axi 1.Dr. Nancy Signorielli of the Annenberg Schoolof Communications at the Universiiy of Pennsylvania rendered valuable assistanceto this prbject. 07.

MINORITIES AND 1. COMMERCIAL TELEVISION:THE PORTRAYAL OF WOMEN IN THE MID -SEVENTIES 1 Early Portrayals of Minorities , 1 2 Portr4a1 of Minorities in the Mid-1970s 2. Black Situation Comedies- 5 Portrayal Of Women in'the Mid-1970s 6 Conclusion : 7 i 1 PORTRAYAL OF MINORITIESAND WOMEN- IN TELEVISION DRAMA Proportion of Characters by Race and Sex 8 :1 '''... 10 '. Age of Characters 10 Comic ROles 15 ;Violence 15 OcCupational Portrayals 15 Major Occupational Categories 16 Specific Occupational Titles 16' , Oiscussion 20 ConcluSion , NEWS 23' 3: MINORITIES AND WOMENIN NETWORK TELEVISION \ .. 23 News Content 23 Topics of News Stories 24 Newsmakers .. c 24 Nevvsmaker Roles' 25 News Correspondents 25 Tire Commission's Sample 27 Analysis of All Correspondents Appearingin 1977 , - 29 Discussion . 29 Women andMinorities as Anchors ,.., , 31 Minorities and Women as Correspondents 32. Conclusion r \ AND WOMEN AT LOC TELEVISION 4. EMPLOYMEN'T.OF MINORITIES 33 STATIONS AND THE NETWORKS , Local Stations 33 Equal Employment; Opportunity at 34 Women and Minorities in PolicymakingPositions, 36 Affirmative Action in Television Employment 40 Equul Employment Opportunity atthe Networks VIEWERS AND ME FIRSTAMENDMENT44 5. TELEVISION'S EFFECT/ON 44 Television's Effect ' 46 Children Television's Effect on 46 The Effect of Televised Violence onhildren 48 The Effect of Television Advertisin onChildren 49 The Effect of the PortrayalOf Min rities and Women on Children $0 The Role of the Federal.Communications Commission ( The-First Amertdment-and Chikh en's Tel vi siorr------I Violence, the Family Hour, and the First Amendment 53 The Portrayal of Minorities and Womenon Television and, the First

Amendment 0 , 55 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 60 .0 Findings \ . 60 Stereotyped Portrayals in Television Drama 60 1 Women, and Minorities in Network News ,, 61 Women and Miniznities as Officials and Managers , , i 62 Recommendationi , . . N 62 Portrayal of WOmen and Minorities inTelevision Programming 62 , FCC Enforcement of-Equal Employment Opportunity in theBroadcasting , Industry ,64 APPENDICES , 67 A.1*Characters by Race; Sex; and Year, 1969 thrOugh1977 67, A.2 Age of Characters by Race and Sex, 1969=74 and 1975-77 68 A.3 Characters Who ComMii Violence by Race and Sex, 1969-74 and1975-77 69 A.4 Characters Who Stfer Violence by Race and Sex, 1969-74 and1975-77 70 ,A.5 Characters in. Seled OccuRtional Roles by Race and Sex,, 1969-74 and

1975-77 4i N 71 A.6 Characters Portraya3l in. Specific Occupations by Race, Sex, andTime of Broadca ?Listed in Order of Frequency of Portrayal ofAll Characters, 1975 1977.r ' 72 A.7 Met olodology and Reliability of Data 80 B.1 Newsmaker Roles by Race and Sex, 1974 -75 and 1977 83 B.2 "-Gender' Distributimis of ,Correspondent Appearances by ".Networkand Month, 1977 , . 84 . B.3 Female Correspondents Appearing on"Network Television News in1977 85 C 1 Concentration of Employees in Nine Job. Categories (40- Station Sample) 1975' and 1977 ' ' 87 C.2 Comparison of Percentages of Official and. Manager Employees VersusAll Employees (40-Station Sample) 1977 87 . C.3 Utilization: Ratios of Employees at 40 Television Stations By Race, Ethnicity,

and Sex, 19.707 Z , 88 CA FCC Form 395 Submissions by ABC, CBS, NBC, 1977 ' 90 C.5 Officials and Managers by Race, Ethnicity, and Sex for Network-Owned Stations and Network Headquarters, 1977 - se 91 C.6 All. EMployees by Race, Ethnicity, and Sex for Network-Owned Stationsand ' Network Headquarters, 1977 ' , 92 C.7 Occupational Distribution of Employees in Nike JoVategoriesat Network Headquarters by Race, Ethnicity, arid Sex,.1977 .93 D. Comments by the Federal Communications Commissionon an Early Draft of this Report , 95 E. ComMents by the Federal Communications Con-missionon 'this Report, 97 TABLES ' 2.1 The 10 Most Frequently Appearing Occtipations by Race andSex, 1975-77 (Specific Occupation Title Data) 20 4.1 Number of Stations Utilizing Minorities and .Women at Various Levels. Station Sample), 1977 39 FIGURESAt 2.1 Sex and Race of Major Characters on TelevisionDrama, 4975-77, and of thet 9 U.S Population, 1976 ' 2.2 Age Distributions of Characters inTelevision Drama, 1975 - 11 2.3 Percentages of All Characters Compared toPercentage of Teenage Characters by Race and Sex, 1975L77 . 12 2.4 Distributions of Major Characters in allRoles and in COn'iic Rolesin Prime ' Time and Family Hour, 1975:--77 2.5 Percentages of Major Characters WhoFlay Comic Roles, 1969-74 and , 1975 77 ' 2.6 Percentages of Characters in. SelectedOccupational 'Roles 1969-74 and 1975 77 18 2.7 Percentages of Characters WhoseOccupations Could Not be Idehf '1969-74 and 1975-77 (Broad OccupationalCategories Data) 19 2.8 Peicentages of Characters:Appearing inOccupational. Roles During.Family Hour and Late Evening - 21 26 3.1 Distributions by Race and SexWithin Newsmaker Categories, 1977y 3.2 Distribution of correspondent Appearances by Race,and Sex, 1974. --75 ;and 1, 2 28 1977 , 3.3 Correspondents andCorrespondent Appearances by Sex and Network, 30 January 1977 4.1 Distribution of Officials "andMariagers' by Race and Sex, 1977 (40-Station . - ,35 Sample) 4.2 Distributions, of Work Forces atNetwork-Owned Stations and NetWork Headquarters by Race and Sex,1977 42 Chapter 1 Minorities CommercialTelevision: ThePortrayal of and Women in'the IVii0Seventies-

Second World War. TheJapanese American Citizenf .,.'Early:;POrtrayals ofMinOrItles. these' movies for then' pressing :On the Set: League has since attacked' In its 1977 report, Windoiy portrayals of the Japanese the 'VS.' Corn. "derogatory and vicious" Women and Minorities in origin, almost complete- historical people.? People of Hispanic 'mission -on CiVil Rights, presented an drama in the 1950s with the portrayal., ly absent from television l'eyiew of major theMeS associated, with the have also complaised since television's begin-, exception of western movies, of minorities and women recently about the perpetuationof Mexican stereo- Itings, Commercial telavi- types in reruns of oldfilms.5 The'Commission first 'discussed the civil rights movement . The growing strength of .sion drama of the 1950sfrom, which minorities were in the 1960s'helped pave.the way for-§everalseries almost totally absent, often at sponsor-insistence.? positive roles, such as I Spy appear they played highly that featured blacks in When minorities did and Julia,. but HispanicAmericans, Man and .Stereotyped:, roles. Blacks were seenin supporting American Indians, and Gildersleeve and The Pacific. Island Americans, roles as servants on The Great be virtually. absent which2they Alaskan Natives continued to Jack Benny Show. Theonly, series in The Mexican bandit,stereo.: \ 'starred was Amos 'n' Andy, a' programin which the from television drama. of type, however, wasfrequently Seen in a series y characters. were soinsultingto blacks that the Advancement of Col- coinmercials.6 National Association for the and minorities that it betaken off In the early 1970s both women ()red People (NAACP): demanded were featured in avariety of comedies; butthey the air.2 AmericanIndians frequently appeared in dramas. The exceptions Were unsympathetic depiction.of rarely starred in serious westerns, but.the clearly several "action" shotinwhich they played police or ',, them moved the Associationfor American Indian Christie Love, Shafi; national 'campaign to detectiyes. Police Woman, Get ',Affairs (AMA) to launch a TenaA and 7/awair Five-0starred or featured *prove it .3 Asian and PacificIsland Americans. Asian and PacificIslander' in old movies featuringsuch women, blacks, and were teen, primarily Americans in-sych roles.? Chine's'e stereotypes as theCharlie Chan .detective made to inject serious' underWOrld leader;. Japanese While attempts have been and the Fu 'Maiichu subjects into programs:featuring minorities and ..-were typically seenin reruns' ofInovies. aboutthe Natasha A. Friar, l'heOnly.Good Indidn.. .The Broadcasting in theUnited 3 Ralph E/ Friar and 1972), Erik Barnouw, The Image Empire, A History of p. Hollywood Gospel (New York: DramaBook Specialists/Publishers, States, vol II:from 1953 (New York:Oxford University Press. 1970), noted broadcast historian Enk pp. 260-61. 34-6. In his recent book, The Sponsor, Are Effective in Barring 'Offensive'TV Barnbuw traces the evolution of commercialsponiorship of radio and 4 Les Brown, "Ethnic Pressures television Programs and discusses theimpact of 'sponsor attitudes 'on Filmf," New,York Times, Nov,28,1973, p, 90. 'broadcast content. 'Professor .BarnOuw,founder and former chair of former head of the' Writer'sGtiild 5 Ibid. Ittne 2, Columbia University's Film Division and 6 William Raspberry, "How AboutFrit° Amigo?", Washington Post, of America. argues that sponsorsretainthe ultimate - authority; over Banditor Washington Post, June.7.1971, p. , broadcast content. He relates numerousinstances- of the control that 1971, p. A19: "Who's the Real blacks, sponsors continue to hold,several of which concern the portrayal of A23. dse." Ms,,, Octbber Oxford University. Press, 1978). pp. I Sue Cameron. "Police Drama:Women Are On the ..Erik Barnouw, The Sponsor (New York: 4 Television. Part 1: ,Tclevisionj 34, 50-51. no-iI14, 196. Wm, p.. 104;' Joel Dreyfus r, "Blailts and .Sept. 1; 'News from NAACP," July 19, 1951, quotedin George. Eatoit Simpson Controversy: Covering The BlackExperience. ". Washington Post, Minoritiesrev. ed. (New York; a - Milton. Yinger. Racial and Cultural 1974, p, K5. Harper 41 Bros,..19513). p. 716. women or examp c, pros veer Norman"- Lear has drama, with varying degrees ofsuccess. For, example; dealt with such serious issues as hypertension,. rape, when Chico and the Man first wenton the air, several, equal' employment opportunity, abortion, and racial Mexican American organizationsmet.. withthe, prejudice in All in the Family, Maude,and Chad show's producer titt protest the portnlialof.Mexkan Times --many of the situation comedies featuring Americans. Se'Verai improvementswere nut& in tlfe minorities haVe been criticized for doingmore harm than good. Donald Bogle, Show, sand the company's production. coordinator, an authority on the Jorge Luis Rodriguez, attributed this portrayal of blacks in filM, argued in to discussions a Washington with Chicano groups,' Post interviewthatthe portrayal, of blacksin ,Criticisms of the portrayal of minorities continue, situation comedies suggests that thenew comedies do not ,portray however, particularly In regard to time ways blacksarc blacks with sensitivity: "They take depicted in situation comedies. 'Indeed, authentic issues in,the .black communityand distort theSe criticisms-are being published with increasing. frequency them.. . -.Thee thing we can ask of television is that black characters be funny and intelligent." .. inthe popular press and supporting ,dataare The'NationalBlackFeminist -Organization beginning to appear in academic journalS, (NBFO) also criticized the portrayalof blacks and other minorities in situation comedies,charging that Black. Situation Comedies portrayals are "slanted toward the ridiculouswith no redeeming counter im'iges," that blacks and The major criticism of situation comediesfeatur- other ing blacks has been that blacks are, almost minorities arc "cast in extremes,: and thatthe jtlways programs in which blacks are featured give the portrayed 'as being ridiculous andarc almost neVer featured. in serious' roles. Broadcast historian .Erik impression that they do not perform effectivelyin professional positions, Finally, NBFOnoted that Barnouw argues.that serious presentation of' blaeld . or Other minoritiesin withrelatively few blacks being portrayedin profes- television dramaisrare sional positions and With those fewbeing made to because broadcasters are in the business ofentertain/. ing their audience and do not waht to appear 'ridiculous, "black children, by andlarge, move them havenoworthy, role models.on televisiorr.'"9 Others "too deeply." Although both the :Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman and Roots were critical and ratings have noted, as will be 'reported below, thatwhite children may also be affected by. negativeportrayals successes, Barnbuw suggests that such programs of blacks and other minorities.10 appear infrequently because the commercials arc ften painfully inappropriate:.: Programs. that make adVertising appear, inappropriate'.donot (in the eyes Portrayal of Minorities in the Mid- of broadcaSters) make good advertising vehicles,12 1970s An article in a F$"-part newspaper series exploring- With 'few exceptions, minorities otherthan blacks popular culture focused on the portrayal of rrfinori- are infrequently seen on television. During the 1977 ties in ccanmercial,. television,'; Nathan Irvin Hug- season, Asian and Pacific Island Amer cans Were gins, professor Of history at, Columbia University and seen as continuing characterson Hawaii Five -O, ..,former president of the Museum of Afro-Ameri Quincy,: and Barney Miller and Hispanicswere seenOistory in Boston, noted that while blacksappear on on Ohiekan4the Man and CHiPS. American Indians'4elevision now more than in the 1960s,they are rarely appeared in Now the West Was Won. 'portrayed ,seriously and theis.sueS that are treated A variety of citizens' on groups repi'esentingthe . the shows in which they appear. are 'trivialized: interests of women and men of different racial and "Intermarriage mi The Jeffersons.is reduced tomere .-'-ethnic minorities have met with network andir*Jue- idiocy. Chronic undereMployment for urbanblacks tion company 'representatives in effortsto, improve is: given no better treatment in GoodTimes. 71.1 the poitrayals of minorities in commercial television Acknowledging that having a sense of humor is.a Dreyfuss.'131acis and Television...p. K5. . "NBFO Lists 'Tv CoMplaints and Protests, 12 Barnquw, The,Sponsor, p. 114. 'That's My Mama,,",dfedia 13 Nathan'irvin Hu frepOri Of/omen. Dec. I, 1974;p. 16. 'ns, "Opportunities for Minorities in Television and. Movies: Facade qf mor Can Obscure Substance of Subject," Washington --10-13radley S. Greenberg and Charles It.Aikip, "Learning About MinCifities -Post, Apr. 13, from Television: The Research Agenda," 197g, D.C. 7. The l&part series titled "Courses by Michigan StateUniversity, Newspaper" is sponsored by, the University of California at San Diego and Department of Communication. April 197/.3'. the. National Endowment for the Hninanities,- II. Ibid., pp. 23-24, . 1,1,' Ibid. natcd.not only thefarnily's'strong, if frustrated, useful trait; Profess();Wiggins argues thin television father (John Amos) butalso,later, its mother gives us only humor wheir itfeatures blacks.16 (lasthef Rolle), whoabandoned her threechil-Olt to A Time magazine essayentitled `;Blacks on TV: A dren in their Chicagohousing, project to move ' E)isturbiot Inn age" recently decried everymajor nude Arizona to be with,liciorew mane Says Rolle, character in the black situationcomedies in the !- who quit the shOW becaUse,of her different:es with the producers overthe.'"Way,,the characters spring 1978 season: were portrayed: "It was anoutrailkan insult."16' Here we have GeorgeJefferson: entrepreneur, of blacks in a ridicu- black big(n,*a splenetic littlewhip of a man who Concern that the portrayal bullies like a demented overseer,seldom speaks lous manner reinforces.negative images Of blacks, below a shriek and worships atthe church of held both bymajority' and rninority viewers--has ostentation: Would you like 'tolive next clam. to alSo been voiced inthc,Washington' Post, Staff writer the character 1.1: on The Jeffersoni? Or consider Dorothy Gilliam argticd thatthe characters in such TV's Good Times: a bug-eke youngcomic of the What's supercool 'blowing shows as Baby, I'mBack, .Good Times, ghettoWithspasms rof feedthe "most through his nervous system, akind of Electra- Happening?, and The' Jeifersbns Gjide strut. "Dy-no- mitegoes J.J., for con- exaggerated misconceptions"held, by white .viewers vulse the audit:Re in the waythat something and present "sad distortions'of blacksana the black like "Fects, do 4four stuff!."' got to them three experience" as role modelsforhlaek children.26 decades ago. Then there is thecharacter Ray Speculation in the popular presssuggests. that Ellis in Baby, I'm Ildck: afeckless' black creep affected by black situation who deserted his wife andtwo' children seven viewers are negatively comedies. Although theCoMmission is aware. of no yearsago,', one step aheadof his bookie's enforcers, and has nowreappeared. to make research that has' directlytested this assumption, excuses and bedroom. eyesat the wife. Ellis .and there is research thatdocuments the kinds of things the show's writers make muchmerriment at the black and white ,children-learnfrom. television expense of the sober,straight career Army think about .various characters, obviously, he is a 'programs, what they Officer Courting the wife; and which charactersthey adinire., Researchalse turkey:16 documents adult attitudes:toward black situation' Again, the point is madethat while whites are 'comedies. Greenberg and Charles K. often shoW'n in ridiculousroles on TV, they arc also Professor Bradley S., variety of other programs androles, Atkin' f theMichigan State. UniversityDepartment seen in 'a wide research but,. ,witlfi few exceptions,blacks. appear only in of CinunieatiOn recently prepared 'a age da orstudying what is learned aboutnaimarities Situation comedies.1T "Televiiion and .. The Time essay asked whethershows about blacks fro eleyisionfor a conference on by should be held "to athigher-standard of relevance, the Socialization of theMinority Child" sensitivity and accuracy thanthose about whites." It the Center forAfro-American Sitidies at:theMniver- suggested that the answer tothis question is yes, sity of California at Arigeles.21 in.. their paper, printarily'beeause many whites who knoWrelatively Greenberg . and Atkinreviewed what is .already',.. little about, blacks are "receiving abrutalized, stupid known about programs featuringminorities and how.'' of blacks through,p4[and] are children' .react to them. Theyreported that in a 17' or stereotypedirriage on liable to tell therriselves,'why, yes, thats the way week sample -of 8Yfictional television shows blacks are':"18 One of theMore "distUrbirk images" commercial television, a totalof 101 blacks appeared , total of 12 in the fall 1977 season was amother (Florida'Of Good on 43 Of theshows. They also reported a. Times) abandoning her'children. Of this sequence, Arrfericarr.: Indian§ and13Hispanic Americans the Time essay noted: . chalacter'S.22 Supporting their claiinthat' i distinct: in; televisionfiction,they destructive message that black .ghetto"exists It was a strange and reported that almost one-half(44) of all the 'black Good Times sent outwhen its producers chilli- Washington .20 Dorothy Gilliam,' "The RacialTrap in :Nock Sit.Coms," !hid. . PisinitAng 'linage:"Time,Marl'27,. Foal,May 14:1978, p. Lance Morrow, "Blacks on Tef A Ovenberg and Atkin; "Leorningabout Minicrities7 racial and ethnic 1998, p. 101.. p. 2. For additionaiilain onthe,presence ibid. Minorities in Ielevision drama, see chopter2. - 1" !hid.. pp, .141-02. characters their sample appearedon only., six The children were also asked s'hows;''tiitibanoiscul Aliand Pat./I/bed on Saturday- whether they. wanted morning and 'I/U! to "be like" and "do 'like,' thevarious, teleVision. effersims, Good Times,Whai'J characters. These lour characters" Happening?, and were not. among , 4rms during primetime,23 those the children. wished, Reviewing 'a variety of to emulate,31 the boys.; studies that they and other rishing to be like such "active" researchers had previouslyconducted among Mexi- charaotersas Kojak, can AmeriCan; black, arid Aitglo' children Reed of Adam -12, and SteveAustin of The Six orVarious pidld? Man and the. income. classes, Greenbergand Atkin reported, that girls wishing to be like "attr'activeliaracters!;uch a Cher.32 low-income minority childrenwatch more television, . 1-loW do black viewers are more accepting; they see; "arc more respond to black situation involVetini what they'Seel andlearn morefrom what comedy shows? A major 'study(Alow blacks use they see than dO majitritychildren.2,4 television, sponsored by. theNational Science, Foun- A send studywas' designedtolearn :what dation and 'cciNducted by the Booker.T.Washington personatity traits 'a'group ''of white children attribute; Foundatiof0:1 analyzed ;,these.'viewing habits and to television chauicters.**,An."unanticipatedresult of preferences orapProximately270 black i'tiewers (48.5 this study suggeststhatthey attribute,negative percent males, 51.5 percent females) obtalnedfrom a personalite traits to several!minorityCharacters-11 series of three, interviews, Conductedin the San ilf Good Times, Chico of Chicoand the Man, and Fre Francisco Bay area in 1?76.31 Sanford of Sanford and S'on:----who,w were anon, set Among many,, other, topies,',viewers were ques;- .of 15 wellkilown telvisioncharacters Used in the honed about their reaetiorisqo.."anford and Son, Good study.'(The 1.1 other'television'character's in.the study Times, and The jefferya Id: Alt Areeshows'were Were, 5 white temales'!1"and. 6.:,White No heavily watched by the viewers,algiost all of Amp minority females were included.)- TheStudy assessed had something.: goodto say about each show. Few Childreti'§ perceptionsof ariddeSires to do.like"nd viewers"; however, 'personally iden,tified. with the "be.like" these television,Characters.. The sample. pio.grains.35 ": consisted of 89:white 'sixth- and While there were more, eighth -grade hop positive thau. negative , and girls tna suburb of comments about each prograin, viewers Madison,MisConSi.2.11.. were often' . The qharacteristics that most differentiated tetevi-, critical of the' aerall conceptof2the shows orof--the lion.ctiafacters were humor, "smartness,", and 'individual plots. Typical or the comments.made support from other Characters on the171-.Q.gfilATI,' Three. about Sanford and Son,was, "If they are going to .' 4fs't fOCIr characters rated ay.being huMOtOUs,'-not",,,,,show a black family, why does thefather.have.to be. a :smart, and lacking insupport from othe'r'charu*rs junkman?"36 . in the programwere Fred Yanford, and EhiCO--, Respondents_ citing things they liked the three minority characters about Good in the sample.th,Z, Tinto' frequently mentioned thepresen 'bof a' full fourth- character perceivedin this way was'Arebie familyand noted that too often '.Btinker.29 television's portrayal . of black families is thatthey are both poor and" The Riuthors noted that thechildren asSo`diated fatherless.37 Fewer viewers liked humor with lack of "smartness" The Jefferson than and with lack "of the -ot-jier,t'wo programs andthey had more.negative supportrand suggested thatthe children really 'see' things to say abo.ut it, particularlydisapproving What such charactersas "buffoons, "3t1 hhiit.is, the children they. perceived as its individualand group racism view these charactersas objects.Ofridictile, theoi08. '3ibid. . . . . ' ao Ihid..P. 8. lbid..'pp. 9.-19. Tilts research is discu.sscdin.greater dethil in chapter 5, "."' Byron. Reeves and Guy .f.,. Lometti, I lbs p. 9, "The Dimensional Structure of p. 11. Childrrception of TelevisionCharacters'. &Replication:* UniverSity of Wis main and West Virginia' University "Ilosv. Blacks Use Televisionfoi' Entertainment and InfOrmation,-. 1917). pp. 1-13. (unpublished manuscript, July Booker T..Washington Foundation, Cableeormionications . Resouice .Cem. . .. ter..West (1977). pp. 1-119. t '" The white female.characterszere Cherof Iln. Somfr., (nu, Cher rain, tai.ia of Tilde /louse 8.1 The original panel of 324 was reducedto j57,216, and 268 for each of the nn the Piliirfr. Mary Richards of -Tire Mary Tyler interviews clue to refusals dc nonavailahility ,lfoore ShowPhylhs. and Rhoda. Ibid., figure2. respondents. Ibid., pp. 36-39. .. , 3'Ibid.: pp. 64-68. " The white male characters r ere SteveAustin of The Six . Mon, Millinn Dollar 34Ibid., p, 67. Arctic Bunker.or,trI in-thefamily, tlawkeye.of AlA*S11, Kojak: folinBoy.ofThe "t. The fat rcharacter on If'alinns.and Reed ofAdana-12.,Ibid., figure 2. ; &in.: Timerwas eliminated inthe 1' following (fa11.197 Ibid.. p. 3. . season. The mother character left in the next (fall 1977) I season. She returned 'in the '" 1h61.. p: 6. fall 1978season. . ' is Ibid., P. 68. the California Coed,. Legs;California Girls; Girls on The viewers' ambivalenceabout'situation comed- teach Girls; Young effect on black Road; .Go Web, Young Girl ;. The ies .featuring blaCks reflects,t1,ie Centerfold; blacks, in a ridiculous Women in .Crime,: Womenin 'Jeopardy; viewers of the portrayal of Beach; Three Way Love,. mannerit hurts but' it' is preferableto exclusion. WayWard Girls; Down on the best summed up by this Three on a Date; Girls Town;and Sugar Time t Thee ambivalence felt is interviewed 40 actOrs, comment offeredastypicalof theresponses: The Post article's authors than not getting to writers, and producersabout the conceptsbehind "Watching Fred Sanford is better uso' all on television. ..but these programs. Suggesting'that the exploitative watch any black folks at One there should be more good programs onabout us."39 of "girls" is What thenetworks were demanding, producer commented: Portrakal of Women in theMid-1970s.. Women and girls havealways' been underrepre- I have an idea for a'series. It's just threegirls sented in commercialtelevision drama. Research each documents that female one black, oneredhead, orie'blondwho dating back to the early 1950s, week go from network lonetwork doing characters have consistentlyConstituted between 25 babysitting, whatever they While a recent anything, waitressing, and 30 'percent of all Characters.49 want: It doesn't matter.44 spate of new showsfeaturing young *men suggests be that the proportion of Womenon television may A 'Writer, commentingori.how this was "supposed of them are TV," said that increasing, the ways in which many to betimetime for women7s projects on depicted suggest that women,like' minorities, are all the :netwOrks really wantis girls who are "good teleVisiorL: "Girls" in highly the sometimes 'abused by looking;- 'well-endowedand runnings toward seenin "jiggly" shows.41 revealing costumes are often camera."45 that the frequency of the. Furthermore, there is evidence In early May 1978,CBS and. ABC announced this type of portrayal--in .the form, of imitations of in the new seasonbeginning in Charlie's Angels, and programs. to be aired such 'ratings hits as. Love Boat, SePtembet. Most of the pilotsfeaturing "girls ". were increasing. A major, Washing- Three's Company is not purchased; :however,CBS' announced:two.: new programs that were being The ton. POst analysis ,s-of shows: The AmericanGirls and Fly ng High. planned for the fall 1978 seasonillustrated in detail Girlsisabout two "beautiful young the various ways inwhich program planners were American women, a big-citygirl and an innocentand vulnera- thinking about portraying"girls": search of ble country girl, [who]travel the country in They're. pushing their way up,through .the TV material for a fietional TVmagazine Shbw." Flying roller derby queens, ranks now: pompon girls, High is about ."threebeautiful' girls [who] qualify for beach goers,' slapstick ..start living a reckless 'coeds, bronzed airline 'flight attendanttraining' and. blonds and underdressedagents--wriggling in joint and temptation. The life of adventure andfun in the air, in their and out of fun, trouble of call:"46. seeds of Charlie's Angelsand three's Company apartment, at their various ports come to fruition:42 Later in 'May, NBCannounced its ',schedule. Initially, It included. Legs, a programabOut a "Las of the shows being The analysis noted that some toraise her son,' 'and for the fall season were Vegas show girl ". trying planned in February 1978 Coastocoast, about twostewardesses. and aflight titled Scandrd Hall; GradNight; The Cheerleaders; 4,1 Ibid., pp. 0-1,.c-2. "" Ibid.. p. 89. Television. 4' )61d., p. example, SidneyW.Head, "ContentAnalysis,of. 1" See, for Radio and Merit-ion, vol: 9 (1954), pp. 1, Ibid. Drama Programs," Quarterly of Filar, Fall," 'Broadcasting,' May 8,1978, p. 25: The Ordering; Daytime. Prime Time." 'In "Two Out of the chute for. 175-94: Joseph Turow, ''Advising and CBS on Aug. 28, 1978. Soon thereafter, (1974); pp. 138-44; Jean C. 'McNeil, pilot for FlyingNigh,was aired on Journal of Cornasunii.driOn, vol. 24 Associaiion of. Flight. Attendants issued the president of the 18,000-member "Fethinism, Femininity,and! the, Television Series: A Content- Analysis," .1 can Only 19 (1975), pp. 259-69; andStatistical a statement which said in part,'After watching the program. . Award of Broadcasting,vol. stereotype and cliche that has ever beenused Conference Committee of the Screen Actors say that the, script used every Subcommittee of.the Women's . .We haveworked so Performer Employment Study," May in a derogatory mannertoward flight attendants. I Guild. "3-Year Television Female mistaken image of flightattendants, as sex 1975 sect. II, table C. many years to diSpel the' Hollywood term of art, feature clothes these efforts,.. 11 "Jiggly" Shows, a recently coined goddesses, and this program is a real setback in responded that the network "iscertainly open to and action that emphasize women'sWodieS. A CBS representative "kith-a-Dub-Dub, Three that the pilot did 'not reflect theseries. 12 Ellen Farley and William K.Knoedelseder,.Jrn, constructive criticism' but suggested in TV's Titillation Sweepstakes." Washington Post, Aug, 31,1978, p. F11. Networks in a Tub: The Future is Now John Carmody. "The TV Column," Wasiiingtori post. Feb. 19, 1978, p.GA. 5 officer who work and play together, a take-offon cancelled Coastocoast. Three's Company and 51It remains: to beseen Love Boat. 47 When Fred Whether ABC and CBS' will Silverman joinedNBC in June, Coastocoast was adopt a. similar policy. temporarily put orr hold, andthe title,and concept of Legs were changed. .Who's Watching the Kids? isset,COnclusion in. LaS Vegas, but there isless emphasis on show girls The black situation comedies and casinos.48 and 'jiggly" shows, while certainly not the onlyones. in which minorities Programs that feature women's bodies have been and women are portrayed,nevertheless represent severely criticized. Forexample; Kathleen NOlan, recent and important trends in president of the Screen the portrayal of: Actors Guild, has said: members of thesegroups on. network ielevision "Women.. .are desperately disheartenedto be faced drama during prime time. in 1978 with the disgraceful, These trendS indicate that trash* which is being the portrayal of minoritiesand women .has not transmitted ill the guise ,th9.tthis is the American improved since woman."49 1969 -74, the period coveredin Windoiv Dressing. .In the summer of 1978,the Screen Actors Guild held a panel discusSion In the following chapter, thiSCommission presents on the image of women. An data frog_ an update of its NBC representative serving.on the "paneIjtoOk the previous analysis.. Vsing the most recent available'data4from the 197547;. opportunity i ,nnounce thatNBA's policy-Was riot to buy programs that exploit seasonsthe Commission deScribesin seVeralopecif women's bodies:50 is ways how minorities .About. a Week later NBC and. women are currently announced that it had portrayed On teleisto 17 "Third Shoe Drops for Fall Season," Broadcasting, May 22,1978, pp. 29-- 30. 5° William K. 1Cnoedelseder, Jr.,an Ilen Farley, "Women on TV: the "Silverman Puts Stamp on First:Changel," Shape of Things to Come,"Washington t,Aug.6, 1078, p. HI. Broadcasting,June 19, 1978, 51John p.34. Carmody, "The TV Column," ashingtotr Post, Bb. Aug 14,.1978, p. 1". "SAG's Nolan Blasts. TV Portrayalof Women," 1978, p. 55. Broadcasting,June 5, The Portrayal ogMinorities Televisionmyna

unemployed or in WindoWDressing,presented an analysis Of the ways females were mostly depicted as positions .4 male and majority in which majority and minority womenand men clerical and service drama during female characters also tended to ,be-Yyounger and in were dePieted in priMe,tiitie.television majority males.° : theYears 1969 through 1974.1 AMOng thefindings 'of leSs prestigious OccupatiOns than males dominated This ComMission was ,interestedin learning that analysis were that majority and minorities has. prime thne'televiSiOn Both innumbers and occut.i& whether. the portrayal of women To. this tional prestige and that, of all othergroups, minority improved since the 1969-74 period. underrepresented and question, we obtained and analyzedthe most recent female characters were most minorities find prestigious occupations. Male available data on tlie portrayal of were least._often in television drama.° These data aracters senerally exceeded'females in numbers, women in prune tithe. exceeded -were developed under contractfor this Conunissionm and majority .characters disproportionately Research Project at 'the inorities; so that minority feMales andmajority by the Cultural Indicators University of Pennsylvania'sAnnenberg School of ales provided the largest contraSt.2. '1976; and Majority male characters were mainlyin their Communications and are for the 1975, seasons. Themethodology and hirties and forties; minority femalecharacters were 1977television most sampling procedures used incollecting the more oStly' in their twenties.3 Majority males .were recent data remain the same as were used for: the reqiiently shown as employed in professional,law minority earlieryeriod7 with .the folloWing exceptions; nforcement, and managerial positions; 7 Mental Health continue obtained'under contract from the recommended that the National 'Institute of The data used in that analysis were furiding its research program-703S has criticized themethodology used in ultural Indicators Research Project of the Annenberg Schoolof Communi- collecting the violence data. c lions at the University of Pennsylvania,The Cultural IndicatorS' Project, economist, has concerns of Mental Health, is DaVid Blarikr CBS vice president and chief u erwritten by a grant from the National Institute summarized as fiallows: (I) Signorielli. regarding the "projeci'S Methodologythat may be dirted by Doan George Gerbner and Dr. Nancy The definition of violence is too broad (it includescomedic violence as in 2 1 indow Dressing, pp. 31-32, figures 2.1 and 2.2. Saturday morning children's cartoons ad acts ofnature such as earthq-, " Ibi .1-pal, figure 2.1. uakes. and hurricanes) and should. be restrictedto acts of intentional a Ibid.. pp. 34-35, figure 2.3. violence (such as one character killing or hurtinganother in serious drama). 5 I bid., p. 31, figure 2.1, and p. 35, figure 2.3. sample cifytelevision programs is unreliablebecause "a week of teleplays regardless of genre, (2),A1 -week " Prime time television drama includes all progranuiting is no longer typieal.-"The Gerbner ViolenceProfile," Journal including situation comedies, police/crime dramas,family drarnas, adven- variety shows such as Donny and of Broadcasting, vol. 21 (summer 1977);pp. 273-79. ture drams, and movies, but excludes Dr. Gerbner and his associates have replied that(1) the CBS procedure of Marie anan Carol Burnett Show. Prime timedrama begins at 8 p.m. and kinds of TV violence were Pacific time zones and lasts "using subjective Judgments about what ends at 11 p.M. in the Eastern, Mountain, and intentionally harmful and what kinds are comedic .oraccidental. . .leads to the Central time zone. from 7 p.m. to I t .m gross statisticalaberrations." 'The Cultural Indicators coding system 7 The Cultural at Research Project of the Annenberg School of actual infliction of has been conducting annual classifies "as violence only the credible indication or Communicat's, University of Pennsylvania, overt physiCal pain, hurt, or killing." itdoes not allow For judgment calls work entertainment programming since the mid-1960s.Dean analyses of regarding the intent of characters. If the character is notphysically hurt or George Gerbner, director of the project, makes frequent public appearances the reliability of one week respeCt to the incidence of killed, no act of violence is coded. (2) Regarding reporting the project's findingsparticularly with of programMing, Dr. Gerbner reported that astudy of six additional weeks, violence on televisionand has testified before both theHouse and Senate sample, yielded in thefall1976 season, compared to the one-week 'subcommittees on communications. Data presented in his support froM "remarkably.stable results with high cost efficiency." While,the Cultural Indicators Research Project has received all television 1975 the committee on reply inditated an average of 5.9 violent- acts per program on the academic communityfor example, in July programs in the 6-week sample, with a rangeof 5.6 to 6.4.Ihe data from any television and social behavior of the Social ScienceResearch Council

7 0 The sample includes a week both in the fall and Hispanic origin. The terit "majority"is usedkinter-, the spring for the .1975 and 1976 seasonsas wb11 as changeably with "`white. the fall ir season; (the previoussample covered only fall programming). All seriesin the fall and ,spring seasons are included inthe sample with the Proportion of Characters by Raceand exception of late' season replacementsfor cancelled Sex ktrograms. The total .number of characters-.appearingin. the ot,The sample has been subdivided so. that -sample of ,prime time .television for theyears 1975 portrayals ip programs broacast duringthe family through L977 was 5,042.8 By far the largestpercent-' hour may beg differentiated fromthose broadcast. later in the evening. age ,of these .are white male,but females, both majority and minority,are 0 The Cultutal Iridicators.- ResearchProject has nderrepresented (see 'figure2.1).18 . recently incorporated specific occupationaljob titles into its coding system,so amore defailed analysis of The percentages of minority characters forthis 3- occupational portrayals isnow possible. year period . increased over: the previous 6-year. Finall.y, the Cultural IndicatorsResearCh Project period, from 8.6 percent to 9.6:percent for minority was, .unwilling to prepare datafor thecurrent study males and from- 2.3 percent to3.6 percent for ;on the occupations of specificminority characters, minority females. Majority female,-characters. *in- taking the position that thereare so few minority creaSed from 23.8 to 24.1 percent The only Statisti-..: characters other than blacks in? rime time television cally significant increase was...the gainin ,minority drama that the resulting'data mightnot be reliable. female .characters.i!Minority -femalecha-racters, Thus, data are repprted for "majority"and "minori- continue to. .markeOly underrepresenied when ty" 'characters only.8 "Minority" isused here to refer. CoMpared to census data howeVer,as can be seen.in to blacks,, HiSpanics, Asian and PacificIsland. `figure 2.1 When 'the dataare separaied by year (Seci:: Americans;, and AmericanIndians; "majority" refers table A.1in: appendix A), they show that the' to white characters who are not coded as being of increases occurred in 1975 and .1977; in 1976the giVen week were virtually identical: "'The GerbnerViolence Profile-An Analysis of the CBS Report," Journal of Broadcasting, 10 A study at Michigan State University, supported bya grant.from the U.& vol. 21 (Summer OfEce of Education, analyzed prime time and Saturday morning 1977), pp. 280-86. While the Cultural Indicators ResearchProject is famous programs- for its violence index; data are also collected for for the1975, 1976, and 1977 seasons and, yielded similarresults. Women, a wide variety of oilier regardless of race, cOnstituter1,27'percent of.all characters portrayals of Yelevision characters. This Commissio9contracted to- obtain in 1975 and 29 some of these data cross-tabulated by race and percent of all characters in 1976 and 1977: Bradley S. Greenberg,et al., "A .sex. Among the data Three-Season Analysis of the Demcigraphic Characteristics requested were the characters', ages and occupations,whether the characters of Fictional . TeleviSion Characters," Miclligan State University. CASTLEReport No. 9, played comedic, or seriu,us roles, and .whether thecharacters committed May 1978, p. I3a. (In this CoMmission's analysis, violCnce or weyevictims of it. This Commission did females-constituted 27.7 not request data on abts percent °fall priMe time characters in the 1975 to 1977 seasons.) of violence pei se, but rather the number of humancharacters who killed or "p' hurt. each, other Or wild were killed or hint. Thus, An earlier Michigan State study on the 1975 season yielded specifiVdataon characters who are the . the ethnicity of characters: 75.7 percentwere white, 8.8 percent black, 1,8 victims of violent acts of nature pr whoare victims of painful physical acts 'percent HiSpanic, 1.6 'percent Asian American, and 0.2percent American of violence which may have had a "comedic intent"are included. The data Indian. Other minorities were, listed in the followingpercentages: Italian consist of network dramatic programs broadcast between8 p.m. and 11 p.M. Americans, Dramatic programs include television movies and 1.7 percent;Polish Americans, 0.2 percent; Scandinavian such series types as Americans, 0.2 percent; does not apply (cartoon characters),9.4"percent. action-adventure, melodrama, and situation comedy.Characters must have played Katrina Wynkoop: Simmons,etal., "The Demography of Fictional.. .speaking role to be 'included in the analysis. Fora complete Tclevisio'n Characters in 1975-76,- Michigan State 'discussion of the methodology used in coding the data andof the reliability University CASTLE of the coding procedures, see Window Dressing, appendix Report No. 2, 1977, table I. Combining blacks, Hispanics, AsianAmericans, A. and American Indians- the 'minority groups in this Commission's. .Representatives of avariety of organizations .have written study- tothis the.total number of minority characters in the Michigan State studyin 1975, Commission to ask whyWindow.Dressing did nat contain portrayal dataon a particular national, ethnic, religious, or other identifiable was 12.4 percent. In this Commission's analysis the total for thksegroups is. group (such'as 14.6 percent in .1975, 10.9 percent in 1976 and 15.1percent in 1977. See table the aging, haddicapged, or mentally ill). The CulturalIndiiators Research A.I in appendix A. Project does not attempt to record data for Americansof European descent, In another study-conducted 'at Brigham Yoting University, Provo.Utah, such as German Americans or Italian Americans.Usually thereis insufaien,t data to identify the on the 1971. 1973, and 1975 seasons-the percentage of male and female religion,: of television characters -94.9 minority characters in the 1975 season is almost percent of all chafacters'in the' 1975-77 sample couldnot be coded for identical to that reported here for the 1975-77 seasons: minority males, 9.3percent; minority females, religion-Only 0.9 percent of ail CharacterS were portrayedas physically handicapped in the 1975-76 sample; only 2.9 3.6 percent The percentage of white females is higher, at 27.9percent, but percent were portrayed as characters playing nonspeaking parts were included in the BrighaM mentally ill. One minority male' Characterwas portrayed as physically Young handicapped. No minority characters werc'portrayed sample and it was reported 'that white women played 30.1percent of all as mentally ill. (Rest nonspeaking parts. John F. Seggar, "Television's Portrayal of data were not sought for the 1977seaon.) Secfootnote 10 below for data Minorities and Women, 1971-75," Journal of Broadcasting. vol. 21 (fall 1977),p. 444. collected on Asian Americans, ltalin Americans,Scandinavian Americans, Considering that these three studies used different sampling proceduresfor and Polish Americans in another study and footnote11for data on HispanieS,American Indians, and Asian Americans. slightly different time periods, these results are remarkably uniformand are " This includes only characters with speaking rotes. essentially comparable to this Commission's data. . Z m 3.96; p <.0 0 1.

f. .16 FIGURE 2.1 Sex and Race of Ma orCharacters in TelevisionDrama, 1975-77, and of the U.S. Population, 1976

Television Drama

MajOiity Males Majority Females Minority Males Minority Females

of the Population of the United Source: U.S. Department of. Commerce,Bureau of the Census, "Estimates 1977," Population Estimates and Projections,Series P-25, No 721, States by Age, Sex and Rape: 19/0 to Population Characteristics, April 1978; and "Persons of SpanishOrigin in the United States: March 1976," Series P-20; No.31, July 1977. percentages of minority characters fell markedly-to minorities and womenare seen as teenagers. (See levels not seen since 1971.12 figure 2.3.) The very young and the very old continueto be Age of Characters disp ro p ortionately underrepresented. Those 10y ears of age or younger constitute 2.1 Female characters continue to be portrayedas percent of all younger than male characterS. (See figure 2.2 for data characters and those over 60 constitute 2.9 pewent.18 on the age of characteri-arld table A.2 in appendix A for Comparison data with the 1969 -74 periRd.)Male Comic 'Roles characters, regardless ofrace, are typically in their As reported above, minority males disprOportion- thirties, but fernale charactersare more often in their ately appear in teenage roles. They also dispropor- 'twenties. The, percentage of 21- to 30-year-oldwhite fetnalecharacters, already high the previous tionately appear in comic itles.. While they constitute period, increased significantly in1975-77:13 The 8.2 percent of all characters in the sample, they per(entage of 21- to 30-year-old characterss whoare represent 19.3 percent. of all characters who, play,, whd-e! females (39.4percent) is significantly higher comic roles. This difference is statistically,signifi than the overall percentage of white femalecharac- cant.19 (See figure 2.4.) The disproportionatepres, ters (24.1 percent).14 While a decline in the percent- ence of minority male characters in comic reles is age, of minority female 21- to 30-yearolds,was also reflected inprograms broadcast 'during statistically significant,15 they neverthlesScontinue hour.20 Minority Anale eharacters conikiitute12.0 to constitute over one-third of all minority female percent of all family hour characters, but they play characters.16 26.8 percent of all comic roles in that time period. Characters in their teens have disproportionately This difference is also statistically significant (See high percentages of minorities, and:Womenand a figure 2.4.1" , disproportionately low percentage of majoritymales. Moreover, while. the overall percent*. of tharac- That is, when thepercentages of all characters ters.who play comic roles declined significantly from subdivided" by race and sex are comparedto tke, 18.1 percent in the 1969-74 period to 8.6 percent in' percentage of teenage, characters subdivided by race the, 1975-77 perioM2 the percentage. of Minority, '\and sex, statistically significant differadesoccur male characters playing comic roles increased slight-. among all :four groups.17 Disproportionatelymore ly.23 (See figure 2.5.)

12 Z 2.4 9 ; p <.05. Seggar reported a decline and' a rise inthe.n as - -a percentage of black teenagers may decrease the potential threat to white viewers that fully characters(6:0 percent in 1971.; 5.0 percent in 1973: 9.0 functioning adult characters might pose: percent in '1975), but an overall decline in the percentage of other minority .PerhaPs. the logk is that if it is necessary to provide whiteswith , (Hispanic, American Indian, and Asi,in American) characters (12.0 percent ,blacks on television then the most palatable wayn which this in 1971; 9.0'percent in 1973; 4.0 percent in 1975).C.:ombining all can be minority done is to portray black teenagers and children rather than what characters, Seggar documented a steady 'decrease in the percentage may of be more threatening, black adults. Indeed, there is asubstantial, minority characters, from 18.0 percent in 1971 to 13.0 percent in 1975: number of blacks to be seen [on television in general) but if you don't Seggar; p. 438. The three-season Michigan State studyi-eportsa decline in choose to watch them in shows in which there are whole families of the percentage of blacks, from'll percent in the 1976-77 season to 9 pereent, blacks you are unlikely to see !lend in most other shows. Other than in the 1977 -78 season. Greenberg; et al., "A Three-Season Analysis,"p. 1 Ia. 13 Z 2.03: p -<.05. situation comedies, the 'only other program type featuring blacks in theproportionreflectedintheoveralltelevisionpopulation Z - 9.53 j p <.001. is. Z . .Saturday cartoons. Greenberg, "A 'Three- Season Analysis," p. 2.06; p <.05. 20. 1;1 While females constituted 26.0 percent of all characters in the1975-76 Mic 18 The 1977-78 Michigan State study also repoits a decline in the an State study, they, constituted 41.0 percent of the 20, to 34-year- percentage of characters over 65, from 4.0 percent in 197546 to 2.0 percent .. olds a 37.6 percent of the 13- w 19-year-olds. They were disproportionate- in 197-78. Ibid., p. 8a. ly underrresented- atall other ages. Female characters were typically 6 19 X 12.01.1

, FIGURE 2.2 Age Distributions'of Characters in Television Drama, 1975.77

Percent of characters by Race and Sex

Cannot Code'10 and Under 11 to 2 21 to 30 31 to 40

.Age Range's

Legend,Majority Males Minority Males Majority Females Minority 'Females FIGURE 2.3 Percentages of All Characters Compared to Percentage of Teenage Characters by Race and Sex, 1975-77

Percent of Characters,by Race and Sex,

100

80-

62.7

20 15.4

-- 3.6 r- 1 All Teenage All Teenage All Teenage

Characters Characters Characters,Characters Characters Characters

Legend Mapity-Males Minority Males Majority Fernaleg, Minority Females ao 11 illrfCreff."0"rTf...WW1... 4444 WtrfefferferW r41, ..0410.4mmomw, 0.0. N.VVVoW,0%W. VWMWMmewmweem 004111400.04N.044 'W4 $14:4104.4.144.0:444.41 :VM4 :01140:401 04"WMWO, $010044.: o4.04;.0:4444404 :;4,60:004440 0. :1 +04004004:4: W0Wee.00:04404 0we*Yememm ) . , w m .oe4 ,,,w, .4 1 f WON.0 Y& si A ##### MAW. 4 $4#4.#0.WA V 40.44 NM% 0000.W.V, 0444 AWAYMWM.04. &VA 4 440.*** WOM + 1,4*, *64. 40.0WM). 0000.1&,:, 4"0.4.40.440.0:40.00:44: t.40.04.44.440.4.0.4 :+44.44: ot".,44; 0...... :4.1000.44: 10WW.WM.40W , ....00.000, 601. 10.0*W4W0.004414.0. MON &VOA% 4 4.1:4:St! )ktAttm..,

WRAY 7/1/ 3.6 / :7/1 A 20://t_

. MI . : w), FIGURE 2.5' Percentagei of Major Characters'WhoPlay Comic Roles, 196944 and 1975-77

Percentoi Characters by Raceand Sex 100

1969-741975-77 1969-74 197547 1969-741975.77 1969.741975.77

legendMajority Males Minority Males ESS1 Majority Oemales Minority Females Major QccupatIonal Categories Violence occupational portray- Violence is measured by the number ofcharacters The patternS differentiating als in 1969-74 are substantiallythe same in 1975-77; who hurt or kill others and who are hurt9..rarekilled. by gender of 'occupations continue to be differentiated by other characters. In recent years the amount and race. (See table A.5 in appendixA.) hurting has increased significantly24 butthe amount Law enforcement is the occupationthat continues of killing has declined.25 (See ta.bles A.3and A.4 in moSt..clearly to differentiate the Sexes.(See figure 'appendix A.) 2.6.) The proportionof such roleOn 1975-77 While all characters were hurting others andbeing increased significantly as compar\ed to1969-74.27 hurt in greater proportions,'the only statistically White male characters had thelargeit increase, so. significantincreases; by group occurred among that 21.1 percept of all white malecharacters played minority characters. Significantly moremale and la v enforcement roles, duringthe 3.-year period 28 female characters hurt others in 1975through 1977 Although, .the ;percentage . of minpritymale law stightly, cier- than in the earlier period.26 .enforcement characters dropped cent played these roles in 1975-77. te 1969-74 sample, white malecharacters were (Occupational Portrayals- portrayed more frequently as prgessionalsthan were 1975- The Cultural IndiCators ResearchProject nthr uses\,women and minorities.(See figure 2.6.)'In the replaced by a' majority- . he Tirst, in use 77 sample, this .pattern was two occupational coding categories---1,,... 'percsptage of of nine -broad ategories; minority difference. Although the since1969,consists signifleantly,29 managers, professionals, salesworkers, craftsmen, white male professionalS detreased' the percentages of minority:maleand female, profes -. laborers,Serviceworkers,law clericalworkers, sionals also decreased.'the resulting 'pattern is a enforcement personnel, and military personnel.Any larger, percentage of whitethan minorities playing classified under. television character who cannot be professional roles.3P one of these broadcategories (for example, charac- Another pattern that direntiates majority from stets, who are students,hdmemakers, or criminals, or, minority characters is the increasein the percentage who do not appear in anyoccupational setting) of minoritycharacters thatcould not be coded for'- remains unidentified. one of the nineoccupational categories31 .female The second set of occupationalcoding categories characters generally. are less frequentlycoglecl' in ,(to ,fie' discussed subsequently) is morespecific and occupations Than malecharacters, but minority prOVides a mechanism for countingthe number of female 'characters are seen less oftenin occupations characters who are students, homemakers, orciimi- than majority :female Characters.Similarly; minority in occupations,. nals, as well as a wide range of'specific occupations male ch'aracfers are less 'often seen . than majority male characters.32(Seefigure 2.7.) .7 normally found inthe civilian labor force. , occupational status <001; bharacters' dominating-and less freq0ently dominated than when Characters who hurt others: Z = 3.39; p Was ignored. Lemonccincluded: "Thus, if womenand.blacks are given more .who were hurt: 7.=' -2.3 6: p .05. important, shown-working in The overall percentage of characters who were killeddecreased by 9.9 roles of, higher occupational rank and, most the context of their job, inter-sex and inter-racedominance patterns vould percent: Z = 2.1 3 ; p.. <.05. 3,54: p < .0 0: most likely change. ". Judith Lemon,"Women and Blacks on Prime-Time 2" Minority male characters who hurt othe'rs: 1977),.pp; 70-79., .Minority female characters who hurt others: Z 2.03: p <. 0 5., Television," Journal of Communication, Vol. 27 (autumn 31,MinOrity male characters, who could not becoded for an occupation: Z p

In addition to the broad categories discussed(characters; . above, the Cultural Indicators ResearchProject ,has O Majority ,Male characters are' seep fi-e

recently incorporated a' set of codingcategories for' quently as journalists., and managers than women and 60 different occupational categories (See. table A.6in mfnoritm; and , appendix A). Although comparisons with the 1969- o White male' characters are\seen in a, tar Wider' 74 sample period are not ,possible*using thesedata, variety of occupapons.thari are' other characters. they nevertheless providea detailed picture of the AlthOugh_ women and minorities appearon first ways in.which majority and minority males and .ob'servaiion)tO be playing' several roles similarto females are depicted. . those of majority males, the eight diffefences noted Every Character was classifiedinone of 60. here "suggest that a .considerable an't:).trnt ofsex and separate occupational categories including 6: race stereotyping Of OcctipationsIS occurring. cations for characters. not appearing' in d" specific The occupational roles, in which minority and . occupation(self-employed,retired,unemployed, female charaOters are portrayed de leSs diverse than mixed, other, and. Unknown). At least1...najoritY. cise in which white male charactersare portrayed.. ' male character .wasxseen in each Of thd 60 categories. Te'eyision characters appearedin atotal of 5,4 ' Majority female's Were s'een. in.: 50, minoritY, different occupations.3q At leastone.,',Arfrite 'Male A46,and_ minority females.in 27. While more than one- character appeared. in everyone of them. 'Women. .quarter of all characters did not appear in identifi- and minorities (papticularly. minority. Women)were, able occupations; majority Oales'were leastfrequent- Seen ih substantially fewer of the, various occupations - ly unidentified and minority ferriale; Were most portrayed. -81.4 .percent of the oc cupational roles frequently unicieritified.33 were played by at; le* one white female character, An analysis of the 10. most frequent occupations 74.1 percent by Minority male charaCters,'. and only ; -. for each group reveals that occupations are,roughly 38.9 'pereent 'minority female characters: iffe ;similar for all four gib ups.3-t .(See table. 2.1'.) The infrequency with which,'Minorities and l women

following are notable exceptions: appear., inoccupational roles comparedtothe . O Majority and minority males arc both -most,freqUency with which Majority males appear in theM ti frequently seen in police and; criminal roles, while is statistically,, significant . theserolesarerelativelyinfrequentfor female Minorities and women are even less likely to be Characters; `seen in an occupational role during the fatqy. hOur. .pMales are seen as drictor while femalesare seen While white male Characters appear .in the same as nurses; .number of occupational roles in family houras they 0 ''The homemaker role is frequent for 'female do later in the evening, all other groups appear, in, characters but not for male characters:i'5 fewer occupatiOnal roles in family hour than they do 0; Female charaCters are seen as secretaries but in late evening. The difference is statistically significant only for minority males.38 (See figure 2.8.) majority male Charactersare seen as managers; . o Female and minority. characters are more' frequently seen as students than are majority male . , Discussion .characters;, Television producers are .under pressure to create a Minority characters are more qtiently seen. in..! exciting drama, for the more :exciting the program service' occupation s .(householdwor ,hotel-restaa,- the larger the'.audience is likely to be.3P Inevitably,

,. . tabulate. by race and sex, so that it is not possible. to determine portrayal 36 inmaking these calculations only 54 occupatiopal categories were used. differences binween 'black' and white women or between black men and women. Excluded were the 6 Unidentifiable classifications: unknown, s41f7.employed, 1 . . . .. : unemployed, mixed, other. and retired. 1 "3.,The n amber of characters in the "unidentifiable" category is smaller than, :,' 37 Majority female 4aeaciers Z reportedinthc ,previous section., becatiscstudents,. homemakers, arid' 3.56; .< .00 1 ; minority male characters:Z 4..36;p minority Criminals arc classified in thc specific jOb title coding system; wht;reasusing., femalecharacters: the nine broad categories schsetne hey remain unidentified. , .7 8'.82; <:001.. 4 . . , .$ Five occupationsappearedin he list of thc 10 most frequent occupations " Majority kin* characters:.Z Q .1.60; not significant at .05; minority nr. clich, of the four groups:riminal, student, hotel/restaurant ,)(vs,e. Male charatteis:.M 2.28 p <.05 ;' minority female characters; worker, self-employed. and unknown.. "*,'. . . -, Z.-. 1.15; not siknificant at .05. "'' 'Table. A.6 in appendix A lists 0.1 percent of all white ma,le characters atta,' ,, :VP Various method: used t0 measure potential audience response'Filots itti .minurity male characters NIIONVII performing functions suggesting..1 . arc itunciimes pretested by "skin tests measuring variations in the sweat of

homemaker role. . , ,,;the palm";'others have audience members turn a dial ranging from very dull .. Rdce and gender jobstereotyping has fag been .4' the characters must beglamorous-0e men must be fact of Americanoccupational life and our fiction, 'tall and :rugged,,.(if. not alWayshandsOme, and the has often reflected 'it. ex,tent thatAelevisibn:.. women, youpg,and heautifttll Theiractivities must by the . . , Detectives, for 'example, serves as a creator-,or reinforcer of beliefs about adventurous it d thrilling. that.nre--4Propriate for people, may fly to LasegaS or sail to Catalina Islandwhile iiiidsOf.bectipations it plays a negative role inregard to minorities and solving a case. ' '. . ..,, frequeintkKtin an upper . ow men.'" :,TelevisiorrdramdiS also also played such a Erik Bar- Public school textbooks have Middle class world. Broadcast historian ocupational stereo- .this is,thought necessary so that role: They contain numerous nouw explains that illustrations.. up" and "live types. both the' text 'andin their commercials suggesting that we "-move howeyer, several major place: "The sponsors Unlike' television's leaders, better" will not look out of 'determined that such preferred beautiful people inmouth-watering decor, .tektbook manufacturer's have stereotyping should be eliminatedand have isSned' to convey what it meant toclimb the/sOcioecOnornic detailed guidelines to thateffect. In September'1976 ladder."4° . \. middle class lifestyle the school division of theNew, York -based AssOcia- Drama calling for an upper issued .a '"Statement on requires, characters who haveoccupations to match: bon of American 'PubliShers of large Bias-Free Materials" 'that noted'the importance of doctors,, lawyers, judges, and managers potential to calling for "action" textbooks, in children's lives and their companies, for example. Dratnas cultural vaelues. AcknOwl: variety of under- instill in childrent various need, police and detectives and a edging that race 'and. sexstereotypes had been world figures. To be"interesting," television drama pervasive in many schoolmaterials,: the association will inevitably-glamorize thesecharacters and their noted that many publishershad issued' guidelines to occupations, its belief that a that the fantaSy land-'eliminate stereotyping and asserted It should be taken for granted elithinate .stereotyping was of television does not representreality, occupational basic commitment- to shared by all publishers.42 Amongits suggestions for._ or Otherwise.. So long astelevision drama is going to overcoming previous negativebias was to "pronnote portray fantasy, however, allgroukshould benefit opportunities for placing womenand minority group. similarly, from fantasy-acquired status:,If, for exam- members in positions ofprominence, leadership, and Ple, television drama overrepresents orglamorizes, and womenshouldl centrality."7:' . , . certain occupations, minorities The policy of many textbookpublisherS to take haVe opportunities comparable tothose of white' but .. positions. The Opposite steps not only:toeliminate negative stereotypes. males to be portrayed in such of women and minorities..is appears to beilicase, however. Minorities and to create positive images majoty males in in sharp contrast to thestereotyping that continues ,VOTHefl,appear lessIlequently than where women and minorities and are more on network television, prestigious and glamorous occtpations in sheer; numbers andiirthe frequently seen in Variousservice positions and as are underrepreSented kinds Of roles they. play: students. : . ... . , , . (IL: Charles A. BenWett, Co. Inc., . Policy on Racism and- Sexism" (Peoria, to very good. Writers have learnedthat certain devices always increase the Textbook.Ouidelines," (Cambridge, small chiliben, dogs, car chases, and ..,- n.dd; "Educators 'Publishing Service; interest level. Among them are these: Mass.; Educators Publishing Services.inc.,1977); "Far West Lab.: sex.Barnouw, The Sponsor, pp. 113-.14. Analyttag Children:s Books from aChican& Perspective" and "Far West . Black Perspective" (San Francisco, .., . "' !bid, pp. 106-07. Lab,: Anal zinChildren's Books with a and knowledge of a panel of 216 Research and Development. '.',i'.,.',. A study reportingoceupationalattitucles Calif: Far ,West Laboratory for Educational Inedriminantly.; white suburban/nun' New Jerseyjunior high school Women and MinbrityGroups" knowledge about" six occupations 1977); "Ginn- and Company Treatmenrof and Rbw . children revealed that most of their (Lexington, Mass.: Ginn and Company,'1975);'"Harper' loc'tor, ps chiatrist, paramedic, judge. lawyer,police came from-television. Rdw Publishers; ad.); "Holt,' till those occupations front a set Guidelines" (New; York, N.Y.; Harper and When as ed to select qpproptiate people to Rinehart, & Winston Guidelines forthe Development ofElementary,and 'of 40 ph nographs of white or black. young or,old, women andmcn,the Treatment of Sex Rales"(New. occupation in which Secondary instructional Materials; The .1..'-children verwhelmingly" selected men... The only York, N.Y.: Holt,. Rinehart, & Winston, ad.);"McGraw-Hill Multiethnic than, they:appear °a...television was the Sexes in McGraw-. '..... women were selected more frequently Guidelines" and "Guidelines for Equal Treatmetifrif psychiatrist-- 14percent. While blacks wereusually selected as frequently as York, NY.: McGraw-Hill, 1973); ... , Hill Book Company Publications" (New selected to bedoetors. Suzanne . they 'appear .on television; no blacks were. "Macmillan Guidelines for CreatingPositive Sexual and Racial Images, in .41166-Fox and Nancy Signorielli. "Televisionand Children's:Concepts of EducationaP Materials" (New York, N.Y.;Macmillan PuhliShing Co., Siiiik%Anritial Telecommunications ccupations"- (paper presented at the 075); "Open Court In-house GuidelinesEnsuring Racial, Cultural and Virginia,,Tilny 11, 1.978). pp. 16, 20. . holicYCcinferenee, Airlie House:, Sexual Fairness" (La Salle, Ill.: Open Court'Publishing Company, See, for example, "American Book Co,.Guidelines for the Positive and Guidelines for Improving the Image of Womenin .'1 and Ethnic Groups" (New `'Scott, Foresman & Co. Fqtial Treatment of the Sexes and of Minority TextbookP (New. York, N.Y.; Scott, Fore:titian & n.d.), . Nork,,N.Y.: American hook Company, 'tt.d.);"Charles. A.. Bennett,. Co,

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Majorltyfillalir Majority Female Minority Male Minority Female Occupation Percent Occupation Percent Occupation Percent Occupation Percent 1. Police 16.0 1. Unknown 2 32,3 1. Unknown 2 19.8, 2.. Unknowti 2 1. Unknown 2 37.4 13.3' 2. Secretary 7.3 2. Police 15.1 2. Student 10.4 3. Criminal 8.0 3. Student 6.4 3. Criminal 8.2 3. Homemaker 7,Self-Employed 6.0 4.8 4. Homemaker 5.5 4. Other:, 7.0* 4. Hous,ehold Worker 6.0 5. Doctor 3.8 5. Nurse 4.8 5. Student , 5.8 5. Nurse 6. Enlisted/Noncom 4.9 3.8 6. Criminal 3.4 6. Self-employed 7 Student 5.6 6. Criminal 3.8 3.4 7. Unemployed 2.7 7. Miscellaneous 7. Secretary 3.3 Service Worker 3.7 8. Miscellaneous 8. Hotel/Restaurant 8. Doctor Managers 2.7 8. Self-employed 2.7 3.2 Service Worker 2.5 9. Jourrialist 2.5 9, Military Nurse 2.4 9. Hotel/Restaurant 9. Hotel/ Restaurant Service Worker 2.7 Service Worker 2.7 10. Hotel/Restaurant 10. (Prolice; Household 10. Enlisted/Noncom 1.9 10. Other!' Service Worker 2.2 Worker; Self- 2.7

wy employed]. 1.7 SUBTOTAL 61.0 n,4 72.5 50 other occupations 79.9. 39.038 other occupations 27.6 3p other 'occupations 27.5 17 other occupations 20.1 TOTAL 100.0 . 100.0 100.0 100.0, '1 See table A.6 in appendix A for alloccupations by race, sex, and time of evening. 2 The Unknown category includes all those characters for whom no occupational Information isavailable.

/ The Screen Actors Guild-which has. a direct agreed that female actors facea similar problem. "In interest in the number and qualityof roles available real life you find women lawyers practicing, on television for its member actors-has but if the claimed that ,script doesn't specify that the rolemust go to a both 'minorities andwomen aresystematically woman, in castingthey'll ask for men."44 overlooked when casting decisionsare made unless the role specifically calls for a minority or a woman. Conclusion Sumi Haru, who chairs the ethnicminorities committee of the Screen Actors Guild, The data presented in this chapter showthatrace commenting' on andsex' preliminary results of asurvey of minority actors, stereotyping in. television drama. continues. announced that the study shows The percentage of white femalecharacters has, "beyond a doubt fluctuated throughout the that' thereisaairelack years between 25.1, percent of rolesfornon- in. 1969 and 26.6 percent in 1977 with white.. an average for .persons. More, it shows that there aren't the 9-year period of 24.2 even talent -interviews for such people."43 percent. The percentage of Haru minority characters in 1976 (10.9percent) was lower illustrated her charges tpf bias byasserting that only than at any time since 1971 (10.4percent), although whitesare invited to apply for, roles that "donot call specifically for a member of it increased significantly in 1977(15.1 .percent).45 a. particular race-A Minorities other than blacks continue lawyer for instance." Norma to appear only Connolly, co-chair of rarely in television drama.46 The. the women's conference committee' virtual absence of the guild, from the, television screen of minoritiesother than 43 Bill Mayer, "Is Theresa SAG in Minority.Hiringfor TV Roles?" Variety, 45 Z Aug. 24,1977, pp. 35, 48. .2.83; p <,01. 44 Ibid. 48 The Michigan State University study attemptedto count specific° 1g minority characters. Hispanics, for example, constituted 1.8percent of all S

S blacks suggests to the general viewing public that seriously as whites. The disproportionately high these minorities constitute an insignificant presence percentage of minority teenagers compared to male in this Nation. teenagers' lends supporttothesuggestionthat Stereotypes appeared in the same pattern as in the minorities are portrayed as youths rather than as 1969 through 1974 period, as age and occupational adults so as not to threaten white audiences.47 status of characters continued to be differentiated by The disproportionately high percentages of 21- to race and sex. In some cases, stereotyping has actually 30-year-old majority and minority female characters intensified. This is most vividly seen in the increase and thestatisticallysignificantincreaseitir the of minority male characters in comic roles amid a percentage of white female 21- to 30-year-olds general decline in the number of characters seen in provide support for the claim that women are such roles. The higlf percentage of comic roles lends increasingly being stereotyped on television as sexy ______s.upporttothe claim_ thatminoritiesareoften portrayed in ridiculous roles and are not depicted as "girls."48

television characters in its sample of the 1975 television season. Simmons, et We believe that the conclusions drawn by CCR from the stated al., "Demography." table1: Hispanics are a substantial minority group compilations cannot be readily accepted without an analysis of the (including persons of Mexican, 'Cuban, Puerto Rican,..and Central and actual programs monitored and an assessment of the subjective South American origin) who in 1976 constituted 11.1 million persons or 5.3. percent of the United States population. U.S., Department of Commerce, - determinations made by the monitors. Bureau of the Census,Population Characteristics, Persons of Spanish Origin A detailed discussion,of the methodology used in collecting die data in this in the United States: March 1976,Series P-20, No. 310, July 1977, p. 1: cbapter and their ref ability appears at the end of appendix A. Among other Greenberg, "A Three-Seasort Analysis,' p. 20. ings, this statement demonstrates that monitorsin this casecodersdo 4MIn response to this discussion of the ways in which minorities and women are portrayed on television, the Federal Communications Commission has not make subjective determinations. stated the following: 22 Chapter 3 Minorities and Women in Network TelevisionNews 4 feiriale corres'Ponden.ts appearing on each of the Window 'Dressing reported that ananalysis of a 'networks, . sample of news programs broadcast byeach of the networks during the years 1974 and 19751yielded the News Content. followingresults: women and minoritiesrarely appeared in the news,2 theyrarely reported the Topics of News 'Storleit. .4 news,3 and news specifically aboutthe problems or A total of 330stories were broadcast on the 15 accomplishments of minorities and womenWas news programs analyzed.NBCreported 11.4 stories , -while 11.1. (33.6 . broadcast infrequently .4 (34.S . percent), ABC' broadcast This ,Commission was interestedin learning Percent), and CBSprovided 105 (31.8 percent). Of storie,,Only 8 (2.4 percent) were classified as whether the percentages of minorityand female specific i to women.ands network neWs: coerespondents have inereasedsince relating in some minorities: This isconSiderally. fewer than the -5.2 the 1974-75 period, Do women andminorities make Percent found in .the;1974-'15 study when 12 of 230 the news more frequently now? Isthere more news related tc1women and minorities. problems? To thstoeri3e3s6.specifioally about their accomplishmeitts or their Of the eight stones,four appe aredon ABC, three second study of network answer these questions, .a on NEW, and .one-on CBS, NBC reported on. the again using a sample of news news was conducted, -atioartickeIoeag;soindeCont Black Caucus . oppOsi- programs broadcast on each ofthe networks, on five nee for Attorney widely scattered dates in 1977.5 Theprocedures and General, and on Federal funfunds for abortion. ABC methodology6 remained substantially the same a5in also *bad a report on theCongressional Black Caucus. the 1974-75 sample. Newthis'time is an analysis of The other stories . on,ABC concernedneerneda womwomanWho correspondents appearing on the news ofeach of the -:Wa. ordained asa priestthe only story concerning a networks during the entire year of 1977, asrecorded varnan'e ,acComplishmentsand. a Labor Depart- withdraw. funds from: a .bank that bytheVanderbiltUniversityTelevision News.;meat ,threat to validate the-employed too few minorities and women..In a report Archives. This analysis was conducted to New York by FALN (a .'Puerto findings regarding the percentages ofminority and on bombings in 6 For a detailed discussionof the methodologyuctology used for the first study see I The sample consisted of a composite weekof news broadcasts selected In the current study, the methodology and March 1974 and ceding. Winilow pressing; p. 49.. randomly from dates 'during the year beginning procedures remained the same, with the folloiving exceptions:(1) Content February 1975. Window Dressing, p.49. by tl- Is Commission at Howard University using as 2 White males constituted 78.7 percent of allnewsmakers. Ibid., p. 52. enanalysis Wds conducted advanced. ,., individualcorrespondents and coders graduate studeots.or -idergraduates in communications 3 White males constituted 85.9 percent of all Hand University, 88.6 percent oralt correspondent appearances. Ibid., pp.50-51., ftort1 poerican University,Howard -niveraity, and the University Of 4 Twelve stories out of 230 were about minoritiesand women, 5.2 percent. Maryland; and (2) : the category"capers,' was added to .: the- list of Ibid., p. 50. riewsMakers, which hadincluded only "governineat official," "public" broadtts on the following 4scelcinly 5 The 1977 sample was composed of figuve,, "criminal," and"private individiud. Coders, who worked in two- selected dates: Monday, April 25; Tuesday, gust 23; Wednesday, August 6 hours training. Ever, Broadcasts on each of the persod teams, received was coded 3 :' Thursday, January 6; and Friday, May 27. working in-dependently.--' One hundred percent tree networks were analyzed for these dates, using videotapes ofeachmews two different pairs of coders, regarding the ofcorrespon- program obtained from theVanderbilt University Television News agreement was reached sex andrace /ethnicity ...'Archives. Vanderbilt University videotapesallnetwork news shows dents and newsmakers Inseveral cases coders did not agree on whether a broadcast by the network-affiliated stations locatedin Nashville, Tenn. newsmaker was a publicfigure or a o-ri -vate indiVidual. These case's were' rind.,for study Copies of these tapes may be borrowed forlimitedpe.. resoivede the indepodent judgment.of theproject director. . purposes. In all, 15 news programs (5from each network) were analyzed- 23 al Rican organization),' ABC provideda background Newsmakers story on the problems of Puerto Rico. Finally,a CBS Thesecond aspect of the analysis ofnetwork news story on welfare reform was tangentially pertinent to. ..:focused on newsmakers. To be, codedas a "newswomen because it containeda film blip of a U.$. ,maker,v. an individual had toappear either in slides, ,Senator warning about the possibilityof mothers graphics, film, or 'taped segments of the,news story getting on welfare. early ;and stayingon it.. While and be mentioned byname by the anchor -, or ABC and NBC. also covered thisstory, neither correspondent. A total of 249 newsmakers appeared

carried the Senator's referenceto "welfare mothers." :on the Sampled broadcasts. Of these, 88.4 percent Two of the. eight stories pertainingto minorities were white males, white females accounted fdr' 6.8 and women were reported .byminority or female percent, minority males for 4.4 percent, andlminority correspondents.. The ABCstory concerning the females for 0.4 percent ()the total. The percentageof white male newsmakers has increased significantly Department of Labor threat to withdrawfunds from .a bank was reported by former anchor since the 1974-75 study.8 The percentage of minority Barbara female newsmakers has decreased'significantly.8 Walters. The NBC report on abortion legislation was Twelve of die minority and female newsmakers covered by correspondent Mary AliceWilliams. The appeared on NBC, 10 appearedon CBS, and 7 other stories related to minorities andwomen were appeared on ABC. One minority male appearedon all reported by White males. ABC (a reference to Clifford Alexander,as a' possible One measure of a story's importance isits poSition :.first black Secretary of the Army). Theother 10 in the prOgram. The first three stories are considered . minority males were divided equally betweenCBS the most important and receivegreatest einphasis.7 and NBC: The one minority female newsmakerwas

In the sampled broadcasts, onlyone story, regarding -. Patricia Roberts Harris, Secretary of Housingand women and ,minorities was 'placedamong the first Urban Development, who appeared ina CBS story three in a program. Thiswas the one ,providing about new Presidential cabinet appointeesand background information proposed ethics regulations. on problems of Puerto Rico . .. that ABC included in thestory of FAIN botribings. Two of the minority male newsmakers appeared in/New York.Three of the stories were placed in the More than once. United Nations Ambassadoi- An- iddle (fourth through. eighth drew Young appeared twiceon CBS 'and'once on position) and the NBC. A black juror appeared on CBS and emaining four (half of the total) appeared on NBC' in ninth in stories about the Maryland Governor's trialon ,through last. pOsition. In addition, the storiesrelating. bribery and corruption charges. In addition, . to 'two minorities and. womenwere significantly shorter whitefemales appeared more thanonce. The than average. The mean length of allnews stories was Maryland Governor's wife wason ABC and CBS, 128 seconds, whereas the- mean lengthof stories on and First Lady Rosalynn Carter appearedtwice on women and minorities was 73 ..seconds,or 'about 41- ABC and once on each of the othertwo networks.

percent ghorter than average. . Newsmaker Roles In. sum, few stories in the random sampleof 15 .. news broadcasts on five 'widely scattered. dates in To determine the capacities in whichminorities 1977 dealt with minorities andwomen, and both the and women appeared iri the news; newsmakerswere absolute number and relative percentageof stories. categorized either as government officials, public about them has decreased since 1974-75.There was -figures, criminals, private individuals,or experts. (See figure 3.1 and table B.1 only one story abOut the accomplishments`" 'Of.a appendix B.) 'As was true woman and none abotit accomplishments Of Minori- in 1974-775, government officialsTwere the role most frequently covered, representing 53.0 percent of tiesN, The few stories about minoritiesand women all newsmakers. The vast majoritY,.vntinueto be tended to occur late in theprograms and to be white males. The 'only white, fet4ale shorter. than average. government officials were Midge CostaniX PresidentCarter's 1 The five longest stogie (each'over 7 minutes) all appeared among thefirst Z = 2.50; p = <.05. t-hree; of the 65 stories that were 4 minutesor longer; 73,8 percent were 9 Z 'among the first three; of the 104 shortest stories (less than I minute), 2.38; p <:05. only I I 19 To be classified as 'a "government official" (10.6 percent) appeared in the first three. See WindOwDressipg, p. 50x for a newsmaker had to, be

further discussion of this point. - . identified as working for Federal, State, oi: local government.

24 , former advisor on issues related to women, who W' dow Dressing reported that white women appeared in 'a story on abortion legislation, and appeA, ed as experts15 in only .two stories, both on Juanita Kreps, Secretary of Commerce, ina story on issuespecifically related to womenabortion and the ethics of cabinet appointees: Tlie minority male ,theDalkon Shield,a contraceptive 'devicefor government officials were ,Parren Mitchell, Chairman women. No minority newsmakers appeared in the of the Congressional Black Caucus;a, Hispanic role of ,expert. In the 1977 sample, only one white policeman being interviewed about the investigation woman appeared in the role of experLa :lawyer from of the "Son of Sam" Murders; and Andrew Young, the ACLU disctisSing Federal funds for abortion in a Ambassador to the United Nations, who appeared story o BC. As was the case in 1974-75; not three.timeS. Patricia Roberts Harris, who appeared in Minority rwsmakers (male. or female) appeared: as. the same story ,,as Juanita Kreps, was the only experts. minority female newsmaker in the 1971 sample. In sum, the percentage, of minority and female There were 34 public figures.11 Majority males newsmakers in 'the sample has declined somewhat constituted 76.5 percent of them, but majority since 1974-75. White males continue to dominate. the females accounted for only 20.6 percent and theone news, especially as government officials. Females, minority ;male accounted for therest, only 2.9 both white and minority, continue to be shown percent. The three whitefemales all appeared in the primarily in two roles: as victims or. as wives and role-of wife. The Maryland Uovernor's wife appeared mothers.16 In 1974-75 minority females appeare `twice in the coverage of her husbaras trial, and Mrs.. almost exclusively as victims of economic depriva- Rosalynn Carter, who. appeared four times, was tion; in 1977 all of the white female private citizens Covered by, all three networks accompanying the ,appeared, as, of one kind or .another.- As .:PreSident aboard a nuclear submarine. She 'also gave before, most of the female public figures made the an nterview to ABC's, Margaret Osmer on a January news simply because they were married tosomeone 6 broadcast about the role she intended to play asan well known. Juanita Kreps sand Patricia Roberts advisor to her husbandAuring his presidency. Lynn.. Harris, two of the three fdmale government officials, F'ontanne appeared as the wife of Alfred Lunt ina were, during the period sampled, merely 'mentioned story on his death. The minority male classified at a, .in a list of new Cabinet ,appointeeS; in contrast to public Figure was Duke Ellington, who was men-' numerous white and a few minority, male government officials, only Oiie female government official tioned in a story on the "big bands." . There were 41 "criminals'on the sampled broad- (Midge Costanza) appeared in the news.; doing her casts:12 all were white males. The increase. in the job.Although ,minoritymale.;fared somewhat percentage. of white males seen as "criminals" is betterAndrew .Yiing and Parren Mitchell were statistically significant413 both. shown acting' in an, Official capacitythe number of minority male government officials in the Private citizens14 accounted for 12c4 percent of the newsmakers. The white female private citizens were' news stories sarnpledjs still small:;-. all seen as victims of circumstance: there were two NewsCorrespondepts flood victims, two murder victims, an emphysema _ sufferer, and a woman who complained thgt air The Commission's Saniple -pollution made it difficult to, keep.the outside of her A total of. 90 'correspondents appeared in the house Clean. The minority T-iale private citizens sampledsneWs programs."Qf these, 74. (82.2 percent) included a black juror in the Mandel trial (who were white males, 9 (10.0 petcent) were white appeared twice), a Hispanic, Than whose hpine was females, 7 (7.8 percent) were/rninority males. The -destioyed by fire, Clifford Alexander (inentidnedas Minority males inchicfed-3 blacks, HispaniCs, 1 a possible sub-Cabinet appointee), arid an Alaskan'American Indian, and 1 Asian :American No Nativein'a story-on land use in Alaska. " minority females appeared in the sampfe. While these::

. I. To be classified as ;public figure" a newsm.aker had to be identified as'. deemed newsworthy because of their relatiOn to an.isstie"or event of public

a.telebrity or to: be Married, to,a wellknOwn government official.' . importance. . , 12 "Criminals' were,all newsmakers who were identified as having been- 45 "Experts'? were theise newsmakers from the private sector appearing .. '.naused,ol'ebrOrrii fling 'a crime or as:having:been kund. guilty of criiinnitting-- . authority figures andlreSenting information: "Experts" hid been cfassified ... a crime. .- . . ' as "public figures" in ;IVOCloiypres:ring, p.52.. 11.Z .-.3.212./?...i-

.: rIv :1: 0 0 .: 4 I : : 1 . - 1111 sam- correspondents is that 1.1 .ofdie stories (50.0 percent) percentages vary somewhatfrom the 1974 -75 the differences was statistically were among the first3 stories broadcast during ple, none of these programs. Nine of theappearances (40.9percent) significant. foUrth through eighth stories,while The 90 correspondents made atotal of, 124 were among the only two (9.1 percent) werein the ninth: through last appearances on thesampled broadcasts; (See figure times; white female stories. 3.2.) White males appeared 102 In summary, although thepercentage of white correspondents appeared 'a totalof 11 times, and male correspondentsdeclined, slightly from 1974-75; minority males also made a totalof 11 appearances. the great majority of male correspon- they continue to constitute Although the percentage of minority correspondents. The percentage ofminority male: dent appearances has increasedsignificantly,17 the significantly, correspondent appear- correspondent appearances increased percentage of minority female but no minority femalecorrespondents appeared in ances hasdropped, to zero. This was a significant males and white females there were no the 1977 sample. Minority decrease.18 As previously mentioned, stories of atiOnal and interna- the CommisSion's more often reported minority female correspondents in tional importance than inthe 1974-75 sample, and . 1977 sample.12 they more often appearedin the first three stories Minority male and white femalecorrespondents limited to news about : reported stories of national and interim- and, were less frequently more often minorities and women. tional importance in 1977 thanformerly. In 1974775, pertained to issues mostof the stories they reported Appearing in relating directly to minoritiesand women. However; -Analysis of all Correspondents of the 11 stories reportedby female correspondents .1977 for Vanderbilt University, through itsTelevision News in1977, only. 1(a. story of Federal funds Similarly, most Archives, prepares an indekof each. Of the news abortions) dealt directly with women. that are minority male correspon- .programs broadcastby ABC, CBS, and NBC of the stories reported by Nashville, Tennessee.20 dents were of national orinternational significance, carried by their affiliates ,in minorities or women. For In addition to abstractingeach news'item, Vanderbilt not specifically related to and the name of the instance, Al Johnsbn reported on acoal strike and on lists the length Of, the item correspondent who reported it. 'urban problems in KansasCity. David Garcia cruise on a nuclear Using .these abstricts, the namesof each of the reported on :President Carter's story during 1977 anniversary of the Sacco correspondents who reported a submarine and on the 50th were .subdivided by sex on' reported on murders in Were enumerated. These and Vanzetti trial. Sam Ford cgrrespondent's first name. This New York. City and Ed ,Bradleyreported on a clean. the basis of the subdivision was validated by namerecognition'for all air bill. appearing female corres- Several white female correspondentsreported on but the most infrequently pondents; 19 of whom appearedonly-once during the Jimmy Carter's victory in thePresidential election, entire year. A comparableanalysis of. minority problems in Zaire, HEW attempts tocontrol hospital but could not be Other stories Correspondents was planned, eOsts, and a 'train. seige in Holland. conducted because the racialand ethnic identity of covered by white female correspondentsincluded a experiinents on college all correspondents couldnot be determined.21 story about CIA drug In the Conimission's sampleof 15 widely; eparated campuses, the FALNbombing in New York City, a majority news programsbroadcast On 5-days in 1977; news-- 'Conference,PresidentCarter's Presidential 'and minority malecorrespondents combined ac- cruise on a nuclear submarine,and welfare reform. and of the national and counted for 91.1 percent of pe appearances, A measure of, the importance female correspondents weretheremaining8.8 international stories covered byminority and female Archiyes, Joint University Libraries,Nashville, Tenn., Jantiary through 17 Z 2.43;'p <.05. December 1977; pp. 1-2555. 2.1 8; p <.05. proved very large; for example, 131 : '" Z employed as correspondents at the 21 The number of male correspondents '9. Relatively 'few minority women are ag three networks in thernonth than others. For example, Carole different male correspondents appeared on networks; some appear more, frequently unknown to project staff. Simpson appeared on NBC ightly News47 times in 1977; however, CBS'. of January. Some of these correspondents were Jackie Casselberry appeared 13 times, Although the staiFknew the race orethnicity of most; f the correspondents Renee Poussaint appeared 18 times, for -----Lee_Thornton'appearid 10 times, and Connie Cluingappeared once during by name recognition, race orethnicity could not be reliably determined the entire year. See table B.3 in appendixB. all. This part of the studywas therefore abandoned. 20 "Television News Index' and Abstracts,"'Vanderbilt, TeleVision News .. 27 1 : , I I I . 1 1 1 I : se : : :

I: : , 'of:: : : II

II :roAriortIVAg07.444 MEM

0 4 0 0 S A 0 I 1 0

t :0: 0 :8 :; kt!WOt I .: rI : ; .; I :MI percent. The percethge of appearances of male was thefirst 'network to use a female anchor, correspondents during the entire year was only Marlene grinders, WhO appeared for a brief period in slightly lower: at89.6percent,whereas female 1964. Subsequently, in the summer of 1971, she appearances accounted for 10.4 percent. (See table anchored the ABC Saturday night Weekend New's, B2 inappendix B for data on correspondent filling in for the male anchor. who. Was' away oh a appearances by network; month, and sex.) These teriiporary ;assignment:23 Walters was the first wom- percentages are not significantly different from those* an to fill' an anchor role on a itelatively permanent in the sample.22 basis. The.: specific feinale correspondents and the number of times they reported the news each month were' Both Sanders and Walters have commented on the also enumerated. (See table B.3 in appendix B.) prejudice they have experienced, When. Reuven Overall, NBC had, by far the largest number of Frank, president of NBC, told Newsweek in 1971 that female correspondent appearances with 268; CBS "audiences are less prepared to accept news from 'a followed with 228, and ABC had 211. Thelargest woman's voice than from anirin's,213Sanders number 'of appearances in a Month, 11, was attained commented, "They will' always come up withsonie by Marilyn Berger, formerly of NBC, in February theory about why it cannot,work."27 and April and matched by Ann Compton of ABC in Responding to a survey of newswomen c4i'ducted August. The largest ntimber for a CBS correspondent by AlfredI.Dupont and Columbia University, was nine appearances by) Leslie StahlinJuly. Walters,was pessimistic about, the future of Women as Typically; a female correspOndent appeared about anchors: '1.8 times per month on CBS, 2.5 times per *nth on ABC, and 3.0 times per month on NBC. Comparison of the number of female and male I don't see the day we'll have a woman- anchor correspondents who appeared at least once during alone: If Harry Reasoner were to leave, there the month of Jartuary23 shows that there were would be no question about me doineit alone. considerably feWer female than male correspondents. They would bring in a Man. At NBC theymade ABC had 39 Male but'only 5 feniale correspondents; the decision to take off Jini Hartz, but thdy. made Tom Brokaw the co-host. But [after I left] CBS had 53 male but only. 11 feMale correspondents; they made Tom Broka* the host and put the and NBC had 39, male but only 7. female correspon- woman [Jane Pauley] in a subsidiary posi..." deitts.: MOreover, the female correspondent's made tion,..:.They will not accept a woman as the*: feweer appearances in relation to their actual numbers head of the program. can't imagirie two than the men did.24'The' overall percentage of Male females . doing, the news,. as Chancellor and correspondents was 85.1 percent, but the Percentage 'Brinkley. or course they allow 'a Woman alone, Of their appearances was 89.6. (See figure 3. for on Sunday, but that's throwaway time.28 comparisons by network) Lynn Sherr, formerly anchor of the PBS news and Discuislon public affairs`.program, 'U.S.A.: People and Politics, concurred Walter'sopinion:"Think c of the Women and Minoritlei as Anchors possibility of two women anchors on a network news Increasingly women and minorities are appearing broadcast and you'll understand we're still in ,the Ice `,a On the ,network , news as. anchor. Women have Age."29 achieved this prestigious status evening 'news Several other women have appeared in the anchor programs more frequently than minorities; however, role on the national news. Jessica Sakritth anchors the their tenure in that role has often been brief. ABC NBC Sunday Night:News and occasionally substitutes 22 Z 0.54. women in jourdalism from the colOnial beginnings of the Nation to the 23 Due to,.the large number of male correspondents it proved infeasible to present, with a lengthy chapter on female television correspondents and, the itemize,the appearances of each male correspondent for more than one problems they have faced. month. . . 28 "The New Breed," Newsweek Aug. 30, 1971, p.63.. 24 This difference,: was not apparent the 'Commission's sample of " .11Loadcasts, wherc:(hates accounted for.90.0 percent of the correspondents 28 Barbara Murray Eddings, "Women in Broadcasting: De Jure, De and 91.1 percent of the appearances, . Facto," in Rich News, Poor'News, ed. Marvin Barrett SNew Yorks Thomas 23 Marion Marzolf, Up From the Footnote: A Aliist6iy of Women Journalists Y. Crowell Co., 1978), p.,150. (New York: Hastings 'House, 1977), p. 175. Marzolfs book is d history of 29 Ibid. I ::I I ; I 1 1: : I :: II I' II :; ; " ; I

i I : I

: I : : 'if:: :

I 0

I I V I II a I

rAL

woe,

:1: I . : I : iis: : . Cf..44, : I :OS 0: El .:' I : .. : : .:'i !I: .: : Sk 1 retention of the details of stories iW.the NBC dents or of audience on the NBC NightlyNews. Preceding her analyzing audience perceptions Sunday Night News slot wasCatheri0,.-Mackinio they present. A study, .Tke::(11S:Alorning News at 7 of and attentivenesstO female correspondents corn- Leslie Stahl' co-anchors shows no differences Chase cb-Wfichors The ABC Satur- pared to male correspondents a.m., and Sylvia earlier' study comparing news impermanence of between them.35 In an day Everiing?.Nws, The directMV attitudes withaudience attitudes, most of ,appearanCei and the frequency withwhich they, are the news directorsthought their audience preferred in "throwaway time" suggest,that women are not 0 male newscasters, Whereas atleast half of the viewers ''really accepted ih this role. irrelevant: to Minorities have appeared even lessfrequently as said the sex of the newscaster was 'network anchors. .Ed Bradley, whoanchors CBS' them.36 The continued lack of newsstories, about minori- 'Sunday Night Newsat 11:30pi, has achieved that scarcity of minority and status,31 but he- too is in-non-prime time. The first ties and women and the female correspondents illustratethe fact that network black to achieve the status ofanchor on a prime time, ffiales. Partici- Robinson, formerly news remainsdominated by white national news prOgram is Max held.in 'April 1977: to assessthe co-anchor of local news atWDIVM-TV, a CBS pants at a conference the progress minoritieshad made in the media since the affiliatein Washington, D.C.ABC. 'News' report" addressed the! organization' he joined, has alteredthe role of the 1968 "Kerner Commission problem of whites decidingwhat constitutes the anchor, however.Inste"ad of one,anchor such as CBS' WCMH,- like NBC's John news. Richard"Townley; news director of Walter Cronkite, or co-anchors the issue: Chancellor and . DavidBrinkley,; :ABC has four TV in Columbus, Ohio, framed the "Washington, "desks": ,Frank Reynolds heads What we are really dealingwith is not necessari- desk," Peter Jennings headsthe "foreign desk"in'. job, opportunity or heads the "national ly just the elements of London, and Max Robinson trainingopportunitiesor , eveninstitutional desk" in -Chicago: Barbara ,Waiters, base in New racism, commitments that areall very real, but York, heads the., "special coveragedeSk."32 No , ,what we are dealingwith at .bottom is the very minority women :definition of journalismadefinition that was minorities other than blacks and no short history by white have-appeared on network news 'asanchors. More- framed'aver a relatively over, black men andwhite women either share the male, middle-class people.37 anchor foie or' are confined tothe early morning or NandY Hicks, formerly of theNew York Times,, -minorities and women have late. night 'hours., Thug; agreed:t yet to achieve thesame"status as white males. The issue is not 'whether ornot the minority Minorities and Women asCorrespondents groups cominginto the, system hav (theskills to women33 and toy necessary to write alead or handle a stostoryon a The denial of a place deadline, but it's how do youcall the- ? The minorities34 in gathering andreporting the news was ''`z---h keep, rotating- around:., that they weie' not as issue: of quality seems to long 6ased lan the presumption whether or not the personwho comes from one able as white: males to "get astory" and that background will see theissues and judge what: audiences were mot as ready tobelieve them when they are the same .way as onefrom a different" by they reportedit.As has been demonstrated background: : .. '.-. correspondents of both seesand' different racial does not What pe..should be doingis increasing the backgrounds, however, one's sex or race make those. preclude one from getting a story:Apparently, no different,' kinds Of people who audiences' percep- judgments,. . .you have differentperceptiOns, studies have been conducted on, and therein the' standardis set, which is not : tions of the authoritativenessof minority correspon- Whittaker and Ron Whittaker,"Relative Effectiveness of Male' 15.6. Broadcasting, vol. 20 (ipring 1976), p, 30 Eddings, "Women in Broadcasting," p. and Female Ne W sc as cs ," Journal of Si Jacqueline Trescott, "Anchorman-ReporterEd Bradley: Like it or Not, a Symbol, Washington Post:T.4ot 1, 1977,p. B -I. News with ABC," Washington Posh Television Newswomen,"Journal of 32 'Toni Shales, "Follow the Bouncing Vernon A. Stone, "Attitudes Toward \July 11,1978, pp. C-1, c-4. Broadcasting, vol. 8 (winter 1973-74), p.52. . the 23 Marion Maaolf, lip From the Footnote. well as the 37 Marion Marzolf and MelbaTolliver, Kerner Plus 10 Minorities and 34 The issue of the absence Ofminority correspondents, (University pf Michigan: Department of absence of news about minorities wasearlier brought to national attention' Media, A Conference Report in the Report of the' Naiional AdvisoryCommission on Civil Disorders, Otto Journalism, Apr. 22, 1977), p. 8- Kerner, Chairman (New York: BantamBooks, 1.968). 31 necessarily lower; it'sdiligent and probably , more representative.? earlier in this; chapter,are encouraging 'signs that diversification is occurring.It is comparablydiscour- Conclusion aging, however, that the The increase, in the percentage of Minority and number of news storiesof female newsmakers,news abdut minorities :and general nationalor international significance -ed by minority report- women, and the. percentageofrninority female' males and white femalecorrespon.. dents and the increase correspondents' all declinedin the 1977. sample in the percentage ofminority male and white feiirile Compared with the197445 sample. correspondents,Asreported . 3"ibid. Nancy Hick!' is now with BlackEnterprise magazine. Chapter 4

Employment of Minoritiesand Women atLopal Television ptations andthe Networks

at the occupational status ofemployees atingvidual Equal Employment Opportunity stations, an analysis of the FCC Form395 employ- Local Stations by' the 40 stations in 1977 Window Dressing examined theemployment status ment reports submitted compared to those in 1975 showsthat job 'Category of minorities and women at 40teleVision 'stations in throughout the United States, inflation continues. Major markets located nine' job categories; inclu4ing all those Owned by ABC, CBS, andNBC.1 FCC Form 395 contains studied the job titles, however, almost 80 percent ofteleVision employees In addition, this Commission the top four.6 In this the organization- nationwide are listed as being in Salaries, and status of employees on the percentage of employees ai charts of 8 of the 40 television stations:2The major Commission'p sample, increases in the numbers of in the upper four jobcategoriesofficials and finding was that, despite technicians, and sales work- minority and female employees attelevision 'stations, managers, professionals, absent from decision- .ershas increased significantlysince 1975,6:while they were almost completely the percentage in the lowerfive categories-L-office making positionS. operatives, laborers, This: ComMission also found that manyminority and clerical workers, craftsmen, and service workershasdecreased significantly.7 and feMale employeeswere being given impressive salaries and locations on Among the specific categories,the percentage of ; jobtitles,buttheir significantlys' the organizational charts suggested thatthe job titles professional employees rose percentage of 'craftsmendecreased significant1)0 constituted an artificially inflatedjob status.3 Anoth, this inflation was the increasing (See 'table C.1 inappendix C.) er manifestation of increases in the percent- being reported as No statistically significant :proportion of employeeS who were and women employed asoffiCials officials and managers in employment,reports (FCC age of minorities and managers at the '40'stations occurred between Form 395) submitted annuallytotheFederal. 1975 and 1977. Disproportionatelyfewer blkcks are Communications Commission.4 employed as officials and managersthan as 'emplby-, Are these illusory patternscontinuing or is there minorities and women ees in general. (Seetable C.2 in appendiC.) When evidence that the real status of black male and fethale: officials has improved during the last 2years? Although it the percentages of and managers are compared tothe -percentages,.of., was not possible todo a detailed followup studyof 5 In 1975, 77.2 percent of all televisionemployees were in the upper four 1 The television station sample included15 network-owned and operated Jefferson, :'Television Station and 10 public stations, categories. Ralph M. Jennings and Veronica stations, 15 stations affiliated with the networks, Employtnent Practices: The Status of Minoritiesand W,ornen 1975,"figures located in 10 major markets: New York; LosAngeles; Chicago; Detroit; of televisien employees in D.C.; St. Louis; and B, E, and H. In 1976 the nationwide proportion Philadephia; San Francisco; Cleveland; Washington, the upper four categories was 78.4 percent,and in 1977)1 had risen:6 79.8 Atlanta. Window Dressing, p. 76. "Television Station Employnient Practices network-owned stations, KNXT percent. Ralph M. Jennings, 2 The eight-station sample included three 1977: The Status of Minorities andWomen" (anited Church bf Christ, (CBS, Los Angeles), WLS (ABC, Chicago),and WRC (NBC, Washington,. tables 2 and 12., networks, WAGA (CBS, Atlanta), Office of Communications: April 1978), N f D.C.); three stations affiliated with the e oZ 4.50;'p <.01. WPV1 (ABC, Philadelphia), and WWJ (NBC,Detroit); and, two public York). Ibid. 7 Z 4.56; p <.01. stations,KQED (San Francisco) and WNET (New g Z 2.30; p <.05. 3 Ibid., p. 97. o 10.42; p Ibid., p. 92. `black employees at the 40stations for 1977,' stati ti- ed that in January 1976 ABC cally significant differences had promoted Marlene occur.10 In contrt, Sanders to be the first woman network vice president . disproportionately more white males are employed as for TV news (she isnow .at CBS coproducing CBS officials and managers." (NO statistically significant Special Reports), and,- in January:,1977 Ann BeedLzas differences occurred in thepercentage of ofr naMed thefirst woman station Manager. fora; minority and white female officifilsand .managL,..; network-owned station (WNBC TV. inNew YOrk)., compared to their percentagesamong all employees.) Eddingse-found, in general, howeVer, thatwomen in Although the percentage ofwhite males among all' officials and managers .television managementare scarce.14 decreased slightly between Women responding tothe Dupont-Columbia 1975 and. 1977, white malesconstituted almost 65 University survey were also questionedabout the use percent °fall eMployees reportedto be officials and of the FCC, employment report managers in 1977 (see figure form (Form 395) at 4.1). As will be shown their stations.,, Results indicatethat some licensees below, it is also quite likelythat they hold the vast continue to upgrade majority of the official and the status : of their female. manager positions that employee's as reported, in actually haveolicymaking authority. Winidow Dressing. A producer at an NBC,oWried-station said: "The 395 Form... -lists many morewomen in the; officials and Women. and Minoritiesin managers'. category thancan .,be found -actually Policymaking Positions operating on that. level."15 Anews reporter from The actual status of minorities and women insofar HoustOn said: "As I understand it,one woman now. as policymaking positionsare concerned was the .eategorized asan office managerwas before the EEO subject of concern at the "KernerPlus 10" confer- .reports' just a secretary, and thetraffic director, was ence discussed, in chapter 3. One of theconference also considered simplya clerk."1.8. A reporter in St.' participants, Mal Johnson, directorof community Louis said, "I was given .a phony titlewhen hired, affairs for Cox Broadcasting, noted that minorities ,Directot ofCommunity InVolVement. Pro- are not making their way to the top: grams. . I was directingno one, not even my-, self."17. [T]he problem today is thatminorities who have The retort concluded that the"true status of been in the business for severalyears need to be. women in the industry" could moved up. The pipeline be summed .up in the isclogged... .The following comment by indictment of broadcasters Patricia Reed Scott, the . comes not in their producer of the. PBS series; Getting hiring practices, so muchas in their promotion, On:' programming, 'and policy-makingpositions. A few of the networksare starting middle-manage- I was alwaysaware that, excepting on-air ment training programs, but, thepace is too reporters, hardly any womenwere visible in slow.12 news assignment, line production,or any key policy positions. I stillsee too many women who Bill Black, formerly withthe Michigan Chronicle work m broadcasting gettingno farther than and currently a cityreporter for WJR Radio in Troduction assistant,researcher, assistant-to, Detroit, made a similar point:"[H] w many blacks, and producer of no-budget, ghetto-timepublic . Poles, Chicanos, AmericanIndians. they have on affairs.19 their staff doesn't. make any difference, because the In November 1977 the Federal people makinliqie decisions COmMunications, have changed very Commission issued,a notice of proposed little."13 ',,.'f'.t, ' rulemaking to amend its, Form 395.19 The' proposed.rulemaking The Dupdfit-Columbiasurvey of women in broad- is' the result of continued casting investigated criticism of the form itsrespondent's' employment currently in use. In discussing status. The survey's author, 'Barbara reasons,for consider- i Eddings, report-, ation :'.of a possible revision ofRom 395, the FCC In. Underrepresentation of blackmales, asofficials and managers; - 3 ,78 : p - < .00 I : 15Ibid., p. 159.. underrepresentation of black femalesas officials and managers: Z .3.1 1; p <.001. la ibid. "' Overrepresentation 17Ibid.' of whitemales. as officialsandmanagers: Z 5.01; p - <.00.1. 18Ihicl.,Tp 156-57. 12 Marzolf and Tolliver. "Kerner Phis 10," '8U.S.; pp. 7-8. Federal Communications Commission, "Notice ofProposed 13. Ibid., p.21. Rulemaking in the Matter of :Petitions to Amend " Eddings, "Women in Broadcasting." p.155 FCC Form 395 and Instructions," Docket No. 21474, pp. 1-8. 34 FIGURE 4.1 Distribution of Officials and Managersby Race and Sex, 1977 (40-Station Sample)

White Female 21.3%

Black Female 4.4% 0.6% Hispanic Female 0.8% Asian and Pacific Island Female Hispanic Vale 1.7% Asian and Pacific Island Male1:0% Americartindial Female 0.1%*,

*American Indian Male:010°/0

35 makes ample use of thefindings in Window Dressing regarding misuse and minorities and women in"true decision-making abuse of job categories, positions.. -.would be fully compatible" with its particularly the officialsand managers job cate7 equal employment opportunityresponsibilities: goryzo It alsoreports Judith E. Saxton andJohn Abel's unpublished studyof the gender of those individuals listed in BroadcastingYearbook. Saxton Whether the use of thepresent FCC Form 395 and Abel foundthat,only. 5.2 percent of the results in an inaccurate andmisleading. picture managerial positions at stationsin the top 50 markets of minority and femaleemployment because the job "categoriesare were held by women. Moreover,while licensees in too vague. and are not the: top 10 markets function-oriented was the primary reported employing. 267female concern offieials and managers, which ledthe Commission toinstitutein they listed only 26 of those November of 1977, a general women as executives in Broadcasting rUlemalcing inquiry Yearbook. 21 ' concerning the annual employmentreport. In Many of the broadcasterscommenting on the'FCC the instant report, CCR commends rulemaking have acknowledged this action of that: there have been the Commission andurges,theexpeditious complints of misuseor abuse of Form 395 bysome resolution of that inquiry. Implicitin the report licensees. For example, ABChas noted that "recur- is CCR's suggestion that-once an accurate ring allegations [have beenmade] that the Form 395 picture Of the status ofwomen and minorities in reports have overstated, through the television industry is setforth the Commis- misclassification or sion would be attentive otherwise, the true role ofwoine and minorities in to their. inclusion in true the broadcasting industry."22 decision-making positions atteleviSion broad- caststationS. We believe that the Although commenting implementa- broadcasters rejected major tion of sucha recomMendation, be it expressly overhaul of Form 395,many submitted detailed and stated or otherwise, wouldbe fUlly compatible specific definitions designedto eliminate the kinds of with the Commission'sregulatory responsibili- abuses reported in WindowDressing 23 and in the ties in the EEO area.25 . Dupont-Columbia surAV.For example, ABC devel- Oped both a set of definitions . This Commission is pleased to learn that the FCC and a checklist to aid intends to assure itself that licenseesin determining the. appropriateness of women and minorities are placing job titles Tindera given category.24 employed in "true decision-makingpositions" at broadcast stations and believes, It is clear that revision ofForm 395 is.needed as will be shown now. below, that to achieve this If done properly; thenew form should help to goal a number of specific ensure steps need to be followed.26 a more accurate report of .thestatus of women and minorities in the televisionindustry. In coMnienting on an earlier draft of this report,the FCC acknowl- Affinnati* Action in edged the need foran "accurate picture of the status 'Television.. of women and minorities EmplOyment : in the television industry" In July 1976 the FCC adopted and noted that attentivenessto the inclusion of guidelines contain- ing a 10-point modelprogram suggesting steps for toIbid., p, 4. which the revisions were approved, FCC 21 Judith E. Saxton and John D.Abel, ."Women in Television Station staff were instruCted by the Commissioners to consider alternatives Management: ThelSp 50 MarketS, 1974and 1975" (unpublished), p. 22. to listing employees in order of 22 "Comments of American BroadcastingCdmpanies, Inc. in the Matter of salary should some of them objectto it on 'the grounds of priyacy. ("Action Petitions for Rulemaking td AmendFCC 'Form 395 and Instructions," on Broadcast Employment Report Form (Docket21474),Federal Commu- Docket No. 21474, Apr. 24, 1978,p. 21 nications Commission iV.:+es, Repert No. 14540,pct. 34, 1978.) Although the 23 Window Dressing. pp. 88-107. FCC action is in direct line with recommendation 24 "ABC Comments,' pp. 15-23. 7 of Window Dressing and .' this report, the action doe.; not followrecommendation 8 which calls for 25Wallace E. Johnt9n, Chief, BroadcastBureau, Federal Communications. major revisions in Form 395 itself. Commission, letter to Louis Ndnez, ActingStaff. Director, U.S. Commission 20 The FCC and the Equal on' Civil Rights, July 19, 1978 (hereafter Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) cited as FCC Comments). (The adopted a Memorandum df Understandingon Aug. 10, 1978, in which' they 'entire letter from the FCCappears as appendix D. The FCC's further agreed to exchange information about comments on the report in its present form broadcasters' emploYment practices.. appear as appendix E.) and set forth each agency's responsibilitiesfor handling complaints about On October 31, 1978, the FederalCommunication Commission approved slightly revised Form 395. Although a employment discrimination. The actiontook effect on Sept. 24, 1978. the categories remain thesame, the c definitions for each category have been ("Broadcast Action:. FCC EEOCMemorandum of Under,standing Adopt- will now be required to revised. In addition, each licensee ed,"FCC News, RepOrt No, 16169,Aug. 10, 1978.) prepare a list of allemployees in order of salary and This Commission has urged adoption identified by race, ethnicity, sex, and jobtitle. The list is to be placed in the of such an understanding (Louis licensee's public.flle annually and Nunez, Acting Staff Director, U.S. Commissionon Civil Rights, Letter to submitted to the FCC at. license renewal William J. Tricarico, Secretary, Federal time. The FCC haS not indicated Communications Cominission, Apr. whether it will take action with respectto 17,'1978) and trusts that in taking this these lists when they are submitted.Furthermore, at the meeting during action, the FCC and the EEOC will work together to eliminate discriminationin the broadcast industry. 36 procedures, revised criteria'. for '. developing equal einploY- i,11Proved recruiting licensees to follow when hiring, and new trainingprocedures, as well as other Although insufficient tinie ment opportunity plans." emrtss3 r has elapsed, to undertake adetailed study of its Plan does not require licensees Commission continues to believe effectiveness, this to ascertainobstacles to full employmentemployment of minori- that the FCC's model programis notadequately Instead,'stead,as reported in Window. and designed to assure theemployment of minorities model plan ass11,,..nes that the causeof in tfres'sing, the women at broadcaststations in general and undemtilization isthe lack of anavailable applicant decisionmaking positions inparticular.28 pool; beam), emphasisisPlatitd on recruitment In October 1977 thisCommission issued a State- examination of selection and promo- which efforts, but an ment on AffirmativeAction. 29 This statement, tion techniques, forexample, isoinittecdai describes the elements of aneffective' :affirmative of aneffectiveft' affirmative action Plo. The third part action plan that areembodied in ReVi§ed Order Plan is the conceptof "goalsand timetables." The examining the model plan ofthe 4,30 may be used in ,,goal,expressed in aflexible range, .is the percent- FCC. womenan employer expectsto affirmative actionage ofminorities and The first step in an effective employ,: and the"timetable"is the schedulethe plan is an evaluation' ofthe employer's work forceto to meet infulfilling the goal. If an., employment of minorities employer expects determine thepatterns of employer isunable to locate qalified or qualifiable and women.31 Whithe FCC's model proem employees, he orshe is not bound to reach the goal, involved in such ananalysis, contains the element§ but must showthat genuine-good faith' effOrts have throughout the program and are it.35 they are scattered self been naade to reach not clearly designed tohave the effect of a FCC announced that it would use as a n. requires licensees In 1977 the analysis. Section VI of the program processing standardfor its``Zone of reaconablenesS" , of minorities andwomen to determine the percentage an employmentrate of 50Percent of parity forthe in the local labor force,and section VIIreqidres ent of minoritiesandwomen and 25 the employees in the overall employen licensees to provide data on percent of parityfor the employment 'of both groups Finally, section X suggests licensees' own work force. in the upper fourcategories.as..This Comniission has that the licensee can"compare the percentagesof standard as, being so low that it could the station's currentstaff criticized tins minorities and women' on not be expectedto have any iignificant effectupon and their respective percentagesin the relevant of wonlen and minorities in the Since the' only waY to iMproving the status available labor force."32 television industry37How, for example, can the FCC determine the extent to whichminorities and woriten percent standard, when almost 80 procedur justify the 25 are being'utilized is by following the Percent of alltelevision` employ ees arenow in the section X, it is unfortunatethat the FCC dOes not categories?38 certainly,requiring 50 proce- upper four appear to requirelicensees to undertake the minorities and women than are already last, rather than Percent fewer dures and that the suggestion comes in tile local laborforce is stretching the need for first, in the model program. Ond the bounds of credulity. the flexibility bey After the self-analysishas been' completed, In two companioncases regarding underrepresen- 'second affirmative stepthe employer should-take is of.Asian Americans at a San utilizatiori of tation.in emploYment, to determine theobstacles tofull Prancisco radiostation.( Chinese forAffirmative develop a(plan thatwill exican. Americans at a an .Minorities and women and to v. F.C C) and9fm obstacles.Possiblesteps, include "Ictio overcomethe .;.ind womenare Presenfen a station'sstaff irt.it' . Commission., "Report and Olderin presence in. the availableworkfcirce 27 U.S.. Federal Communications practices 0' ri)itratiorliOfiffiftmlyn..p°erircctics:eopcfthrcerinrt Employment Policies and asniodntli:i:titYli-mit ,Upper four job categories, the Mattei of Nondiscrimination in, the its analysis the written Broadcast Licensees," Docket No.20550, July 26, 1976. - Commission to'a brief'Tnalysis of EEO program to assurethat meptagram'is 'complete in all signiffiant .2gWindow Dressing,pp. 135 -45. 29' U.S., Commission on Civil Rights,Statement -on Affirmative-Act/On(10' respects. However,if a station does not meet this statistical standard, 30 41 C.F.R. 60-2,10, 2.11 (1977). 31.. Statement on Affirmative Action,p. 6. necessary,wiwillii evregaluaticItet.athdffie rntajtelltritErmOaPtilvon°11Hf4nthdeeltaicieinsaened.' lift:. 31Guidelines to the'Model EEO Program,"FCC FORM 342; p. 10. after tbjl'analriS iscomplete, it iiiipearii *that a h'sensee is still not in p. 6. 33Statement on Affirmative Action, Window Dressing,p. 143. saconincptiloianireav:iilthaboleurto"ilLes'fCthCe C°Cominillesnstsic3cirluwotieldriffhWeisnitadotewtportiSeTesilhng,e . Statement.on Affirmative Action,p. 6. . 35 the FCC describedits, 138 -43. ;"/ In its comments on a:draftofWindow Dressing, at Window bressin.P.PP reasonableness" processing standard: . itou. footnote3. ., "zoneOf estplOymeot). act , Briefly, the Commission will firstlook to a station's - 37 N

Antonio radio station ( BilingualBicultural Coalition of Mass Media statistics shoWing ,overall proPottionalemployment.. v. F.C.C.) the Courtf Appeals for the may easily mask a design to keep minorities District of Columbia notedbut' did not decide the and: merits of,, the FCC's recently women out of truly 'influential jobs and-because adopted processing those positions aremore likely to have an impacort! standard.39 In the CAAcase,' the Majority,, althOugh stating that procedural programming, the Connnission;needs, reliable infOp- errors 'may have occurred, -mation on upper-level employMent.'44. concluded, among other things,that the statistical disparity in the emploYment, The FCC's 50/25 standard isunreasonably low for figures---.6.1' percent the purposes of achiving Asian American'employees equity in the employment at station KCB'S in 1974 of minorities and women. It'allows a licensee to and 3.6 percent in 1975,compared to .a 6 percent Asian American population employ (*half asmany minorities, or women as are in San Francisco and already in the labor force, ancHt Oakland40was within thezone of reasonableness. allows a licensee to employ only 25 percent asmany and, In Bilingual II, thecourt 'remanded s-thecase for further FCC proceedings women in 'the lupper four categoriesas are in. the because an inference dial labor fotce. For example, if' intentional discritninationexisted had not been women 'constitute 40' resolved. That inference percent of the local labor force, theyneed constitute arose front FCC finding' only 20 percent of the licensee's including, among others, work force and .10 that the statistical disparity,-percent of the -licensee's upper level in employment -figures-16percent Hispanic em- -employees.' If ployees at station KONO,in minorities constitute 12percent of- the local labor 1974 and 17 percent in force a licensee would only 1975 compared toa 44 percent Hispanic population be expected to have 6 percent minorities on its staff and'3 pereent in the isi San Antonio41-was outside the zone ofreasona- bleness.42 upper level positions. These standards dolittle to encourage- greater opportunitiesfor minorities and- Judge Spottswo0 Robinson,while concurring 'in :-Women. Indeed,the employment of minoritiesand the Bilingual II decision,.dissented in the. CAAcase. In his dissent, he commented,' women at levels as lowas these might -suggest on the FCC'snew discriminatory employment practiees.45 50/25 standards. Criticizing the'25percent of parity Using the 4977 Form 395 standard in viewof the fact that more than 77 tniplOyment data percent of all broadcast employees submitted by the 40 stations and themost recent were in the upper available labor force datafor the ,tandard metropoli- four categories in 1975, Judge'Robinson stated: "this tan statistical areas in which the 40.stations, are startling statistic. ..freflectsr a distorted view of located, this, Commission preparedutilization ratios what. jobs are important [andmakes] a mockery of for each of. the racial-ethnicgroups, subdivided by any figures purporting to show thata licensee has an sex. These data are summarized in appreciable number of womenor minority group table 4.1 and members in critical positions. appear in complete form in table C.3 in appendixC. "43 For example, in The data support'this CAA, CBS has argue,d thatwomen are proportionally Commission's contention that the FCC's 50/25 standardis unreasonably low, First, represented because in 1975half of all KCBS's minorities are alteady,ntilized female employeeswere in the upper four categories. at parity (1.00) or higher at half of the40 stations in the sample. For Judge ',Robinson noted that'CBS' claim ignored the fact that,, of the 14 employees example, black males reachedparity at 20 of the not employed in the stations and black females at 15: Moreover, 39 of the . upper four categories, all exceptIwere women. Commenting -that this stations employed black malesat the 50 percent level was hardly an "exemplary"' or higher and 36 stations. employed black performance, Judge Robinson concluded: female .at "Because that rate or higher. About halfthe, stations employed "9 The Bilingual BiCultural COalition On Mass Media,'Inc. v. F.C.C. and (") Supreme Court of the United States regarding the Chinese for Affirmative Action 16 EPD 5477, 5494; percentage of Mexican Cir. May 4, 1978). , Americans selected to serve on grand juriesover an 11-year period in a 40 4 at 5479, 5482. Although Chinese Teias county held that 50 percent of for.Aflirmative Action did not parity .constituted aprima faciecase of dispute these"figures, it arguedthat a "ielati4ly high turnover of Asian discrintination; i,e., an unrebutted presumptionof purposeful diserimina-. employees" at the station constituted tion. Castaneda v. Partida,: 430 U.S. 482. a "revolving door" and that it should (1977). In anptIm ,:crise,, the Supreme Court found 62 percent of parity to have been allotved discoveiY'on thisissue.Idat 5482 (footnoted omitted). constitute a 'pri case of 41 Id at 5480. discrimination in a case involving grand juryand school board don in a 42 Id.at 5483 (footnote omitted). Georgia cciunty.Tarner v. Fotiche, 396U.S. 346, (1970). While these cases "Id.at 5501, n. 74. admittedly do not cover employment issues,it can be argued by' analogy Id' that if the levels of disparity discussed in . theM suggest discriminatibn, then *-9 Although not in the area of employMent, . similar or higher levels of disparity in employment may; also suggest a recent decisioh of the ;discrimination. Tibia 4. Women at VariousLevels Number of StationsUtilizing_ Minoritles1 and (40-Station Sample) 1977 Hispanic White black Female Male Female Male Female Male 'overall Employment 7 13 2. 20 15 '32 16 Over 1.00 25 11 39 5 28 Over.80 21 22 39 36 Over .50 40 31 4 Upper Four Job Categorist; 22 - 1 Over 1.00 38 1 2 29 3 Over".80 40 35 -40 32 Over.25 40 In which the Source: Table C.3 in appendix C. ,the' labor force of 9 of the SMSAs Americana and American Indiansconstitute less than :5 percent of high utilization ratios: 1 Asian "anti Pacific Island Ai the employment of even oneindlvidUat results in artificially "40 stations are located. Theexception is San Francisco.. reported here. See table C.3 Inappendix C for allratIcs. data tor these employees era not level .of 1.00 or higher whereasthis is true tip white follows: At 32 of the 40 stationswhite males are employed at a of 25 percent or more of This table may be read as 22 stations as employed In thetop four categories at a.rate females at only 2 stations.Hispanic finales are reported by labon force. For Hispanic femalesthis Is true at 14 stations. their representation in the gP a this Commissionrecommend- feinales at. the 50, percent In Window Dressing least 80 Hispanic 'males and- ed. That the FCCadopt a standard of at standard. In SanFrancisco46 Asian: and .P,acific minorities the 50 'percent of parityfOr the employment of Island' American maleemployees were above Commission also recommended above and women. This percent standard atthree of four stations and minorities be employed atall levels station; female employeeswere that womenand ofwhite 80 percent at one in proportionsroughly comparable to those above the 50 percentstandard at three 'stations, stations in the sample arealready stations, and above parity at males. Many oihe above 80 percent at' two employing minorities at orabove the 80' percent clear,. then, that the50 percent one station. It Seems standard. Although fewerstations employ ..women standard the FCC hasdeveloped is a sharplylower-. parity, the piOPOSed' realized. white womenat 'goal. than is-in manyinstances already being is nevertheless areasonable and for the upper four 80 percent standard ill. The 25 percent standard, realistic goal. WhiteMales are fully utilized at unrealistic insofar as the labor categories' is even more levels compared totheir availability in the . einployment of Minorities isconcerned. Twenty4twO be made 'employing.black maleS. at or force. Comparableopportunity Of the 40 stations report and iss orities tomake a four categories; they are available for women :above parity for, the upper is sg andotheractivities; standard at. all 40 stations. contribution to the progr above the 25 percent : utilized in of the Nation'stelevision stations. Other minorities andWhiteWomen are not minorities and womenshould fully as black males appear tobe, To achieve, equity, upper level job's as be employed 'at a rateof at least 80 percentof parity but. in most cases theyai-e above the .25 standard. the labor force, andminority could with their presence in With a. standard as low asthis some, enSees should be r employedat all upper and-female employees reduce the number ofwomen and minorities in work, ante in proportions scrutiny of theirlevels of the licensee's leVel- jobs and' still avoidF those of white males. . roughly, comparable to employment policies and practices: ?- Human Resotirces. The, datarepelled here iiir&nt of the the California Departrae'nt of of Americans Constitute less than 5 include, therefore, an unknownbut presumably small percentage 48 Asian and Pacific Island sample. In the San. Francisco SMSA labor force in 9 of the 10'SMSAs in the American Indians. American Indians and reported as "otherraces" by they are combined with 39 Reaching this goal will requiretelevision licensees to adopt an effective affirmative shown tangible progress should,be required -to action plan, the dethonstrate that their failure,to do so is 'not the major elements of whichmay be summarized as result of discriminatory follows: , employment policies and practices. '(1)a statistical report. showing thedegree of utilization of men andwomen of each racial and Equal Employment ethnic group throUghotit thelicensee's work force; OppOrtunity at the (2) Rietwok -Ks an analysis. of the ,licensee'semployment practices that outlines In Windt Dressing thisCommission recommend- causes of underutilization; ed that the FCC be' (3)'a list of specific recruitment, authorized to regulate equal. training, and employment opportunity at the. Other measuresto achieve a reasonable' approxima- netwarks.47. It is at tion of parity with the the network level thatmost Of the decisions are made appropriate labor force and that affect .the programs that equitable representation of are seen nationWide;48 minorities andwomen so it is important that women and minorities throughout the licensee's workforce; be Well (4) represented. among those Who are making such a statistical report indicating theresults of the decisions. Reports Of specificnetwork instructions licensee's efforts to hireand promote minoritiesand women; and regarding the portrayal of minorities,and women suggest that sensitivity (5)statisticalreports on 'applicant flow and to their.. .portrayal is not terminations. always, present. For example,Window Dressing In, those cases in which reported various networkinstructions about theways the employment of in which women might most minorities and women is substantially `appropriately be )Gilled below parity, or hurt in action scenes 49 Recent the FCC should defer renewalof licenses pending interviews with an producers of programs featuringsexy "girls" suggest onsite review of the4Rensee'semployment practices and a determinatiArThat that the producers areactingunder network instruc- all reasonablemeans to tions to produce risque achieve compliance have programs 50 been exhausted. If the The kinds of results of sucha review and determination show . programs featuring minorities also seem to be affected by the ahsence-7-or apparent noncompliance,' theFCC should hold presence,--of hearing to determine a minorities in decisionmakingpositions. Irt,,an article thefacts before possible entitled "Is Television Taking BlackS revocation of the license.Licensees who have Seriously?" not Robert Sklar, who chairs NewYork University's 47, Window Dressing,Ft. 150. 48 In:Window labeled the sheet "too violent," so Dressing,this Conimission reported on severalof the findings a pile of crates was upset on the and recommendations of FCC studies woman'instead. Thomas F. Baldwin and Colby Lewis, conducted in the early 1960son "Violence in network control of programming. Television: The Industry Looks at Itself," eds.George A. Comstock One finding in the 1963 study, entitled and Eli A. Rubinstein, Television.add Social Television Network .Program Procurement,addressed the issue of network Behavior, Reports and versus licensee control Of programs: Paper, vol. 1,Media Content and Control ATechnical Report to Me,' As network television is presently operated, SurgeonGeneral'sScientific Committee on it is difficult to saywhois TelevisionandSocial. responsible fqrwhatin network entertainment progranuning. Behavior (Rockville, Md.: National Institute ofMental Health, n.d.), ever, How- p. 340. it is entirely clear that the notion thatactual responsibility for so . network programs Three NetwOrks in a Tub," Washington. .Post, is. exercised az thestation level is unreal.Licensee- Feb. 19, . affiliates have, as apractical, 1978, p. G-I; chapter I, above. matter, delegated responsibility for Another WashingtonPost program creation, production, and 'selectionto networks. Networks, article entitled "The Titillation of Sarah"reports in turn, have redelegated:a major part of that responsibility to in detail complaints by actresses alone made-for-TV movie that they were advertisers; Hollywood film prOducers, sexually "explcCited" by costume requirements,lighting, and camera angles. talent agents, and others. The One actress complained that during prodisction result, at best, has been a ,concentrationof program control M. a' the concept of the shcsa- central source - the network. U.S.; altered:it didn't start out as a sex-oriented show.But I could: Congress, House Committee on see it changing as we went. They kept addingituff Interstate and .Foreign Commerce,Television Network Program perceptiblythat wasn't in the original . proetirement,.88th Cong., Itt sess:,1963, H. Rept. script. You could see what theywere going for; it was obvious: inork'sex." 281, p..106. (William K. Knoedelseder.lr., and Ellen 49 .rAcCordihg to thomat F. Baldwin- andColby Lewis, who interviewed Farley; "The Titillaticin of Sarah'," variety of industry people regarding' a WashingtonPost, Feb. 19.1978. p.9-3.) network programming policies and : their implementation (particularlywith respect to the depiction of violence),-.4 ,.Amid complaints from a numbet ofactresses was the frequent accusation the networks have a number of specific that the network was pressuring theproducer' to "show more skin." While' do's and don'ts with regard to the the producer in question denied network portrayal of women in violent situations.At the time of their interviews pressure, he did quote network (June and July 1970), network practices comment's to the effect that "they wanted suggested a.policy to the effect that to see pretty faces and nice if violence. against women. could not be:avoided or inininiized, it had to bodies; they wanted to see more legs; theywanted to show as much.as they could within the boundaries of TV." a.nOnhurnan.ngent. They cite twoinstances of script changes in AS a result, costumer were changed. which the network approved violence ti Scenes of .'fitalthy, chic sorority" girlsin "blazers and ru outfits" were resulting from a nonhuman agent: reshot with the actresses wearing "tube 1',V conflict' inone(how required thata women be hurt .. the. tops, tight T-shirts,hortshorts and network won't let the woman be shot, cut-offs" even though the scenewas set in the fall. One coktumer, claiming or squathed by a rearing horse. that her instructions came directly from .But it does approve having the horse hither into a post so the post network headquarters, complained, .'.injures her ..One prisoner chases anotherWoman "It got down to stripping, literally."eNetworkexecutives denied that they to killherand, had given wardrobe change instructions, in the original script;throwsa wet sheet oYer her The network censor but commented that they had thought that "the girleclothes 'didn't lookcontemporary enough. " Ibid. 40 headquarters re- ThisCommission obtained the Department,. interviewedseveral 1977 (see table C.4 Cinema Studies ports for ABC,'CBS, and NBC for producers:writers, and actors.One them55 to determinethe black television in appendix C)and analyzed Robertson, formerlyan NBC vice and. women. employedat of them, Stanley and proportions of minorities' president 'for motionpictures for ,television those. employed Harris die .headquartersleVel compared to currently at UniversalTelevision, produces of minorities and black, blue- at the stationlevel. The proportions and Company, adramatic' series 'about a officials and managersat each supply company inDetroit. women -reported as collar worker at an auto used.in . this . level were also.Compared. The reports purchased four episodes ofthis series. all employ- NBC ha's resistance "51 in analysis includeconsolidated. reports on Noting that "he hasfaced pockets of individual believes ees'(including those .atlocal stations) and producing Harris andComilany, Roherts6n effect change. For reports for eachheadquarters unit. that a blackproducer can and manageremployment black director for the'series. In a Analysis of 1977 official example, he hired' a and table C.5in appendix C) a California college,he cast an Asian data (see figure 4.2 scene set at While it differences in theracial, ethnic, and American in the roleof, admissions officer. shows marked Robertson 'said, it is 'of networkheadquarters staffs: . gender composition may havebeen a small point, network- owned..stations.56 important to him to try toreflect southernCaliforni- compared to those at Men- official and man. agerpOsitions 'are a's ethnic diversity.In contrast,;: Significantly more of the three which no 'reported for the.headquarters of each tioned a series setin San Francisco in and signifi- networks than attheir, owned stations" Asian American everappears.52 diversity in decision- males are employed asofficials Increased racial andgender ,candy more 'white networks (and inthe each networkheadquarterS than at making positionsat the and managers at lead 4o increaseddiversi, 58 In contrast,the percentages of production companies) can .the locale stations broadcast. In his initial who are minority .and /or ty in tbe programsthat are managerial employees loWer at the . Association of,BrOadcasters, cases significantly speech to the National female are in many level. The" Charles Ferris,Made this than.at.the loCal station the current FCC Chairman, headquarters level employees is he suggested thatbroadcasters '`hire percentage of black,female managerial very point when in" headquarters 59 The Blacks, women, Hispanics,and Asian Americans Significantly lower. atall three progtain employees is responsible jobs" toincrease "diversity of percentage of whitefemale managerial local and at This principle,initially applied to significantly lower atABC headquarterso choice networks as well.. black males stations; should beapplied, to the CBS heack,uarters.61The percentage. of 'below, the employmentof managers issignificantly lower . As will be. dciciunented who are officials 'and noted that minorities and women at thenetworks' headquarters It should be at the at NBC. PaCific their employment relatively few HispanicAmericans, Asian and lags Significantly behind reported ,by the networks. Island Americans, orAmerican Indians, are local stations owned broadcast hiadqUarters or ABC, CBS, andNBC, in their role as to be officials ormanagers at either annual "headquarters"reports stations of any ofthe networks. station owneri, file repotted in the at the ov ned. of with the FCC.Although the data are Furtherriforg." significantlylower percentages employment in broadcast,!' netpork FCC's annual,:. report on minorities are employedin all positions. at license renewal.,. (See ixig,, these reports arenot reviewed at headqu ters than, atnetwork-owned stations. authority.Ao regulate The overall -- time becausethe FCC has no figure 4.' and table.C.6 in appendix C.) the networks.54 . employee; network-Owned radiostation employee's ,televisiOn headquarters in the Blacks Seriously ?" American Film, television station employees, 51 Robert Sklar, "ISTelviiision Taking were included with network-owned the headquarters units . . inappendix C for a list of tptember'1978 p. 26. analysis. See table C3' . . included in the analysis. <.001; ,57. Ibid. 3.52; Chairman, FederalCommunications CtimMission, 57 ABC: Z - 4.43; p <.001; CBS: Z 53 Charlei D. Ferris, National Association "Remarks:Before the 56thAnnual Convention of the NBC:Z 3:45; p <.001. <.001; . ", <.001; CBS: Z - 6.77; p 1978, p. 10. 48 ABC: Z - 3.40; p - of Broadcasters,- Apr. 12, ,and Transfer Division. <.001. 54 Glenn WOlfe, Chief..FCC EEO Unit, Renewal NBC: Z 4.00; p 4.97; <.00 1 ; telephone interview, Oct. 18, 1977. <.001; CBS: Z Broadcast Bureau, re*ted in U.S. 59 ABC: Z 3.37; this analysis were orginially NBC:Z -R 3.47; p <.001.. '55. Some of. the results. of "C,oniments in the. Matter, ofPetitions for <.05. Commission on Civil Rights DOcket No. 69 Z 2.53; p. Rulemaking to. Amend FCCForm 395 and Instructions," 61.Z 4.51; p <.001...... 3.30; p <.001. 21474, Mar. 17; 1978. headquarters employees from 577 ' Z 6: Because it is impossibleto separate radio I I '1 1 ;

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e CCM . VIA ,I : MI the FCC. does not are atheadqUarters. To reiterate, percentage of blackmale employees issignificantly, reports for headquarters and 'at NBCheadquar.7 examine the employment two lower at CBS headquarterso employees; so theemployment status of over of black femaleemployees is NBC is ters.64 The percentage thirds of the employeesof ABC, CBS, and also significantly lower atall thrnetworks 65 The Island never evaluated.. percentage of Asian'American nd Pacific with headq- There are 143individuals or companies- male employees issignificantly lower at CBS that account for46271 of headquarters.67 The percent- multiple station holdings uarterS66 and at NBC commercial stations,59 percent.72 age Of Asian and PacificIsland Americanfemale the Nation's 727, companies files a all three net Each of these individuals or employees: is significantly 'lower at report at licenserenewal works.68 The percentageof Hispanic maleemployees headquarterS employment the Finally, possible to compare is significantly lower atABC headquarters.68 time. Since it was not female employees is headquarters Form' 395 reports .of the 143 owners tie percentage of Hispanic reports for their 462stations, this significantly lower at CBSheadquarters.70 Although with the Form 395 Indianfns io determine whether:these the percentagedifference..of American Commission was unable employing largenunibers'of\people, ployees at, networkheadquarters compared' to net- owners are also statistically significant, whom may not beminority or female. work-owned stations is not many of that the. Indian employeesis The data reported.here strongly suggest die number of American minorities and women at extremely' small at all threeheadquarters and alsoat employment' status of would be better ifmechanisms = their local stations. network headquarters white female employeesat die for direct oversightof employment The proportion of were available level. The exceeds the proportionof patterns and practicesat the headquarters headquarters level always 395) and white females at thelocal level, but themajority (as FCC's employmentreporting form (Form headquar- plan, the much as 63.0percent) of the white female its model equalemployment opportunity employed as office andclerical various sanctions theFCC may impose for noncom- ters employees are monitoring efforts' of workers. (See table C.7 inappendix C.) In every case, plianCe, and citizen group employees have all large percentages ofthe minority female licensee's employmentpatterns and practices level are also officeand clerical contributed to improvedemployment opportunities at the headquarters black level. employees. As many as79.2 percent ,of all for minorities and womenat the local station and Pacific women, as many as59.1 percent of Asian Extension of these mechanismsto, the headquarters percent of station Island American women, as'many as 88.1 level-of all groupowners--in their capacity as percent of their owned Hispanic women, and asmany as 66.7 owners and as producersof programs for are officeand clerical direct way ofincreasing ,American Indian women stations,and affiliatesis a workers at the headquartersof the networks. employment opportunitiesfor, minorities and wom- each of the networks variety of policymak- As the data in table C.6 show, en. Minoritiesand women in a` has over two-thirds ofits total' number ofemployees networks and at theheadquarters the local ing positions at the at the headquarterslevel rather than at could make asignificant ABC's employees' are aels'of all group owners station,level: 70:0.percent of equitable and diversified' CBS's eTployees are at contribution to ,a more headquarters; 70.3 percent of portrayal of minoritiesand women ontelevision. headquartefs; and 70.2percent,of NBM employees Z 4.. 2.91; p 67 Z 3.07; p <.01. 7° Z 2.57; p <.01. 64 2 aw 8.73; p <.001. <.001; pp. A33-A45. 2.71; p - <.01; CBS: Z -5.22; p 71 Broad&siing Yearbaok,1978,Connnunichtions Commission, BroadcastStation Totals ABC: Z <.001. 72 U.S., Federal NBC: Z - 4.34; p for March 1978. 66 Z 3.6; p - <.01. <.01; x" AtiC; Z -'. I I ; p4 <.01; CBS: Z 2.64; p NBC: Z 3.12 ;'p <.01.

r Chapter:5

Television'sEffecton Viewers andthe First Amendment

Television drama doesnot, nor should it necessarily, mirror reality,,but its apparent, its qualitative differencesare.what make it unique. often. makes it believable. This Professor George Gerbner,dean of theAnnenberg is true especially foryourig ', School of 'Communications children, but it is alsotrue for adults. This'.chapter oat the Universityof. reviews some of the ,.Pennsylvania and his research designed to,investigate associate,. ProfessorLady the effect of television on Gross, have delineated viewers, particularlyyoung these qualitative differences: viewers,'Although mostof the "effects" research Unlike print, television been devoted has does not require literacy. to issues surrounding televisedviolence Unlike the movies; and advertising directed televisionis "free" (support- toward children,researchers: ? ed 18,:a privately:imposedtax on all goods); and are increasingly investigating.' it is always running. children's perceptions Unlike the theater;cohe of and knowledge certs, Movies, and even Churches, about minorities and'about sex ,!:, television doeS and occupationalroles as they not require mobility. Itcomes into the home and are influenced by reaches individuals.. television portrayalsof minorities andwomen. directly. With its virtually unlimited access from cradletoifave, teleVision The public has 'a directand, profound interest both'precedes the ways in which hi readingand,increasingly, perceptions and knowledgecan be preempts it. , o influenced by television,drarna. It hasan equally strong interest inpreserving broadcasters'rights to Television is the first'centralized cultural 'influ- free speechas they are protected by, ence to permeate boththe initial and the final the First :years of lifeas well Amendment and theCommunications Act. It is as the years between. Most the infants are exposedto television long before_ responsibility of thepeople's represeritOvein these matters, the Federal reading. By the time.a child reaches school, Communications Commission, television will .haveoccupied more time to take action that willserve both of these compelling would be spent in than interests, The second ,a_college classrooin. Atthe half of this chapterreviews other end of the lifeldngcurriculum,television is 'actions taken by theFCC' with respectto program- there to keep the elderly;company when all else; ming and advertising directed toward childrenand televised violence. It,also explores alterritivesfor FCC action regarding That the ready availability.of televiSion leads to the portrayal of minoritiesand Women in television relatively high levels ofviewing is borne out bythe drama. fact that television sets are in use m theaverage American household almost Tolevielpn's Effect t 7 hours per day.2 Television, more than , Gerbner and Gross repOifthat nearly half the any other medium of:.children in studies they haVe'done communication, haSthe power to touch on the cultivation people's lives*Of televised violence watch and to shape theirthinking. Indeed, lelevision television at least 6 hours )more than qUantitatively is 'every day 3. To dramatize different from othermedia; the implications, of 'this investment of time to readerswho may have been George Gerbner andLarry Gross, "Living With Praile,"Journal of Communication, Television: The Violence 3 Gerbner and Gross, "Living vol. 26 (Spring '1976), p. 176. with Television," p. 176. 2 "TV Usag6 Per Homi 'PerWeek in Hours and Minutes," Yearbook (1978), p." B-176. Broadcasting . 44 1 . - reared in prevideo days, theysuggest that we imagine force a confession o t of someone we: put on the a childhood in which we spent 6 hours every day of stand."6 Gerbner and Gross report that even lawyers' the week at the It al movie theater. Not-only would..;' knowledge of courtroom proeedures can be affected few parents- have allowed their children to 'spend:by television. They cite an instance in which an their time in this manner, but few' children would,attorney used the elassiePerry Mason objection that have thought to ask permission to do so in The firSt :."the prosecutor is badgering the witness." The judge place. . , rep 'ed that this particular objection might 'work on Clearly, television plays an enormous role (nour Pe ry Mason, hui,;"titifOrtunatel, lives as, an entertainment and inforination mediuni. it was not included ine California code."7 Out its cradle-to-grave omnipresence doeS more than Ba ouw hat arguedthat . help us to pass our time in a relaxingmannerr to. televisiondrama's seernin provide us with information on the events of titday.' realism is not meant to deceive but.that it t:' has that effect. It may never. occur NInany viewers Television plays a subtler role: by showing us worlds I we would otherwise. seldom see, by determinin; the to question whether a depiction is real. If they do, elements of those worlds on which to focus, and by viewers may conclude that the show is "essentially presenting them' in a context of good and bad, ?rue,' telling it 'like it is'."8 This may account for the, .television helps ,to'shape what we know aboutour ob applications received by the United Nations for world, what we believe .about it, and whatwe feel positions at "U.N,C.L.E." .precipitated by the series -,,,4 \ abotit it : c The Man from U.N.C.L.E.9or the more than ohe- TelevisiiM drama may not be real, but itis quarter ,of a million lettersreceived, by 'Marcus realistie.Ithas what broadcast historian .Erik Welby, most seeking medical advice.10 Barnouw calls "an air of authenticity."1 Gerbner and The appareni failure of viewers' to distinguish fact GrosS' callit "representational realism."5 In either',from fiction has also led law professors Stephen case televisiOn drama 'functions not only to entertain' AronS and Ethan Katsh of theUniversity 'of but to instruct: we "learn" about police, courtroom, Massachusetts to voice concern about the portrayal and hospital procedures, and we are initiated into the of "blatantly illegarand unconstitutional behavior of inner workings of bigbusiness,theFBI, and police officers [being] glorified by an endless stream organized crime. of television police .dramas."11 Citing ,43 separate AlthOugh we "know" that television drama is scenes from 15 prilrie lime police shows'brolidcase in really fiction; its seeming realism combined with our March 1976 in which "serious questionss,could basic ignorance about maga. of the procedures,'. institutions, and raised about the propriety of the police action," types of peopleportrayed on Axons and Katsh argue that because television teleyision lowers our defenses. Attorneys, for example, have been debating for years the effects of Perry drama rarely shows 'the rights of innocent people - being infringed upon, the average viewer might not Mason and 'other,, shows featuring courtroom :procedure on jurors'percePtionsof howtrialsare recognize when his or her own rights are being:.' conducted and of the likely guilt or innocence of the violated :in real life. even greater concernto ArOns:. accused. ;Perry. Mason's client was always innocent and Katsh is the pcissility that illegal police activity and was ultimately rescued when the guilty party shown on the television screen 'maythroush confessed. How many jurorsexpect something don anbecause itis only the "bad gityswhose similar to happen in, the trials on whose juries they rights are Violatedactually ..become legally accept- sit? Joseph Oteri;VBoston lawyer and member of the able_ice procedure. in this nation.P' American Bar Agsociation's committee on television; s The aeceptabilify, of illegal police procedures'may has said that when he makes hiS summation to the also be enhanced by thj seeming realism of some jury he almost always rernindS them that real trials these programs. Barnouw de,seribes some of the re not like Perry Mason "We poor lawyers can't methods used to authenticate shOvis:'

Barnouw, The Spodsor, p. 164.. Ibid. 5 Gerbner and Gross. "Living With Television," p, 178, to Gerbner and Gross, "LivingaVith Television," p. 178. '11 .'Lawyers Called Misleading on TV,*'New York Times, Dec. 28, 1975, sec. 11 "Law Professors Fret About the Way TV Policemen Bend Lawi" 2, p;'27, , . . . . Broadcasting, June'6. 1977. p. 43. . 7'''Gerlmer and Gross, "Living WithTelevision," pp. 178-179., . ?, " Barniftiw, The Sponsor, p. 104... 12 Ibid.' 4 . Many of the action-adventure series dealwith significant differences in the degree ofcredulity crime, espionage, and war, often in. aquasi- among children; so $hat youngerchildren (grades 3 documentary fashion. Some criMe series are and 4) find televiSion morebelievable than, older. "based On" thefiles of this or that' police children (grades S and and children who watch department; its actual buildings and badges are television relatively heavily find it morebelievable shown, On some, "only the names are changed nocent." At the end of each than children who watch it relativelylightly.18. to protect the i real-life experi- program of The. FI31,. allegedlydramatising true' Greenberg and Reeves found that victories over crime, we are told the exact ence With paralleltelevisiOn content did. not dimithsh sentences meted .out to thecriminals, even the perceived reality oftelevision. "For example, 'thoUgfra Writer may have invented the case. The 'Jripbited frequency of experiencewith%lack people seal of the' FRI - is shown, and itsDirector Aere was significantlycorrelated. with, higher perceived thanked for his'Cooperation. In spy series characters,19 leading are references to various'cotintries, and. :W see reality" about black television their famous buildings. The air of authenticity is .the researchers to 'suggestthat' :early. learning from evewhere.13ry . televisibn may "supersede,as.:Nell asprecede ' estimates of the trueobjectS."20 Thus, blacks, first Television's Effect on Children experienced through television, maylater be per-. Barnouw claims that. -"disentangling factfrom ceived and responded to on thebasis of the child's fiction, may be almost impossible for. manyview- effect of a television knowledge.2' ers."14 If this is tine;for adults; what is the Extensive research has been conducted toexplore steady diet of"reagtie" television drama on young teleyision's preSumed effect on children, much; of it in children? Professors Bradley Greenbergand Byron. violenie andadvertising, irin a study the area .of' televised Reeves attempted to answer this question directed. toward children. Whilthe results of this they conducted in May 4973using. 201 eleMentary nevertheless suggest The students, research are controversial, they School students in grades 3 through 6. that the potential' effect oftelevisfon ori Children is who came from 'evariety of incomebackgrounds, substantial. were all white.15 Greenbergand R.eeves posed the In contras research has been done research question: on theeffe t on chilcOn of theportrayal of If the child perceiveS progranainforMation to minorities and 'women in televisiondrama, but the (be]realistic,tobesociallyireful,to -be available literature suggests thatteleVision's,portrar 'assimilated equitably with information from al of minorities and: womenmay also have an effect nontelevision sources,. then television mayblur major and play. on children. Theresults of some of the the child's. distinction between real research programs are summarizedbejow. The question is more likelyto. be how much is - misperceived, rather, than if it would wish.' . to know both the basis for thechild's acceptance Children of television stimuli asreal-tO-life- and the The Effect. of Televised VIMence on potential impact on the. child `s attitudesand The possiblecausal -relationship of televised lochaviors.1 . violence and subsequentaggressive activity in chil , dren -has: concerned social scientists;parentS, and Using a scale...of Ito -9 (9. representing maximum . telemision_ first be'camb Greenberg- and ReeVes fOtindthatthe critics of television ever since reality), popular. Of- particular concern'Was the', fear that' children perceive television Content, toberelatively television could teach childrenhoW,,tO:'!Undertake realistic. Oyerallreality .,.scoreswere:, . television . specific acts thatotherWise might never "occur. to families; 5.97; televisibnPolieemen',.'...6.0; specific Cousins offered Lament them. As early as 1949; Norman.\ . black characters (Link of Mod Selitad, Saturday Review c umn highly ::Sanford and Son,: and Mr. Dixonof Room . several examples in a critical oreelevision violence: ,' averaged7.27.,i -7 Greenberg. and Reeves found 13 Barnouw, The Sponsor: p.. 104. Rartiouw does notmention the practice, to lhid,, pp. 86-7, emphasis added. butthe most recent effort to enhaiacip.authentieity has beendabbed Alocu- 11 Ibid., p.90. inteutionallypeshed. as in drama:' in which fiction'and documentation are 1" Ihid.,table 2, p. 92. Washington: Behind Cloyed Doors, a television play 'based. uponJohn 19Ibid., p.90. F.hrlichman's novel, ° 'A, Ibid., p. 94. 1,Ibid. . Wadley S. Greenberg and Byron Reeves, "Childrenand the Perceived 21Ibid. Reality of Television." Journal of Social Issues, vol.3 (1976), p. 88. . Ina' Boston suburb,anine-year7-old boy the Surgeon General of the:14initedAttO at,' the reluctantly showed .his:. father a report card heavily decorated with red marks, then proposed urging of former Senator 'Sohn b. 114t( ire, then one way of setting at the heart of the matter: Chairman of the Senate Subcoriimittee'on conrinuni- they could gave the teacher a box of poisoned. Cations of the Senate Commeree Committee.21 chocolates for. Christmas. "It'seasy, Dad, they TheSurgeon General's -Report is 'basedon 23 did it on television laSt week. A man wantedto independent projects ranging in method from labora71.:, kill his wife, so he gave her candy with poison in. tory experiments in which children's reactions to it and she didn't know Who did it,' televised violence were documented to field-surveys In Brooklyn, New, York, a six-year-oldson of a in which children and their parents were interviewed, policeman asked hisfatherforrealbullets about their viewing behavior. The resulting papers because his little sister "doesn't die for real when appear in five separately published volumes accom-

I shoot her like they do when Hopalong CaSsidy panying the report.25 , kills 'em." The results of all these various studies led the Surgeon General's Advisory Committee to conclude, In Los Angeles, a housemaid caught_a seven- year-old boy in the act of sprinkling ground albeit tentatively, that a causal relationship appeared glass into' the family's lamb,stew. Therewas no to exist between televised violence and aggresSive- malice behind the act. It was purely experimeri- ness in Children who are predisposed to be aggres- tal, having been inspired by curiosity to learn sive: whether it would really work as wellas it did on television.22 Thus, thereisa convergence of thefairly I 0: , to e substantial-experimental-evidence -fershort-run----- behaviors that have imitated specifically identifiable causation of aggression among some children by viewing violence on the screen and the much less television scenes have appeared in the news'over the certain evidence from fieldistudies that extensive ensuing 30 years. A recent case in, point is therape of violence viewing precedes some krig,-runman a young girl by four Children who allegedly imitated ifestations of aggressive behavior. This conver- a rape in the television movieBorn Innocent.23 gence of the two types of evidence constitutes While researchers have been concerned about some preliminary indication of a causal relation- television's role in. specific acts of imitated violence ship, but a good deal of research remains to be such 'as these, more attention has been devoted to the done before one can have confidence in these conclusions.26 possibility that viewing excessive amounts of televised violence might result in an iricreased and '.This cautious conclusion was denounced by. many generalized propensity of children to behave aggres- of the scientists who conduCted the studies on whiCh sively. the :report had been based. Charging' thatthe The major research effnrt directed toward testing Advisoty. Committee had been "rigged to favor they this hypothesis was conducted under the auspices of teleOsion industry,"27 the scientists argued that their Norman, Cousins, The Time-TraP,7,Satu;day Review,. Dec. 24, 1949;'lp.' reformatory shower room, what was it?" "W.M4ies About TV Violen e 20. FI Persist: Suit Against NBC Raised Questions Jury Never Gm a Chance 2" "TV On .Trial for Inciting Real-Life Rape," Washington Post, July :11Z;;. Decide," Washington Post, Aug. 14, 1978, p. A2." ' . 1978, p. A3. In a suit against NBC brought by the victim and her pareittk`:.;24 The Surgeon General's SCientific Advisory Committee On Television an asking $11 million in damages, NBC argued .that 'there was evidenCe°9le Social Behavior, Television and GioWing:! The Impact of Televise suggest that the children had never seen theMovie; and, in any event; the.;:iViolence, report to the Surgeon General, United States Public Health program was protecied by the First Amendment. "NBC Wins. Round' in Serviee, Jan. 19, 1972, p. 21.' , Born Innocent' TV Violence CfiSC," Washington post Aug, 1978, p. 25. George A. Comstock and Eli A. RubinstekiT, -eds. 'Television and Social Superior Court Judge Robert L. Oossee held that to Win the against Behaviors vol. 1, Media Content and Conirol ;/,sfol, 2, Television and Social NBC the plaintiff would haVe toatove that NBC had intentionally inciW., Learning ; vol. 3, Television and Adolescent Aggtestheness ; vol. 4, Television, the plaintiff had-wanted to plead "civil accountability... .for in Day.to-Day Life:' Patterns of. Use.J; vol. 5; .Television's Effects: Further . foreseeable-results" of broidcasting the rape scene during the family.hour. Explorations, Technical Reports tothe :ptirgeon General'sScientific "Judge..Sets Stage for Dismissal of TV Violence Trial," Washington Post, Advisory Committee on Television and Social Behavior (Rockville, Md.: Aug. 8,1978. p. A6. Judge Dossee subsequently dismissed the case; National Institute of Mental Health, 1972). however.. the plaintiffs intend to appeal the ruling. "TV Violence Case aa Ibid., pp. '17 -18. . Dismissed," Washington Post, Aug. 9, 1978, p.A2: Although the case Wwas 27 "Violence Revisited," Newsweek, Mnr.'6,1972, p. 55. The networks had dismissed. a basic question remained: "Many Americans may be expected been given the opportunity to suggest that certain scientists were "inappra. to wonder what could have motivated [a 15-year-old girl] aided by two other priate" for the Advisory 'Committee: Seven. candidates whose Previous girls and a boy. ages 10 to 15, to pin downIthe victim], 9, on a sand dune research demonstrated causallinks between television violence and and rape her with a beer bottle. If it wasn't the 2-1/2-minu,ie scene in 'Born subsequent aggressive behavior in children were "vetoed" by the industry; Innocent' that graphically portrayed a girl, aided by three others using the however, five social scientists who worked for (or who had former': wooden handle of a plumber's plunger to rape the star, Linda Blair,,in . a connections with) the networks served on the I 2-person coMmittee. Ibid. . 47 , findings "did, in facts establish a clear Sand direct link over cllildren."36 Emphasizing thatin 1976 "advertis- between TV violence and youthful, antisocial behav, ers spent roughly one-half billion'dollars on adyertis- kir," and furthermore had been "softened" by the. ing directed to children,"37 the report suggeststhat if CoMmittee in its conclusion.28 Others have suggest- advertising were not effective, advertisers would not ed, however,thatthe language was "properly spend so lavishly on 4.39 cautious" nd "academic."29 Among the reasons offered forthe, success of Research on televised violence continues and advertising directed toward children is thatthey .are researchers still disagree,39 but there .has been fairly suggestible.39 Their gullibility; :even atrelatively. widespread agreement that television violence should advanced ages, is exemplified in: the following story be decreased. At Senate hearings held. after -'the.quoted from a book prepared by two adVertisers on Surgeon General's Report was released, allthree effective advertising directed at children: network presidents agreed that the report "warranted, both . seriouscOnsideration and appropriateac- tion."31 Vincent Wasilewski, president of the Nation- Perhaps the example for all times of how easyit al Association otBroadcasters, testified: "Even if the can be [tomanipulate children via television]. is "great majority of our, children are unaffected by the incident that took place on New Year'sday television violence, and even if only a small fraction of 1965. are negatively affected, we recognizethe 'need to determine how the negative effects can be alleviat- Soupy Sales,then: a popular children'S. :TV ed."2 At these same hearings Jesse Steinfeld, then entertainer with an early morning program for Siirgean_G en eral, testified' moppets, looked his -fans right intheeye_and_in a low.and conspiratorialYoiceasked: "Is Daddy The data on social phenomena stichas television asleep?' He is? Good!. Find his wallet and slip :and Viole,-ce and/or aggressive behavior .will of paper 'scientists to out some, of those funny green pieces never be clear .enciugh for all social with all those nice pictures of George Washing-, .agree on the formulation of, a succinct. statement Hariuh "' of causality. But there comes a time when the ton, Abraham Lincoln, and AleXander daia are sufficient to justify' action. That time ton, and send them along to your oldpal, Soupy, has come.33 care of WNEW, New York." The,EffecV of Television Adirertising on Children The next day; the, mail began to pour in. But' before Soupy Cbidd,retire to a life of wealth and A second area of concern about possible harmful', , ease afterthe :biggest heist since the Boston. effects of television1144been in the area of advertis-, Brink's robbery, the long arm of a humorless ing, particularly adyiertising directed to young chil- station management, descended on him and his dren. The effect of advertising on children` has been producer, suspending them both. summarized in a staff report, 'Television Athiertising to- Children,34prepared in conjunction with the Federal Trade Comrnission's (FTC) ;proposed rulemakingon Soupy's heist was, of course, an unexpected children's advertising.35 The staff report concludes result of what had been intended as a harmless -that "Television advertising exerts a strong influence gag.40

33.Ibid., p. 31. 2H Ibid. (1978) (hereafter Program FTC Staff Report on Television Advertising toChildren 't1+1 Eli A. Rulgtein, "Warning! The Surgeon ,General's ReSearch May Be Dangerous to.Preconceived Notions,"Journal of Social lisues, vol:.' ci 0as Television Advertising to Children). 35IL.S., Federal Trade,Conunission, Proposed Trade RegulationRulemak- 3/(1976), p. 25 d hi 'and 'Public, Hearing onChildren's Advertising,43 Fed. Reg..17,967 19 For exampleIn. a lengthy. review of television violence 'literature ,t;piiblipecI in 1976, 134bert M., Kaplan, of Sam Diego State' University and 78. : 7. Alober( D. Singer of the University of California at Riverside(Conclucied that 39Television Advertising to Children, p: 3TAlan Pearce. "Television Advertising and'Childreo:. An Assessment, of there is insufficient;evidence to demonStrate a cabsaf,relationship between Advertising" televiiion,Violence m d real-li(e.vfolence. "Television Violence and Viewer the IMpact on Network! Revenues :of Two. Reductions in (PaPer presented at ACT Symposium, No.:6. Cambridge, Mass., Nov. 20 Aggression: A Reexamination of the Evidehce,7Journal of Social Issues, vol. 23,4976), p. 17, (ooted inTelevisibn Advertising to Children,p. 80. 32 (1976). p. 63. 38 ibid. ;" Rubinstein. "Warning'p. 5 39 ibid; p. 82. 32. U.S.. Senate.Committee on Commerce. Subcommittee. on Commirnica- The Youth Market, It's Diminsions, . Surgeon General's Report by the Scientifie Advisory Committee on Helitzer and Carl Heyel, tiOns, (1970), pp. 21-22. quoted inTelevision Television and Social Behavior(1972), p. ;228. as quotedinRubinstein. Influence, and Opportunities for You pp. 81-82 (interpolation by FTC staff). "Warning."p. 29. Advertising to Children, Children are suggestible, especially when theyare users of artificial sweeteners, it has been suggested Very young,inpart because they believethe children are "taking up the slack."51 television characters ate rea1,4,1 are talking directly to them,42 and aretrustworthy:43 One advertising The Effect of the Portrayal of Minorities. and executive has argued: "on a rational level children Women on Children know these [various :advertising]' claims are not Television advertising appears to have a ,major literally true, but [they are effective because] the influence on. Chitdren's beliefs about the appropriate- commercials [succeed] in creating an aura about the neSS of various foods; their desire for them, and their brand that gives the brand a special and highly 'consumption of them. Research On violencein desirable significance." 44 television drama suggests thatit, too, has an effect on Most adVertisingdirectedatchildrenisfor children's behavior. Relatively little research has products such as sugar-coated cereals, candies, and been conducted on theeffects on children of other sweet snack foods;45 one study found that 96 television's. portrayal of minorities and women. percent of all food advertiSing on Saturday and , However; publiC interest groups representing minori- Sunday children's programs during the first 9 months ties and Women have. expressed concern about 'Of 1975 was for sweets.46 The FTCstaff report television's cultural impact on children. VOr example, demonstrates a relationship between this advertising, Gerald Wilkinson,. director of the National Indian.. and children's consumption of the advertisedpro Youth CounCil; has written that Indians heed greater ducts. The,research.the report cites shows that these input into television content because "Indian young advertisements are effective in that (a) children's people will act out not what their parents and requests for specific, brand-name cereals and snack grandparents say is. Indian, but what the subtleties of foods are frequently: WI not usually; honored by. their TV dictate to be Indian."52, Although research on parents; (b) very high proportiohs of children are ,effect of television on children's concepts of mindri- able to name specific (heavily advertised) brandsas ties and women is limited, it suggests, for example, their favorites;47 (c). When asked to, list acceptable that children's perception of the appropriateness of snacks, high proportions of children mentiOn, cook- certain occupations' for women and minorities may ies, candy' and ice cream, including specific 'be influenced by television53. and that the portrayal:. (heavily adVertiSed) products;45 (d) U.S. consump- of minorities in comic roles may .have a deleterious effect on children's attitudes.54 tion of snack .desserts has increased markedly since .? A 'related, research program ..on the television 1962, and significant! proportions of the purchases viewing -behavior of. blatk, Hispanic, and Anglo are 'made by childrei-49 (e) the per capita consump- children provides additional insight into, the nature tion of sugar has increased by 13 percent since of televiision"s impact on them. Dr.. Bradley S. 1960,-4-from 111 ° pofinds in 1960 to 126 pounds in Greenberg and Dr. Charles K. Atkin of .Michigan 1976 and is estimated to have been 128 pounds in State UniverSity haVe conducted a series of studies, '1971;5(4 (f) much of :this increasemay be .dispropor- the results of,. which are summarized in a paper tionately accounted for by children,. since the use of entitled "Learning About Minorities from Televi-. artificial sweeteners such as Saccharin has also sion" This summary contains selected results froth increased markedly since 1960. Presuming that use of their. most recent ..research program in whiCh 600 artificial sWeeteneis displaces a given quantity of students in the fourth; sixth, and 'eighth grades, ere sugar in the dietS of those using them,and presuming interviewed about television. The children, from. San that Children are', not heavily represented among the Jose, California, and Detroit, Michigan, consisted of

41 Wilbur Schramm, Jack. Edwin .B. Parker,:Television in the. Gives,. 90: p.105. of Our Children, (Palo Alto; Calif : Stanford University 1961), p. 77r. 5,1. Ibid., p. 108. . n eating to Children. p. 84 TimOnth); ,Feder, "NationallAMerican Media Training Projects -Fill b : . Communications Vacuum,"acicess52, line 1977, p. 4. -. . 44 William -Waii,a0Commanicating Witii.bildren,"Journal of Adi;ertising Jeffries-Poi and Signoriellifileviiions.and Children's-Conceptions of Research,vol. 5, no 2 (1965), p; 13, quoted .in'Television Advertising to Occupations;11p. 16-20, Lemon; ."Women and Blacks on Prime-Time Children,p. 62: r elevision," pp. 70-79. See alka, Melvin L De Fleur and Lois B.e Fleur, 45 Television Adverti,singlo Children,p. 58. ' ";TheRelative Contribution of Television as a Learning S mice for' 4" 'bid:: Children's Occupational Knowledge,"American Sociological Review,vol. 32 97. (1967), p: 789. . .04 Ibid. . Reeves and Lometti, "The Dimensional. Structure of Children's Percep- 99-100. tion of Television Characters: A Replication," pp. 1-13. 350 whites and 250 blacks. In addition, Greenberg In'idistlidj, of perceived reality of televised fiction, and Atkin also report research results from other both white and black children indicated fairly high ,'studies, some of which subdivided their respondents levels of acceptance of television fiction as beinglike by. income leve1.55_In one suit:1y, Hispanic ehildren "real life."61 In response to a variety of questions itie included in the sample. Using these studies as a about television portrayaland "real life," black ;v' `Oasis,--i Greenberg- and Atkin report several findings children's "yes" responses ranged from 22 to 60 regarding children's use of and reactions to televi- percent and those of white children ranged from 15 sior& percent to 52 percent.62 The statement receiving the di'eenberg and Atkin find that children, particu- highest proportion of "yes" answers from both black larly tow- income black children, devote a great deal and white children was, "The jobs men and women do on TV are like the jobs they ,do in real life."63 __.:of time to television." In one study of 9- to 10-year- olds, poor black children averaged 7 hours of High, proportions of both white and black children responded that "they .watch television to learn how television per day, poor white children averaged 6 different people behave, talk, dress, and look" hours per day, and middle-income white children whites, 38 percent; blacks, 50 percentand "to learn averaged 4 hours per day 57 In a study of teenage what police, doctors, secretaries, and nurses are viewing, middle-iiicome whites averaged .3 1/2 hours like"whites, 39 percent; blacks, 52 percent.64 of television per day, low- COme whites averaged 4 Although Greenberg and Atkin find that television 1/2 hours, and low-incorne.black teenagers devoted 6 serves a major socializing role for all children,the' hours to television.58 Oa itpldys inthelives of minority children, The greater number of hours that poor children par icu arly low-income minority children, appears devote to television is associated with an increased to be fairly large. In concluding their paper, they tendency on their part to believe in the reality of recommend that extensive, research on "television television. Greenberg and Atkin report data showing and the minority child" and the "impact of minority that all groups of children are impressionable and characters" on minority and nonminority children be substantial percentages of both minority and majori- conducted.65 , tychildren use television to inform themselves about 'real 'life, Lbw-income minority Children, however,. shown Somewhat greater tendency to accept televi- The Role of the Federal sionasrealthan. .domiddle-income, majority Communications .COmmission children.59 In one study contrasting the responses of The Federal Communications Commission is the 4-to7-year-Olds, low-income- Hispanic children,agency authorizedto regulatethe broadcasting showed a greater tendency than, middle-income indust6r, and to assure that programs serve the Anglo childrento: "public convenience, interest and necessity.66 though the FCC is empowered to Iplrescribe the nature of the, service to be rendered by each class of trust the nutritional eXpertise of cartoon charac- licensedstations, and eachstationwithin any ters (Fred Flintstone and Barney Rubble) who class,"67 itis precluded from issuing rules 'which endorsed a pre-sweetened cereal, were more shall interfere with the right of free speech by means likely to believe the implied claim that sugared cereal would make them big and strong, were of radio communication."" more likely to feel that these cereals were more The FCC is confronted with a very basic dilemma fun and healthful, and were more, influenced by with respect to television's effect .on children. On the thepersuasive arguments presented :inThe one hand, there is the widely acceptedbelief that . coinmercials." television has a profound effeet on children and that

Bradley S. Greenberg and Charles-K. Atkin, "Learning.About Minorities 63 'Ibid.Greenberg and Atkin repOrt that in addition tO the "ye"yes"choices, from Telei,isionThe Research Agenda" (Michigan StateUniversity, anfidditionlil 30 to 40 percent of the responded that they were "not

Department of Communication) Apri1:1978: . sum"' Greehberg and Atkin suggest that the "yes" answers may underesti- 56 Ibid., p. 9. mate their' egree of bIlief in the reality of television. 51 Ibid., pp.9-:10. 64' Ibid p. 15. 4 ,", Ibid. 65 Ibid.; p. 46. 59 Ibid., p. 13, 60:tbicl, 66 47 U.S.0 §307(a) (1970). .61 Ibid. 61 47 U.S.C. §303(b) (1970). 62 Ibid., p. 14. 47 U.S.G. X326(1970).

50 '1+4;i14.4 they deserve at least a modicum of protection. On the inherent wherever children are Concerned justified other hand, televisionprograms enjoy the protection undertaking the inquiry:, of the First Amendment andsection 326 of the CommUnications Act. Action for Children's Televi-. We recognize the impor ce and significance of sion .(ACT), a -well- organized group of parents and these pronouncemen [regardingtheFirst AmendMent and section 326] and the concepts other concerned citizens,. has petitioned the FCC to expressed in thein. It may be that, ultimately, we adopt rules designed, among other things, to elimi- willconcludethat :theySubstantiallYlimit nate television' advertising directed toward chil- otherwise appropriate Conunission action in this dren.69- Both the House and Senate subcommittees area Bilt it is also apparent that there are high. on communications have directedthe FCC to public interest considerations involed in the iise explore the pOsSibility of adopting rules to reduce the of television, perhaps the most powerful communications medium ever devised, in relation to a.: level of televised violence.70 Finally, this. Commission large and important segment of the. audience, has recommended that the FCC conduct an inqUirY the nation's children. The importance of this and proposed rulemaking on theportrayal of portion' of' the audience, and the character of minorities and women in television drama.71 material*:ieachingit,areparticularly great The second part of this chapter discusses the because its ideas and concepts are largely not FCC's responses to each'of these initiatives in light. of yet crystallized and are therefore open 4..'to suggestion, and also because its 'members do not the constraints placed upon it by the First Aniend- yet have: the experience and judgment always to ment and section 326. distinguish the real from the fa.nciful.73

' , The FCC investigated the issues in the .ACT The First. Amendment and Children's petition for 3 years. It held panel- discussions and Television heard oral argument,s (resulting ina. 1,252-page It was the speCial susceptibility, of children that led. transcript) and received over 100,000 letters from the FCC initially to inquire into the possibility of citizens and enough other filings to fill an additional making rules with respect to children's television 63 docket volumes:74.. programs. Responding to a petition for rulemaking When ;',the FCC issued its, resulting, report. and submitted by Action for Children's Television (ACT) policy statement, it reserved .a silable section for an in1970, the FCconducted an inquiry on the analysis, of the dilemma it.cOnfinnted in making ivies, feasibility of (1) e 'urinating commercial sponsorship on children's prOgrams and advertising 's discus- of children's tele ision; (2) proscribing performers. sionisinstructive,since; itreveals FCC's (host, talent, cha acters) from endorsing or even reasoning with regard to these issues. mentioning praducts, services, or stores on children's Firit, the FCC established that it had the right to programs (a practice known as "host-selling"); and "[MlOte Such rule,s and regulations arid prescribe (3) requiring. stations to broadcast a minimum of 14 such restrictions and conditions, not inconsistent hours per week of programs specifically designed for with the law, as may be necessary to carry out the children, during weekdays as well as weekends and provisions of this Act." 75 for children of various ages: preschool (ages 2 to 5), Second, it noted that the Supreme Court has primary. (ages 6 to. 9), and elementary (ages 10 'to determined that the First Amendment -does not

12).72 . preclude the FCC from interesting itself in program When critics' objected to the FCC's conducting an content: inquiry and rulemaking on Programming issues such as theseon the grounds that to do so would violate [T]he [Coinmunications] Aet does not restrict the Cominission merely to the supervision of the both the First .AmendMent and section 326 of the traffic. It puts upOn the Commission the burden Communications Act --the FCC acknowledged its of determming the compbsition of that traffic. limitations, but asserted that the public interest issues The facilities of radio are not large enough to

39 US., Federal Communications Commission, Notice of inquirr.vina 72- Children's Television Inquiry4.at 368. Notice of Proposed Rulernaking In. Re Children's Television, 28 F.C.C.2d- 73 Children1 Television Inquiry4 at 369-70.- : 368 (1971)(hereafter cited asChildren's Television Inquiry I) . 74 U.S.,Federal CoMmunications Commission, Children's Television 70H.R. Rep. No, 1139,93d Cong., .2d Sess. 15 (1974) and S: Rep. No: Programs Report and Policy Statement, 50 F.C.C. 2d I, 2 (1974), (hereafter . 1056.93d Cong.. 2d Sess. 10 (1974). citedas Children r Television Report) . 7 Window Dressing, p, 150. 75 47 U.S.C. $303(r) (1970). accommodate all who wish to use them. Meth- "balanced" or "well-rOunded" piogram seryice.81 - ods must be devised for choosing from among 1960 the FCC issued a statement of policy regarding the many, who apply... programming. The statement listed 14 "major ele ments usually necessary to meetthe public interest, If the criterion of "public interest" were limited needs and desires of the cominunity."82 Amongthe to [financial: and technical issues],how could the broadcasts, Commission choose between two applicants for 14 were eduCational programs, political the same facilities, each of whom is' financially public affairs programs, entertainment, service to and technically qualified to operate a station? e' minority groups, and programs for children. The FCC noted that the Supreme Court, inRed' The FCC also pointed out that in a more recent Lion, supported the principle thatthe. FCC could decision the Supreme Court reiterated the position recommend program categories. 'The Cortialso that the First Amendment does not prevent' the FCC supported the FCC's fairness doctrine, that broad: from "interesting itself in general program format casters have an affirmative obligation todevote, "a , and the kinds of programs broadcast by licensees."77 reasonable percentage" of broadcast time tocontra: While it has the.atithority to make rules in the area versial issues of public importance: "the Commission of program content, the FCC noted that its powers in ; is not .pOWerless to -insist that [broadcastei4.give this _regard are not Unlimited. Broadcasting has been adequate: .attention to public issueS."83 expressly Singled out by the. Supreme Court as a Not -only did the 'FCC' SupPort for its medium of communication that is protected by the programining categories from the Red Lion case, it First Amendment.78 also professed to. see a resolution ofthe' First Finally,'the. FCC reported that its method of Amendment dilemina in the. Court's discussion of the resolving the dilemma posed by its sespOnsibilityto First Amendment rights of viewersand listeners and makerulesregarding programming andFirst the responsibilities of broadcasters: Amendment protection of program content is to duties that broadcasters While the holding of the Red Lidn case was' assert a variety of positive limited to the fairness doctrine, the Court's must, fulfill-in serving the' publiainterest.78 The Pce; opinion has a.significance which reaches far noted that this approaCh had been approved by the beyond-"(he ,'category of progranuning dealing U.S. Court of Appeals for the District ofFolurnbii: with public issues. The Court reSolved theFirst stating . Amendment- issue in broadcasting by [I]n, 'applying the public interest standard to that lilt is the'rightofriewers at'd'listeners, progrannin&, the CoMmission walks, a tightrope not therig,ht of the,roadcastem- Which is betWeen saying too much and saying too little. paramount!' Id. at 390. It stated furtherthat In most cases it has resolved this. dilemma :by "[i[t is the right of. tile,. to receive suitable imposing only general affirmative. dutie.ie.g., to ; accessto social;; political,; esthetic, moral and strike a balance .between .various interests of the Other ideas and which is crucial

community, or to provide a reasonable amount of ;".. here.: That right may notconstitutionally be :time for the 'Presentation of programs devoted to abridged either by Congress or by the FCC.' Id. the discussion of public issues. The licensee has This language, in our judgment, clearly pointsto broad discretion in giving specific content' to a wide range ofprogramming responsibilities on these duties. ...Given its long-established au- the part of the broadcaster.84 thority to consider program -content, this ap: proach. probably "-minimizesthe dangers. of'-One of the responsibilities broadcasters must meet, censorship or pervasive superVision.88 the FCC asserted, is .its obligation to servechildren: The FCC then proVided a numberof exaniples of its [Blecause of their' immaturity and their special having applied the affirmatiVe duty approach: In needs, children, require programming designed Great Lakes Broadcasting Co.,the Commis-sion specifically for them. Accordingly, we expect , asSerted that broadcasters have a duty to provide a television broadcasters as trustees of a valuable m National Broadcasting Co.-v. United States, 319 U.S. 190, 215, 216-17 ai 3,F *C. Anti. Rep. 32, 34 (1929), rev'd on other grounds 37 F.2d 993, cert. 281 U.S: 706 (1930). See also FCC, "Report on PublicService' (1943 77 Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. F.C.C:,'395 US. 367, 3913(1969). - Responsibility of Broadeast.Licensees" (1946) pp. 12-13. 18 United States v. Paramount Pictures, inc., 334 U.S. 131, 166(1948). sz RepOrt and Statement of Policy Re: Commission En Banc Programming inquiry, 44 F.C.CC 2303, 2314'(1960). '' 7.8 Children's Television Report,. at 3. (1969). 8" Banzhaf v. F.C.C., 405 F:2d 1082, 1095 (D.C. Cif;1968), cert:denied sub 83 Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. F.C.C., 395 U.S. 367, 393 nom. Tobacco Institute v. F.C.C., 396 U.S. 842 (1969) (emphasis added). 84Children's Television Report, at 5. public resource to develop and present programs determining .,,vhether'self-regulation has been effec- which will serve the unique needs of the child tive, whether our present children's programming audience.85 and advertising policies are sufficient, and whether Following its line of reasoning, the FCC adopted additional actions by the Commission are necessary no specific rules with regard to children's teleVision: to ensure licensee compliance with our guidelines."80 and advertising. Instead,it adOpted a series of It would appear that the FCC does not rule out the expectatibns, or "affirmatiye duties," of broadcast-.possibility of making .rules on programming and ers. For example, ACT had called for a minimum'of advertising directed toward children. 14 hours of programming directed at children. The -FCC declined to set a minimum limit. Instead, the Violence, the Family Hour, and the First., FCC chided broadcasters who offered no childreh's Amendment programming, and it urged all bpadcasters "to make- Congre§s has expressed concern bout the possible a meaningful effort in this area."88. negative' effects of teleViied violen on children

The FCC also acknowledged and approved efforts.4 since the early 1950s and has held number .of : made within the broadcast industry to end practices hearings exploring the problem.91y 197kthe to which' -ACT had objected. One of these was "host- Suigeon General's Report on teleYised violence and its selling." In response to a change in the NAB code to effeCt.orit children had been around for 2 years. eliminate host-selling, the FCC stated: Neyeitheless, television movies 'like Born Innocent were still being :broadcast at early hours when large The Cornmission does notbelieve that:the use Of. numbers of thildren were likely. to be watching. a program host, or other program personality, to Emotions . were high and pressure fOr change was promote products in the ,program in. which he appears is a practice which is consistent .withIincreasing. James E. Duffy, president of the ABC tele.vision network, reflected some of the concern in a., . :licensees' obligation to. operate in the pdblic interest. One effect of "host-selling IS.to 1,.speech inadeon Oetober 23, 1974: interweave the program.. and the commercial, exacerbating the difficulty children have [T]he race for audience ratingsjbi4,i often' blind.§. guishing : between the 'two. In Addition';;Ahe us to our basic responsibilities. And iriieiVing practice allows adyertisers to take unfair. adVan-. ourselves, We often de great L.disserVice. to our, tage of the trust which children place in program', viewers....Yes, prOgrath. characterS.87 cent" should be'shown. But, no, it should-not be shown at such an early hour..:when .children The Commission concluded: itsproceeding by More often than not Control the dia1.82 exhorting broadcasters to place children first and profits second and by announcing that it ,planned to: Senate and HQUse committees on a number of teyaluate broadcaster§ responses to the policy state- occasions had requested the FCC to initiate rulemak- ., ,: inent future.88 ing proceedings on the issue of violence and sex on The :FCC recently issued a second notice of television, but the Commission had failed to do so. In inquiry on children's programMing and adyertising May 1974'fortner FCC 'Cliairinan Richard E: Wiley practices89 in which it requests information on a wide wrote a letter. to then Senator= John` O. .Pastore variety of issues regarding the quantity and sched- requesting that any proceeding of the FCC be uling of children's programs and the degree and delayed .until a National Institute of Mental Health nature of coininercialization associated with them. study of television violenceHnit then getting under The information is expected to assist the FCC "in way--.--could reacli'a meaningful stage:7)3 " Id. Brody There4 by the SUrgeon Genetal: 9ist Cong., 1st Sess ser. 91, pt: '6 mo Id. at 6. (1969); Committee on the Judiciary, Subcciminittee to Investigate Juvenile ' Id. at 19. Delinquency, Hearings for the Investigation of Juyenile Delinqueny in the " Id. at 19, United States, 88th Cong., 2d Sess.,pt. :16, (1964); Hearings for the U.S., FederaliCommunieations Commission, Second Notice of Inquiry, in Investigation of Juvenile Delinquency in'the United states, 87th Cong., 1st & the Mattei- of-Children's Programming and Advertising Practices, .Docket 2d.. Sess. . Pt.10. (196142); 'Hearings for the Investigation of Juvenile No. 19142. Aug. 16:1978. Delinquency in the United States, 84th Cong., 1st Sess. (1955) and 83d Cong., 90Id. at 11-12. 2d Sess. (1954). . ", See e.g.,U.S. Senate,. Committee on 'commerce, Subcommittee on 92 This quotation is taken verbatim from a United States district court case. Communications. Hearing on Violerice:'pn Television 93d Cong., 2d Sess, Writer's Guild pf America, West, Inc. v. F.C.C., 423 F. Supp; 1064, 1095 (1974); Hearings in Review of Policy Ratters federal Communication; (13 d917b6i)..NBC, not ABC, broadcast Born Innocent. Commission'and Inquiry into Crime and.Violericean Television and a Proposed Soon after, Chairman Wiley deterinined that "the heads and reOesentatiyos hf the National Associa- time isnot ,itaw,"` both the House and Senate non:. of Broadcasters (NAB) to discuss possible appropriations committees, not prepared!Jo wait,.' solutions. His strategy included a good deal of :instructed the FCC to take action by the end Of. the public jawiioning.199 '.:year.94.The actiOlt. the FCC:took resulted in the The jawboning, accordingtothecourt, was "Family Viewing HOur."99 As the circumstances "deSigned to bring CoMmission pressure to bear on ,z)the Illinois Broad' under Which the fainily hour was adopted appeared the iotistry.,,,o1- In a speech,. .questiOnable and becauSe it was concerned; among casters Association, for example, Chairinan Wiley othef things, about possible' Violatiori of the First discussed "the question, of violence and obscenity on:: Amendment, the Writers' 'Giulia' 4]..,Onerica, West, .2"Vlevisionparticularly as . to theeffect .:of, such :doninnission.99 presentations on our children."102 He suggested sued the Federal COmMunications , The central issue raised in this,case is to What extent rather 'directly that if broadcasters wire not' prepared ,a.nd by what Means the FCC'is authorized to' take to fake action in the form of!`intelligentscheduling, action that results in a reduction of violence in appropriate warnings, and, °Perhaps, even kind television progfams-that children are likely to watch. of industry-administered rating.prograin,mthe Fqc The issue is directly applicable:to one of the concerns would have to take action: "[IJf self-regulation does raised in this reportto what exient and by what not Work, governmental action;to protect the public means is the FCC:anthOrized to take' action' that may be required -=whether you like it or whethetl j. results in, an increase in the numbers Of minorities like 4.1'103 :.and women in television drama and greater diversity The court determined that Chairman ,.Wiley's in the manner they are portrayed A ispeeches,` and other, ipublic. cominentsl threatening detailed review of the,case will sheds light 'on this .itgtilatory action194 coniliined.With his meetings with ; network executives and NAB representatives consti- issue.. ° - tuted sufficient pressure to cause the networksand' .11eospecifiC instruction that was delivered to the . FCC by COngress was "to submit a rePOrt to the the.NAB to adopt the familycviewing hour: , COmMittee outlining specific positive,:actions taken The court fuids that ChairMan Wiley in the or planned by the. Continission to, protectchildren course of.his campaign threatened the industry from excessive programming of violence4nd ObScen- with;.regulatory action if =at did not adoptthe . ity."97 Chairman Wiley Is reported to have been essence of his schedUling propOsals: On some reluctant to` nstitute formal inquiry and rulemaking occasions, when thepersuasive demands of The proceedings because of "a deep belief that constitu7 situation so dictated;,..,he. would withdraw his appal, statutory: and .piudentialcOnsideratiOnS die threntS;Or a;)Ov/,.:..prOfile. 'But the COrinitission's: pressure 'in this Case' was pergia-;' r. tated that government had no proper role to tent, proNunCed,and unmistakable. ChairMan Chaintian ;Wiley assigned staff to detetrinne;`%,*:' Wiley's actions were the . direct cause.of, the `Commission can set about to comply with the; implementation of the family . viewing HOuse Committee's request,"99 butSies court found were it not for the preSstire heexerted;,it wouldy that he proceeded to, folloW an independent strategy haVe been adopted by any of the networks'' that included 'Meeting privately with the network nor by the NAB. The: threat Of:regulatory action

94 H.R.Rep. No. 1139, 93d Cong.;.2C1 Sess. 15 (1974) and S. Rep. No. approved by the NAB television board., of directors. The court added .1056:93d Cong., 2d Sess. 10 (1974). emphasis to those portions' of Wiley's speech to WhiCh it wished to call 95. The "Family Viewing Hour," a time period ending at 9 p.m. in the attention:.;f: Eastern, Pacific. and Mountain timesones and at 8 p.m..in the CentraTtime A eturiber 'of .interested Citizens and some members of Congress zone, is a time when programs suitable for the entire family are aired. contend that the problem. of violence on television is so seriOus as to warrant' some remedial'. action by the ederal COmmunicatioris " 413. F. SupP. 1064 (1976), . 91- Writers Guild of 'America', Wen,. Inc: v: Ff.C.C., 423 F. Stipp. 1064, 1095 Commission. While I understand and share such concern, I cannot (1976) (hereafter cited as Writer's Guild) agree that specific governmental regulation in this highly sensitive First.Amendment area.wmild be desirable at the present time. Instead,, 98' Id. at 1096. ; my view has been that 'the FCC in the dischargeOf its pubic interest 9VId. responsibditie..i and consistent with its authority underAtifeConmiuni- 199id.at 1007798. 'cations Actcan play a constrfictiVe role at this point by focusing ,o,Id.at 1098. increased industry attention on the issue and by encouraging the: 192Id. to Id consideration of self-regulatory reforms. [emphasis added] t" The court opinionave several examples, including Chairman Wiley's Recent, events make it appear *that our initiative has been successful and that the ,broadcast industry intends to-regulate itself in order to ,'speechto the Radio and..a Television ComMission of the Southern Baptist Convention' oil' Feb: 13, 197,5i in which 'he threatened Federal regulation if obviate the 'need or demand Pr governinental action in this area. ..the farnily:hoUr principle recently adopted by the networks, was not [emphasis added] Id. at 1117-18. ' . . , 54 was not only.,a substantial factor leadingg, to its The court found in Writirs.Guild thatate had adoption but a crucial, necessary, and indispens- violated the Administrative Procedures, ct: able cause:195 Here, ironically, the 'gOvernment and the net- The court fotindthat:sillspressure ..ConititUted works, both acting as public thistees, negotiated "informal coercion " aid' "lawless conduct" in viola- public, policy while refusing to ocomply. with ., procedural safeguards designed to protect the tion of the. FirstAmendment.106 e 'publiO:they serve. If this process i5-..wnsidered Signficatitly, the court also determined that the acceptable administrative procedtkei the. At's FCC had failed. to follow proper procedures such 'as provisions 'will become meaningless. The gov- issuing a formal noticeof proposed rulemaking."7-In ',ernment could sit down at a tal4 with; the e such a proceeding, all interested parties, including regulated indttstry, negotiate policy, delegate to parents and other concerned citizens/would have the induStry the power to enforce the policy, been able to partiCipate In the informal proceeding Aouth empty words of congratulation about self-regulation, issue cynical denials of govern- initiated by Chairman Wiley, however, the court ment responsibility, and avoid the Act entirely. ffOUnd that everyone but the network heads and the Such procedures would permit government and NAB was excluded.: industrytosealoutthe.,2publicfrorn,the decisionmaking process and to frustrate jicial , scrutiny.110 :On NoVember. 29, 1974,- former Commissioner Nicholas Johnson wrote in ',his capacity as In sum, the FCC sought to Amid whatirlsa has Chairman of the National Citizens' Committee',posible violation off theFirst Amendrittby for Broadcasting. to Chairman. Wiley: He aSked axing the industry 4O, adopt a policy tha might that the,Chairrhan "afford the' National Citizens violent -,Committee for 'Broadcasting or other tepregdrii;;', ell) to alleviate the effect on children tatives 'of the ;public the to observe any *vision programs. Not only did its COng result ;further negotiations between the Commission in a violatiOn of the First Amendment, but,in'itself,- and theleldvkdon networks with respect to so- itconstituted a viOlation of the Administrative ,called `Sex,and violence' in programming.': The PrOcedures Act. In the end; the 'FCC might haVe Chairinaifs r4esPonse was` straightforvwd. He done better to have Complied with Congress' original wrote: "I do not:believe:that any useful purpose request, ,01at's is, "to 4etqiiiine what its powers were would be served by Opining these :MeetingS to in the area.4 progiam .5 .7q it outside groups stich.as your: own. "': The Chair-. . , man prefdrred closed door negotiating sessions The Portrayal of Minorities and Women on with selected industry leaders,e 'Sessions, which Teleidslon and the First Amendment excluded the creative Cornmtmity;',the indepen- earlier repOrt, dent teleVision stations, representatives of public This ChiniaiSsig proposed in its interest, groups, and the public*large..108 Window bre.ssing,on the Set: Womeh and Minorities in TelOision, that the FCC conduct an inquiry. and,' , Congress .enacted the Administrative Procedures, proPOSed iulemaking on the portrayal of minorities

, Act "to settle,: and regulate ,the field of Federal and wornen;iti television, drama: In supporting,,this administrative .law and procedure" and thereby set recommendation,. this Commission relied on data forth "legal Odes" summarizing " minimum baSit:.:obtained from the Annenberg. School of Conununi- essentials" rquited of. Federal 'agencies.19s, The;catiOns of the' University of Pennsylvania.- These

procedures for forMulating a new public poli4,'! data,' 'derived content analyses of .11week include the publication of a notice of proposed sampleS of p e timeonunercial 4etevision drama: rulemaking in the Federal Register and affording all broadcast dtiring theyears 1969 through' 1974, interested perSons the opportunity tO submit written:,showed,;_continuing ecluSion, underrepresentation, comments; When rules areeventually issued, the a_fictissfOled ing Of wMen and Minorities.112 Win- agency ;must a policy statement providing the cleiPresSiO 'ali-OirePoTted that, While the impact of basis for the !tiles. AlieSe' portrayals had not yet been esObliSliet4-the--' .105 Id at 1094. ii);writerf:"9u, 4 at 1152. 1°6. Id at 1 149. fd. at 1117, footnote omitted. 101 Id at 1 15 1. u .Window Dr sing, pp. 27-43.

i" at I 101. . tot) 51 Rep. No 75, 79th Cong. 1st:Sess. he procedures are 4 . sei.forili in.5 U.S.C. 053. studies,that had thus far been conducted raised many /From the standpoint of dispasSionate logic, difficult questions regarding potential effects': that there exists no basis to distinguish our examination of the status of children and television deserved further research.113 programming (and subsequent spleen Venting)- -This CoMmission also reviewed the FCC's role ;in from the similar review of the status of women regulating programming in the public interest. FCC and television program's. The parallelism; like it': programming policy, as it has developed throughout or not, is unavoidable.120 the years, is that programming. be well-balanced? The United States court of appeals, in a subse diversified, and fair.114 This Commission did not find quent review of the FCC's decision to renew' that television programming is well-balanced, diver- TV's license, drew on Commissioner Hooks' sugges- ; sified, Of fairinits :::portrayal women and tion, by observing that NOW's "evanceC. about -.. Iiileed, it found theopposite.115 the way television portrays women e regarded as , to comments prepared priOr to ?the publication of endeMic of television institutionally" and might more Window Dresiini, the FCC agreed ticat "that the lack appropriately be considered in "an overallin- Of adequate rOle. Models may have an adverse effect quiry.. .on this .subject."The court agreed that "an on: and women,"116 but expressed skepti7 industry-wide problem may, be more,; appropriately cisM regarding any role the FCC might, play with aired and an industry -wide: remedy formulated in a respect to the portrayal of minorities, and ,Women general iuiry, such as a nlemaking.'"121 Although the co did not order the .FCC .to condUCI such a television.drania. Its basic position was that the First - ,. Amendment and section 326 of the Communications proceed' g, it clearly suggested that such an under- AO precluded the'FCC, from takuig any action.117 takingwas within' FCC authority: "The- decision ReCent court: decisions 'suggest, hoWever, that the whether to institute industry-wide studies, such as the FCC's initial negative- reaction to undertaking an Coinmission's wide-ranging inquiry into children's programming and advertising practices; still. rests inairy and proposed rulemaking may haye reflected largely in the discretion of the Conunission.7 122 -- an overly narrow interpretation of its authority. In Writers Guil4 the United States"districf court.. The idea of a ruleniaking proceeding regarding the ruled that the FCC :violated the First Amendiment.. -: 'portrayal of women Was first: raised by former FCC when it pressured broadcasters to adopt the famity .; .COmillfssioner;: Benjamin HOoks inhisseparate hour as a means of reducing the effect of televisiOn statement in. National Broadcasting Co., Inc:; the, case Violence, on childre123!Significantly, however, the

inwhich the National Organization for %Omen court refused to 1 that the FCC would have. : charged, among., other, ;things,that WRCTV, a violated the Fir? endnient had itproperly, televiSfon station. by NBC, was broadcasting prepared and issued a notice of proposed rulemaking programs .thar stereotyped women 118 CoMMissioner on the subject: Hooks noted: that he was "[k]eerily 'ivy 4i0- ',of our ..liniitations with respect to qualitative review, of .11, may be for example, that a record could be,::, .cOmpiledtiat would clemonstratethat 'partitular ProiMmining," but he asserted that the FCC had types of programming are so demonstrably "nonetheless bridged, the gap when it comes to. injurious to the public health that their entitle- demanding ,that programming be responsive to the ment to First Amendment protection in the , needs ONdentiflable, interest groups."119 Drawing a broadcasting medium .could properly. be ques- parallel ;With the 'recently. completedChildreffs*... tioned. It may be that the, rights of children to diversity of programming have been:so severely. Television._ Inquiry, Coinniissioner 'Hooks Urged e : ignored by broadcasters that affirMative reciiiire- t similar pr'Oceeding Aregarding the portrayal of %un-., 'ments ,that broadcasterS,meet. their needs in the When children most frequently ;,watch .- uaIbid:, Pp.:43747. n7 !bid, pon.,, 114 Great 1,akepBroadcasting Co, 3 Ann, Rep. 34(1929); rev'don ''52 F.C.C. 2d in.: ; other groillids, 37 F.2d 993, (930) cert. dismissed 281 U.S. 706 (1930). See also 119 /4 at 298,.,,:.1 I En Banc Programming Inquiry, 44 F.C.C. 2303, 2314 (1960) and Editonalig ing by. Broadcliat Licensees, 13 F.:C.C. 1246, 1249 (1949). ni National Organization for Women v. F.C.C., 555 F. 2d 1002,1011 115 Window pressing, p. 148: ' , . "I Wallace E,Johnson, Chief, Broadcast ,Bureau, letter to John A. Buggs, footnote oteotedtted. -r!' (9711222cif; . Staff Director, U.S. Commis ion on Civil/tights:May 16, 1977. This letter appears in iiiinIdow Dressing; pp. 17241.' 123 423 F. supp. 1094. 56; television could,be constitutionally .supported in . Before a method or methods may be found to a properly prepared administrative reccird.124 encourage greater divqrsity, it is necessary to determine the cause orl'eauses for lack of diversity. To Further, the court held that unlesS the FCC what extent; for exaMple, does lack of diversity result "enacts valid regulatiOns giving fair notice to licensees from the failure of the networks to employ significant of ikliat is:expected, the. Commission has no authority numbers of minorities and in pOlicymalcing to use the licensing process to control the depietion positions? Data presented in the previous, chapter, of. violence 'or the piesentation of adult material show that very few Minorities and women' are television."125 employed aS offidials and managers at the headquar- If the -:FCC could .properly issue a notice of ters of the network-osVned. stations.129 Data are prOposed ruleinaking ''ontheissue, oftelevised unavailable regarding the pr6ence of minorities and violence,-aS the court suggests in Writers; &aid, or on 'women in specific 'network departments such as the portrayal of women, as','the court observed in programming, broadcast standards, and, with the N.O.W. v. FCC., then it should be able to do so with exception of CBS, the news. It does not appear to be respect to the portrayal cif minorities and Women; as a violation of the First Amendment for the FCC to recommended in Window Dressihg. inquire about the employment status of minorities The issue then becomes. what rules the FCC might and women at the networks. develop and what kind of leadership 1 'ght exercise In comments' prepared in response to an earlier that would be helpful, insofar as theortrayal of draft of this report; the FCC reiterated its position Minorities and Viometyare concerned that would not that it could play no constitutionally acceptable role Violate the FirSi Aziiendment., One of this Ceniirrii.:: Mdeveloping rules in this area siOn's .concerns regarding the portrayal of women and minorities can best be expressed by the term [W]e continue to believe, as earlier stated in our responsetothe first CCR 'report,that the NaCIC of diVeritY." FOr example, abOut half.of all Commission, for constitutional as well as practi- minority charactersprimarily blacks_. appearing in cal reasons, cannot allow itself to be drawn into prime time television drama are seen in four or five the role of overseeing the content of entertain programs. Television series come and go, but it can 'merit prosramq,, judging role models,inr other- be safely, predicted that about half of all minorities wise improperly intruding into t.helpregranuning appearin:,:n prime time television (hiring a given judgments obits television licensees:130

. . 'week over the past .3 years will have been een in' . Itan unwarranted conclusion that this CommiS- ...such 'shows as Good Times;-.Chico and.,..the. Man; sion urges the FCC,..,tO2'linVolver itself';directly. lit What's. Happening; Sanfprd and prograniniing decisions. it: seems entirely!appropn °` Back; TheJeffersons,All . ate, hciitever, for the FCC to investigate such factors, situation. coinedies.126 In general, minority Charae- as ihe number of Minorities. and women who are ter§ are .disproportionately portrayed. in comic :roles:::,employed in program decisionmalcing poSitions at

. . - and as teenagefs.127 . the networks and whether they play a role in Deitinsfrable, lack-Of diversity as thisAOuld program purchase aridin. deciding how minorities: not occiir:.'Ways must be:fotindto encourage greater and women will,b`pokraY41 on .those programs: In 'diversity: Becauseit :is 'one orithe-FCC's responsibili-: R. making stck` an2;inqiiiry; the 'FCC would not be ties to "generally ''encourage the larger and mbik,overseeing. the:, content :.:oft.;:netvitork!, entertainment. effective use of radioland television] in the public program `1,1iAlikt.';jeafh; however, the degree to . . interest,7129. itis incumbent On,.the .FCC to find which minorities and women play a role in determin way- ing the 'content-of entertainment programs: Sonaeone

124Id. at 1149 In a.footnotelo this statement, the court cites the Children's 127 See' chapters I and 2 for discussions Of the portrayal, of minorities in Television Reportand Policy Statement. 50 F.C.C. 2d 1, 8 (1974) and states, comic roles. One indication of the fact that the family viewing policy is in, large : 12847 US.C. §303W. pOrt a public relations gimmick is that its operation is 'confined to the early evening hburS: despite the fact that children "form a substantial 129 Chap. 4 above. . segment or the audience on Weekly afternoons and early eVeningsas,7' 13'? Wallace E. Johnson, Chief, Broadcast Bureau, Federal Conununications* well as on weekends. " [emphasis added by the court]id . Commission, letter to Louis Nunez, Acting Staff Director, U.S. Commission.' :12"; .Id. [emphasis §ddid]. on EiVil Rights, July 19. 1978 (hereafter cited as FCC Comments) . (The'; Katrina,yriko]) Simmons et al.: "TheDemography ofTelevision castle Report No.(Michigan 2 State University, Department of Comrnuni- entire letter from theFCC appears in apperIdix Lcations!15.77). 0, . isdetermining program content; the questionis will result in the acquisition ofprogramsfrom a Whether minorities and .women have an .`equal wider.; variety,; of sources. One *vision that would opportunity, to do so. This Comrnission joins the. 'helptoincrease:. pfogram diversity' would be a FCC in opposing intrusion into areas tliat would stipulation that- production companies from which breach &First Amendment rights. This Commission the networks acqtiire programs::;einploy minorities believes that the employment of minorities and and women in policymakilig:-Ptisitions. Programs women by broadcasters is one of the ways by which, acquired from productiiii(-,cOpAiies owned by the FCC can safeguard the, public interest without :and/or employing minorities andOmen in decision- such intrusion:, Making positions would allow fof,decidedly more Current*); the FCC is conductingan inquiry into diverse n minorities and woMenin televi; the effect on thelicensee's ;abilityto broadcast . ,sion drama.,;' , programs in the public interest Of a concentration of An inquiry into both the.ernployment policieS and program decisionmaking power at the network level: patternsl of bOth .the networks and the production companies, together withnn inquiry into the role that. While it is certainly not, our intention to adopt any regulatory measures which would impair '..the minorities and women playjn the various facets of' ability of the networks to serve the public program production and acquisition, would help- the interest, we must assure ourselveSthatthe FCC to discO,ver causes leading to lack Of diversity netwOrks are not engaging in ..practices which and..aid it in the formulation, of possible rules to might unduly ,entroach.on, the discretion of our encourage greater diversity. licenseesi- or unnecessarily .restrict the development of new soutc4' of television program-.. , If in the ...end, the FCC determines that it is not . : within. itsAllter to set SPecific.rules -in'this area the ming,131 : ; : FCC.. may s( act to provide leadership in encqurag- AlTIOOgthe 'issues the FCC is investigating is the ing greater diyersity in the portrayal of women and nature of network relations with program suppliers. minorities, As the court observed in Writers Guild, it For example, the FCC wishes to !mow what interests is within the power of the FCC to "offer suggestions the networks have in syndicated prograMs prOduced when it believeskit has information or ideaswhich by independent suppliers,332 whether the networks broadcasters may wish to consider in making their have an anticompetitive edge Over:potential C-tiniptti- independent determinations as to what will andswill tors when:they produce the programs they supply to', ..note. be in 'conformance with the .public interest:"135 affiliateS; and whether such' anticompetitive edge The plaintiffs in Writers GUild argued that "govern- ,WoUld limit:the supply of independently produced:. .t suggestions" violate the Pirst amendment, but- progranis413i::':\ \ .:0.:. '7. -.''''s2 the court completely rejected this argument: : .Thi Commission wonders tO WI;at' eXtent. the lack of competition in the **sUpply- Of programs to the networks unfairly limits opportunities for production If the plaintiffs' position were orrect, a licensee

companies- .`.headed by .Or employing =substantial which heard a good idea from a sovernmental numbers.'of minorities and women. Lack of competi- source could not adoptitevenif,inits tion could;,contribute to -alack of diversity in independent judgment, the programming suggestion was :worthwhile. short,licensee "Iirgramming because the networks tend to purchase discretion to developits own .programining -4much their, programming :from a relatively few would be narrowedif government'. sources production companies; for example, 6 companies endorsed it. The :FCC in section . 326:. Of the produced 36:of 59: series sold tothe networks for the ..-,'CO,iiirritiMcati6nS,Act is specifically prohibited fall :1978 season from interferinw ivitblicensee discretionin

As a resUlt of its 'network inquiry, the FCC may programnung., ft:.certainly would be a novel determiie that procedures shonld be adopted that idevelOpnienti.if --the government could qichieve

: 1,:..U.S.iE-CdepriCorrimunications Commission, Notice of Inquiry in the. 534 ..Costs are Climbing, Line-ups areChanging,'.Broadtastinb .SepP.', ty6,ttei.of COMMercial Television NetwOrIc..PracticeS and the Ability of 1978,p. .22. These companies are` OriVersal,9: Tandem/TAT,6; ,...,Stationl.Li'eeiiseis. ii;;Serve the 'Public interest, Docket No. 21049, Jan., 14. ParrimoUnt, 6; Spelling-Goldbeig/Spellirigramer, 6; Lorimar, 5; MTM,4. .,. y,..,.i.,..! . 1977,:117,,;.',,,,,..; ..;.' . . Only dramatic and variety series are included* these figures; excludml are

A.137, El., §2..i sports, news and public affairs, and movies.. iri lb( ,,u1..,,.. "5Writers Guilept 1150:

:., ',:f,:::,-,'-'::: '..,'',,'. ,_,,,.., 58'- the deSired results by endorsing programming makers regarding theoles they play in encouraging-, ideaS rather than prohibiting them.13° diversity in the portrayal of minorities and women. Itis within , theFCC(authority, therefOre, to The inquiry should be designed` .to determine the conduct a thorough. inquiry into the causes of lack of apparent causes for lack of diversity in the portrayal diversity in the portrayal of minorities and women of women and minorities. It might also reSultin the and into the effect. that lack of diversity may have on formulation of possible rules that would encourage viewers,- especially young viewers. The inquiry should greater diversity, If, after this inquiry, no rules can be be comparable in scope to the Children's program- devised, the FCC can.nevertheiess provide leadership ming Inquiry and the NetWork InqiiirY:' If-Should by issuing a memorandum of opinion setting forth its include presentations by authorities on the eirect of recommendations137 for actions' that broadcasterS television on viewers; it should have the authority to might independently taketo increase diversity in the collect data on the employment policies and practic- portraYa4of norities and women, isthe es of the networks and the, production companies. It considered judent of this ComMission Oat the that supply prOgrams to the networks; finally,it should have the :authority to take testimony froM FCC can find a way to encourage greater.-diYersity various netwOrk and production company decision- the portrayal of minoritiesand Women on television.

!3" Id at 1135., 137 Writers Guild at 1135and 1150. Findings and Recommendations

ti The Commission's first report on minorities and suffered. For example, minorities are disproportion- women n television,Window Dressing on the- Set, ately seen, as teenagets,,and in comic roles despite docuMented the stereotyping of minelyitY 'MaleS and decreases in ,:these kinds of iportrayals for other the serious underycpresentation and stereotyping of characters. AltliOngh, the number 7Of minority male women (both majority and Minority), in prime time correspondent appearances in the .J 977 sample of 15' drama; for years 1969; through 1974. network news broadcasts has sigriitiauily increased This COMmiftsionaisQ, analyzed network news since 1975, the number of minority female correspon-:- -broadcast in1975and concluded w$ en and dent appearances, has deervad. significantly from minorities' neither:make, nor report the news with -very few to none;. news about Minorities and frequency. Finallyi- it :reported, that the decisionniak:.. women has' .decreaSed Fihally,the ing positions at 40 local AeleVision:StatiOns, including emPlOymentista.tus of minorities and women ' allthese: oWned, by.. thethree: ritwOrkS television'Stations did.riiitimprove in -1917: Although overwhelmingly filled by white rriales it 1975. the percentages of women and minorities who are Because of televyon's profound influenceand the officials and managers at local stations are very low '

need for immediate4emedial action, the CommisSion when compared to.the percentage 'of white males placed high priority on initiating to compreke who are officialsand managers,..tbe0'are significant-, reassessment of tbose, issues discussed. inWin ow, IY :naore's:ininoritieS and' women .` tit official; arid',. Dresiing.In so doing, the- Commission has used the -manager. position's at the' 'stations owned bYilie Most recentlyavailable data to ;, determinethe networks(than at their headquarters. frequency and character of the portrayal, of women In light Of the persistent shortcomings highlighted and Minorities in prinie'time.televisiondrama in 1975 earlier and reconfirmed' in this updat$ the. Commis through1977. Concohntandy, netWOrk news was skin, presents its findings' and reasserts and see.ks analyzed to learn whether there had been greater implementation of reCiintmenclatiCms originally preL;i: :inclusion of minorities and,;,wOMen as newsmakers ser4d.:this ieport!Spredecessor,-Window Dressing and correspondentsin1.977. The number and otith'el Set: Women irettlfinoritie.s in Television. proportion of minorities .and women employed as officialS -and, :,Managersatthe major television Findings stations, allof those';''owned, by the Stereobjped P9rayals TeieViiton (,.networks).'for 1977 were, 'analyzed ti;-learn whether ' m '.:.;they had significantly increased over Previous years. 1..Television dramh continues in its failUre to reflect

,Pinally, the proportions of women ,and minorities the 'ander and -racial /ethnic :7 coMpeAtion employed at network headquarters were compared American Oniiiiption:, With those employed at, the stations owned hy each of White 'Males continue CO/ overrepresented, the,networks., constituting62.7 peie'ent Characterg in the :3- In geriOak,-,:t,he findingsindiTte;fi'rst," that the year 1975-77 ompareto 39.9 percent of the portrayal of *Omen and minOr ies in prime time, .U.S. population,. television drama did not improve in the years 1975;: 0 White feinale'cliara ters continue to be underre- through 1977; and in , some ways their portraYal presented,, constituting 2.4.1 percent of all characters

A o,newcek sample of televisiOn drama broadcast during prime time (8 to catiolis' of the Dni'veisitY'of.Pennsylvania. Detailed diseuSsions of the I I p.m. eastern standard time) during the years 1975 through 1977 forms methodology used to collect the data and their reliability twear,in.ehapter, 2 the basis for these findings. The data wcre.prepared,undcr contract by the and appendix 14-7 'Cultural Indicators Research Project of the AnnenbergS0ooLof ommuni- in the same period compared, to .41.6 percent of the OtherS during the' 975-77 period' han 'thiriiiiilea ..% U.S. population. 1969-74 periOd. ' .'' ' Y o Minority females, constituting 3.6 percent of all ..,,o' ,L.,; Stetrtyping of,numenfOntinues; .,' characters, are also underrepresented hen com--`...;;:,:rb Feniale chara0ers, both -Majority and minority, pared to the U.S. population orwhich4hey make; up '':are:,still portrayed ,typically as in their twenties. Ili. 9.§ percent ,?1,Contrast, male characters are typically in their thirties

O Although minority 'males constitute 9.62percerwl.: and forties, , of all character§ (compared to 8.9 percent of the 1.1..Femalep Peale characterS are far morelikely thanmaletale 'population), the stereotyped quality of their portray.: charters to be portrayed as haYing no identifiable als seriously .detracts frOm the quantity of minority' ,occupation.When they are shoWn in an occupation, male characters who appear in teleyision drairia. iis most frequently as a secretary, nurse, home, 2.Stereotyping of minorities :;intFulevision, drama aker;'household worker, or student. In contrast, male characters are most . frequently seen: as law continues. , ..).,:- , , , 0,'Minoritym4le4s are disproportionately seen m enforcement officers, criminals, and doctors.' .comic roles, Moreover, the percentage of minority 4 The.family hour Porirays women and minorities male characters, in coMic roles, has in'creasedduring more stereotypically than-is true later in the evening. ;the past 3. years', despite the fact that the proportion 0 Women, both majority and minority, are less of all characters plaYing .comic roles has decreased frequently shown :identifiable occupations during sigirificantlY. . the family hour. They are infrequently seen .M professional or business positions, instead, they are 0 Minorities, regardlesS of sex, are disproportion- . ately cast in teenage roles; in contrast; white male typically seen as students and homemakers. : characters are diSprOportionately cast in adult roles. 0 .Although minority male. are. ,0 Minorities, regardless of sex, are less frequently portionately seen ..in comic roles throughout the evening, the tendency is' greatly pronounced during, portrayed in an identifiable occupation than majority the family hou when 27 percent of all comic 'roles characters. White male characters were seen in every occupationthat occurred in ' the sample. White are played by minority males, although theyconsti- lute only 12 percent of the'oharacterS who appear in female characters, appeared in 81.4 percent of them, family hour programs. and minority male.. characters:appearedin74.1 . p Similarly, minority characters are disproportion- : percent, but minority feinalesharacteri were seen in ately shownown as teenagers during the family hour. only 38.9 percent of he occupations portrayed in the 0 Atiffibrity characters are less likely to be seen m sample. aan identifiable ,ocCupation ding .the family hour The prOportion Of minority characters of both than later in the evening. They are seen as service 0!,...: sexes who: are ,`riotinidentifiable occupations workers and student§ more frequently dtirinCthe .: increased significantly during the 3-year period, 1975 .1,A family hourthan, later in the evening. through 1977, over the previonS (years. .. ,

0 When -,Minority characters `are seen in Occupa- . ,P y ,r tions, they are typically in jobsWith lowerstadis than Women, and Minorities in Network New02 those of majority characters. Mitibritie§ are more 5.White males continue to constitute the great likely than whiteS to be service workersand students. Majority of all correspondents, 82.2 percent. Majority Males are more likely than minority males 0 The proportion Of minority female correspon- to be-, doctPrs;'rnanagers; .aiirl journalists;journalists; majority ,dents in the sample declined significantly, from 3.5 :: , ..' females are more frequently seen, ..as" secretaries than .. percent to 0.0 percent. ., are minority feMales: 0 'Although -the proportion of minority male 0 ,Althouth violence in the forni of killing' has correspondents in the sample increased significantly,.

decreased, significantly ,;more. -characters are now , from 2.4 percent to 7.8 percent minority :males seen hurting others. ThiS.fis particularly :true among ....,,continue 4f.,he underrepresented as correspondents: t1) innAty :',..,Cliar,ters;.Regardless:.[Of:--sex;,-,4ifiCantly :.' .6 Similarly; theproportion of white female 014-0 ' cters were portrayed as hurting correspondents in the sample increased from 8.2 i''N (vOrk news programs broadcast on five widely c..', It., ;;''seatter fi7rms the basis for these findings. A discussion: ,rof.tn2ih liijappears in chapter 3. . ;;',,Aff,-,, percent to 10.0 percent; however, white females also edly fewer officials and managers jobs 'than white ,.continue to binderrepresented as correspondent mmales. 6.The proportion of minority and female news The employment status of minorities and womenwomen ers declined in 1977, while the proportion of white, who work at !the, headquarters level of each of the male neWsmakers. increased significantly, from 78.7 networks is signifiCantly lower Ethan at the stRtiOrig percent to 88.4 percent ,owned by ABC, CBS, and NBC.- 7.Minorities and women more frequently Make the419 6 Significantly more official and manager posi- . news as priVate individualsthan any other nelySmaker tions are repOrted for each network headquarters category. / ' than for their .owned stations, and significantly more , p Minority newsmakers' appearing as pito White 'Males fill network headquarters official and individuals were seen most frequently as peopl n manager positions than fill those positions at the. the scene:a Hispanic family, whoSe.:,11Ome was network-owned stations. Aestroyed by fire, an Alaskan native :1::n a stOry: on' 0 The percentages of women and minorities land use, and a black, juror:,-.0e eriception was reportedasofficialsand managers at network- Clifford Alexander, mentioned asii,;pOssible4;subeabi:: headquarters are, in many cases,, significantly lower '.net appointee. than at network-owned stations. ,.:. 0 White female ne alcers often make tile news 0 Seventy perceni of all the positions at each of as wives of some e4motis or as victims 'of. the networks are at the .headquarters level, but the circumstance. '-,.,? eirf" percentages of Minorities eMployed iir411'positions at 0 White males almOsttotallydominate :the, network headquarterkare in many caissignificantly categoryry of government Officials(93.9 percent); loWer than at network -13'wned stations. . minority males, account for 3.8- percent; majority O Wornen, both white and minonf / are more women fOr:1:5 Percent, and Minority woven for 0.8I' frequently employed at network ,headquarters as ..,. percerit of government 'officials. ' office and clerical: workers than in any other job category. Womenand Minorities as 'Officials and 11. .The employment status of large numbers of Managers3 broadcast employees, many of whOm are in decision- 8.No significant increase in : the percentages of making positions, is not evaluated by the FCC minorities and women employed as. officials and 0 Although headquarters employees constitute 70:, . managers in the 40 station sample occurred between,;percent of all the broadcasting employees of ABC, " 1975 and 1977 , ti 1' CBS, and NBC, the FCC 'does not evaluate their 9.White males continue yoltotd the vast majority. of employment status. the official and manager positiOnS. 0 Fifty-nine percent of all comirterbiallstatiOnsare 6 The percentage of white males who were owned. by '143 companies holding more than one officials and managers in 1977 (64.9 percent) is facility; the employment status'.'of the .employees at significantly higher than the ovkrall percentage Of the headquarters of thesecompanies is not evaltiated white male employees atthe 40 stations(57:2 percent). _. -: i ,, 0 In contrast, the percen ages. or black male and black female officials and,apagers are significantly riecomirehdations' lower than thelOverall perc iftages of black employees,at.-the 40 stations. Poitrayal-of Women -and MinoritieS in 0 The percentages of other minorities'employed as lelevisiort programming (zt, officials and Managers arso small that statistical 1.The Federal Communications Commission, should tests,fail to show significa tdi ffe renceS. conduct an inquiry and proposed niieniakitig in which o Althoughtheper entAte .Ofwhite female it ; would investigate the relationship': between the .:officials andmanagers1(21.3 percent) i- almost network programming decisionmaking processi the identical : withthe. percentage of whitefemale,...::resulting portrayal of minorities and women, and the . employees (21.6percent,,:white .females hold mark= impact of,these portraYals on viewers:.

3 FCC Form 395 employment rerts submitted to the FCC by 40 data base for these findings. The makeup of the sample and the proce.dures television statidns and by ABC, CBS and NBC head9uarters.constitute the used to Analyze the data are discussed in chapter 4.

62 Attempts by the Federal Communications Com- The remaining recommendations, which were first mission to respond to concerns about the negative set forth in Window Dressing on the. Set : Women and impaet on young viewers of televised violence, Minoritiesin.Television,' Aug* 1977,arethis advertising directed to children, and the pOrtrayal of Commission's views on how the basic goals of minorities and women have helped.to focUs attention fairness and diversity in.broackasting may be on a basic dilemma confronting the FCC--hOw may achieved: it hest serve the public interest while protecting the 2.,P,roducticin companies and network programming First AmelS'dment rights of the television :licensees it executives: incorporate More minorities and is authorized to ,regulate? Chapter 5 summarizes the women, into television drama. ToWartk this end, they FCC's efforts to, protect children from the potentially should undertake the following measures: harmful effects of television while also adhering,to its 0 develop seriesthat portray minorities : 'and `' .interpretation of the First Amendment. Utilizing women playing .% variety of roles comparable in court ca4sts,,such as Writers Guild of Ameiica, West, diYersity and prestige, to those by white males; Inc. v. F. C. C :and National Organization for Women D. actively solicit scripts_ frOm minority and female v. F.C.C., the commission on Civil Rights 'concludes, writers; and actively ...solicitadvice ffroni citizen grouPs; that an FCC inquiry and. proposed ruleinaking regarding the portrayal of minorities and 'women regarding:, the; ways in which minorities and women are portrayed. 'would riot violate the First Ainendment; The courts ,in both cases discuss' the poksibility of .a rulemak- As documented in Window Dressing, efforts by .:i 1 some production 'companies to improve the portrayal ., ingin Writers Guild/ the issirecis televited violence oTminorities..and women have already demonstrated and in ,N,0331. the isStie. ,'S the televised' portrayal of women. The courti-irtO ed in 'ach ca'seAhat., a the value .of these recomMendations. Quality programs and 'diversified portraYals of minorities and rulemalung proCeilurg':C;it: '.1 la have ..' ,order. women are beginning to appear as a result of these Indeed, in Wrileri _Giiifr,),0 do*i6:iiiirthat the efforts." ,, FCC, in its effort*4ieeX.*014iOri. to the problem ' 3Theetworlisshould maketrainingand placement I of televised yjoltnee thaticlic. ,pt infringe on-the First .,\ opportunities in decisimunaldng positions in their news ',' enclinriiiiacl violated the Administrative Prom departments available to minorities and women, de's,.,Aet t' ''cir'Owing a normnormalru 1etnalcing YA .'r _,1- " Representation of Women and minorities in many .1prue qinlorc,, the court found that =the editorial, reporting, and Writing positions is critical to FC C hCi` held with broadcasters the!, development of a: :-broader and more 'varied mss,,:,,,;,;,..,;,as.;;')V611. as other acts that resulted in the fainily. 'concept of what constitutes the news..:. ::;viewing hour;. in .theinselves, violAtiOns of the 4.The FCC shOuld seek authorizadOn from Con- i- FirSt Amendriint gress to,regUlate equal 'employment opportunity at the This tioriniiSsion,. in recommending an inquiry networks and among, all owners ofMore,than one and rulemaking proceeding on the portrayal. of broadcist facility. minorities: and. women, advocates no infringement on Although 'the FCC. regulates' equal employment the First Amendmeht rights of broadcasters. Rather, Opportunity at broadcast stations, it is not empow- this CcOmission seeks an Fec inquiry into the ered to' do so at the headquarters level of broadcast miles of and possible remedies foi the continued owners. The employment of minoririesliel women at undentOresentation and,stereotyping of minorities the heaciquarters level at ABC, CBS, and NBC is and Wdinen in television drama.. It. urges''fusther significantly lower than fat the stations owned by the exploration into the,. effects on both majority and networks, where equal emplOyment is -regulated.. minority vieweks!of tirideriepr.esentation and stereo- While the FCC's equal employinent. enforcement typing. This CoihrnisilOn also urges the FCC to efforts must be increased, that Commission's em- search for way'either by making rules, or by ployment, regulations have, nevertheless, provided exercising leadership through the issuance of recom- some impetus for improvedemployment for minoti-7. mendations addressed to the industry-.,.to increase ties and women, particularly in nondecisiorimaking the numbers of minorities and women who appear in positions at the station level. These regulations teleyiSiOn drama and to increaSe the diversity with 'shoiild 'be extended to the networks and to which they are portrayed. :,broadcast group-,:Owners. Requiring them to prepare 63 employment-Teports and equalemployMent opportu- quote becauseitdoes h require a utilization' nity programs applicable to their employees analysisasthe fundamental; firststepinthe should encourage increased employMent opportuni- development of a licensee's affirmative action Pro- ties for minorities and women in program and news gralln. Furthermore, the rule only applies tolicensees decisionmaking and thereby improve and diversify wiVa` 11 'or more employees. the portrayal of minorities and .women. 7.The FCC should require every licensee tosubmli as part of its license renewal application alist of its FCC Enforcement of Equal Employment employees classified by jib category and cross-classi- Opportunity In the Broadcasting industry fied by race/ethnicity and sex. Job titles Within each 5.The FCC should require each licensee to develop category should be arranged by salary. an effective affirmative action program.designed to On October 31,1978, the FCC .adopted, in achieve equitable employment for minorities and principle, a recommendation ofits.Br 4404. Bureau pOliC;riles a list women in the broadcasting industry. to require licensees to place in their Every broadcast' licensee, in retu9n for its use ,of of all employees ranked by salary (withCifittevealing the public airwaves, accepts an obligation to serve all specific salary) and further identified by job title, segments of the community. Regardless of the size of FCC Form 395 job categoryjace, ethnicity and sex. its work force, every broadcaster is a public trustee The annual lists would be submitted to.,,thetFCC at and should be held accountable for employing license renewal time. Although _this 6 y. was minorities and women in An equitable manner. approved in principle, the stair cted to An effective affirmative action program includes explore possible alternatives to: tlt ent to be an analysis to, determine whetherminorities- and used at' a broadcaster's opticlit:: remission women are being fully utilized; an analysis of the strongly endorses the FCC ,p action and. possible cause§ ofTmdtrutilization, and series of " urges its final adoption, believingThat q;alternatives steps to be .undertaken that will result a giyen are available thatwill accomplish goil point in time in the full utilization of minorities and revealing -the actual status .of minorities and women women; Each of the following recorrunendatiOns on &licensee's wOrkfoice. adapts the elements of an effective of irMative action The ,'CC should revise Form 395 to fiiellitate :a program to broadcasting. thorough utilizationamaysli. AS this.:Coinmission stated in Comments ..ln- t 6.The FCC should require all broadcast licensees to examine the eemrsition of their work forces in order Matter of Petitions fOr'llideirfaidig.toAiittifelf to ascertain the extent to whichminorities and women form 395 and InStruCtiorisAnMarch 4978, Docket are fully and equitablyrepresented. at the various 21474, .the, nine 'job categories of .ihe. current levels of .responsibility and in all areas of station Form 395 should be uliSiantially revisedt9 allow for greater Specificity. for decisionmakingand'prOgram- employment. for the Conducting such-, examination -would bring ming positions for The. licensees into,:compii'e with Section (b)(5) of the POsitions at the loWer end of the ciiii:ent. kale.. Commissloh also proposes,that the employment form -FCC's Equal EmployMent. Opportunity Rule; which requires libensees to: be revised several other specific -ways:: (1)3lae percentage as well as the number ;ofemployees'of, fclonduct a continuing review of job structure each category should be enumerated, (2) -the number and employpsent practices and .adopt positive and percentage of white male and female 'employees recruitment, .liaining, job 'design, and other shoUld be reported, and (3) the degree to which. each measures needed in order to insure genuine group is utilized in comparison toavailability in the. equality of opportunity to participate fully in all warforce, should be'. reported.. These proposed organizational units, occupations,. and levels of ons will provide informationvital`' to the responsibility in the station. assessment of status of pgemployees. The first step in the development of an EEO The FCC 4,01#1,ef tOiLsh the following standards prograth is ascertainment, of underutilization. To the for the .eithlinirnieni 'Ofminorities and women in the extent that underutilization exists, it'is the licensee:S..- broadcasfpgindustry: responsibility to determine its causes and toefirni- 0 the overall utilization of men. and womenof them.. The. FCC's current procedure ismade-ade- 7{each racial/ethnic group on a local station'swork 64 , 10. the FCC shouldadopt.the folloyingprocedures 80 percent ofparity,with.their -force:should beatleast to enforce thesestandards: representation in thelabor force of the'Station's licensees failing to achievethe twin 0f Require all of Minority: service area; and ' and: the dispersion thrOUgh- goals of labor parity; work the dispersion Ofminorities and women and female employeesthroiighout their annual be:cOmparable theieutilizatiOnanalyses, to file out a local station'swork force should forces, as revealed by documents with theirfirst application to that of whitemales. . the folloWing of this Commission'that =non-_ following 'the adoptionof this It is the Position on every for license renewal ties ..and womenshould be sepreserited recommendation: . liAsee:s work fotCel at a ratecommensurate with erit The SupreMe; of underutiliza- "their representatiod inthe labor force. practices.that outlines the causes of Teamileii Court noted inInternational Brotherhood . _ training, and absent discrimination,,Work (2)a list ofspecific recruitment, v.United States that, tepresentatiVe of the other measures toachieve parity' andequM forces would be "moreor' less Women: population in representation of minorities and racial and ethniccomposition of the repOrt,inilibating the results of which employees arehired:" (3)a statistical the community froni of nothing the licensee'sefforts' to hire and promote 431 U.S. 324; 339-340,20 (1977) A goal minorities .and women.Statistical reports :on representation'orwomen andminorities applicant flow andterminations should also be less than full' but a standard should be prepared for in the, broadcastingindustry is ideal; submitted. These reports allow a degreeof each year of the license0644- of .,110-1 percentof parity will . full representation. whose hiring; fle i ilityin achieving Associa- Q Deferthe licenses of licensees ". As the SupremeCourt noted in National records and recruitment of Colbred People' v.Fede'ral promotion, and termination, tionfor, the Advancement practices, suggestnonC*pliance, Pend- diversity,and fairness inprogram- and training practices; Power Commission, ing an onsiterevieW'ofitheir erriployment depend On diversityand fairness in Means, to- ming ultimately and a. that all reasonable employment (425 U.S.664.670"11. '7);, it is crucial,.,,: eNhausted. :If the employees work achievecomplianee'haVe been therefore, thatMinority and female results' of such a:review and'deternination show licensee's-Work force,particularly in a at all levels of a continuing noncrompliatice,.the FCC should ; dediSionmaking would u`ge as a: hearing regardingr6loation-bf,thelibense. In 1977 the FCCarurCtniced4hat Currently, the FCCrequir0.#0.1senrirP0*, reasonableness" processingstandard for its "Zone of discussion of theirrecruitment..10.ti*nistiteffor,4';:. of 50,pereentof parity for the necesiaillyilelattect tQ thecauses ^ an. employment rate women and 25 These efforts are not overall employmnof minorities and ofunderutilization.;Furthennbit44.4urnentation. r r the employmentof both groups licensee'sefriiiftOOMPrOye.'0e: scent of parity of of the results of the categories. The EEO programs emplOyment star ofminoritieslitAtkieqVOZniiii4s7 in the upper fou, minorities and employment levels of insufficiently detailed todeterininetikAbliVen licensees with subject to special. women at theserates or below are The formSrecommended' iC licensees with of these efforts. trairim scrutiny. Although itis probable: that bressing for° reporting applicantflow, hires; of the licenSee in employment 'rates aslow 'as only 50 percent promotion, andtermination will 6d-the only 25 percent inthe upper, four of its affumativeaction labor force and 'determining the effectiveness categories have suspectemployment- records, PrOgrarn. ThOse licenseesthat have demonstrated , does nothing'to improve the tangible .coinnii.SM nt to,equal employmentopportu- processing 'standard in the such materials: employment status ofminorities and women nity would riottie,Zmikired to prepare sample this. COmmissionoriginally. the:FM:Would. be relieved ofreviewing industry. In the Moreover, already in Dressing, the 40stations each the EEO programs oflicensees who are developed, for Window ensured equal. levels forminorities that are in compliance. LicenseesWho have not report employment accountable well above theFCC's minimum stan- employment opportiinitywould be held many cases and women. As their failure to do sois not the dards for theUtilization of minorities to demonstrate that of this report,die standards set by discriminator)% employmentpolicies and noted in Chapter 4 licensees result of the' FCC areloWer than those that some practices. have already attained. 65 AppendbiA''

Table Ai Characters by Race, Sex and Year 1969-77 CT.>

1969 19'70 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977' 1969-77

No % No % No % No %No % No % No % No,% No % No % MajgHty Male 624 88.2 5841 67.6 666,165.1 595 624 ''/576 64.1 62864.6 651 622630 642 64358.2*"5597. 63.9 Fe Male 230 25.1.20023.2 251 24.6 2g3 23.4212 23.6 22322.924323.2244 24.9 29426.6 2120 242

Subtotal 854`93.3 78490.8 916139.7 818 .85.8788.87.7 85187.5 '894.85.4874 89.1**93784.8" 7717 88.1

Minority' Male 48 i. 5,2 6 6.9. 84 8.2 107- 11.2'90 10.093 as- 10510.0 80 8.3- 12611.4 794 9.1 Female 131.420 2.3 22 22 282.9 202.228 2.9 48 4.6* 26 2.7" 41 3.7 246 2.8

Subtotal 61 6.680 9.2*10610.4 135 14.1* 110 122 121 12,5 153 14.6107 10.9* 16715.1 104011.9

TOTAL.. 915:99.9 864',100.01022 100.1 950 99.9898 99.9'972'100.0 1047100.0981 100:1 110499.9 8757.100.0

Difference is significant at the ';Ogia'vel..-' Difference is significant at the .01. level. Difference is significant at the .001 level.

67 Table A.2 e of C,baracters by Race andSex: 1969-74 and 1975-77 Percentage of alt Majority Minority Characters

Male Female Male . ear =n.% No.

2.9 1969-74;-. 82 2.2 51 3.8 21 161 1 -10 2.1 1675:47 49 1.5 31' g.6 18 3.7 107

Percent Change -3118* -15.9 -7.5 7:27.6** r 69 . 489 :8.7. 1969-74 " 239, ,'6.5 56' 11.6 11 -20 24 '382'2. .7.5.. 1975-77 .173 5.5 126 5g 12.2

eroeritChange. 715.4 47.3 1451 25.8 1969 -74 -755 20.6' 476 35.5 . 158 32.8 62,

35.7 1337 26.5 197S-..,77 -651 20.6 478 .39A 143 129.5 65 +2.7 Percent Change +11,0* . -10.1 L24.5* 26.9 1969-74 1197 32.6 311 23,2 151 31.3 1 20 15.3. '1679 31-40 214 1582 31.4 1975-77 1087 34.4 305 25.1 151 -, 31.1 36 5.0 Peent Change +5.5 +8.2 0.6 +39.9 9.9 1194 .- 21.2 1969-74 935- 25.5 188 14.0 58 12.0 13 41-50 25 13.7 1034 20.5 1975-77 .798 25.2 157 12.9 ',54 11.1

, +38.4 +3.3 Percent Change -1.2 - 7.8 -7.5 412 7.3 1969-74 322 8.8 77 5.8 1.7 3.8 51-60 4.7 10 5.5 403 8.0 1975-77 304 9.6 66 5.4 23 .? +44:7 -F9.6 Percent Change 91 -6.9 +176.5 _, 2,3 152 2.7 1969-74, 91 2.5 44 14 2.9 61-99 3.3 145 2.0 1975-77 86 2.7 39 14 2.9 6 +43.5'' +7.4 Percent Change +8.0 . q1 86 1.5 1969-74 51 14 11 0.8 16 3.3 8 Cannot Code 52 1.6 1975-77 14 .4 11 0.9 23 4.7 4 22 ., -33.3* Percent Change -71.4 + 12.5 +42.4 7836 r 100.0 1969-74 3672, 100.1 1339 99.9 482 100.0 131 99,9' TOTAL 5042 100.0 1675777 3162 100.0 1213 100.1 ,485 . 100.0 182 100.0 Difference Is significant at the .051evel. Iiifference is significant at the 01 level

68 Table A.3 Characters Who Coniniit Violence by Race, andSex 1969-74 and 1975-77

Percentage of all Majority Minority Characters. 'Malta Ferna Male. Female No. % No. % No: % No. % No. %

1969-74 657 17.9 94 7.0. ,74 15.4 3.1 829 14.7. Hurt . - '1975-77 616 . 19.5 109 9.0 119 24.5 16 8.8 860 17.1 Percent Change +8.9 +28.6 +59.1*** +183.9* +204 *** 1969-74 167 4.5 14 1.0 32 6.6 Kill 0.0 ": 213 -3.8 1975-77 144 4.6 12 1.0 20 4.1 1 0.5 177 3.5 Percent Change +2.2 -37.9 -7.9 Do Not 1969-74 2848 .77.6 1231 91.9 376 78.0 127 96.9 Commit 4582'" 81.5 Violence 1975-77 2402 75.0- 1092 90.0 346 71.3 165 90.7 4005 79.4 Percent Change - 2.1 -2.1 - 8.6* -6.4* - 2.6"

1969-74 . 3672 100.0 1339 99.9 482 100.0 131. 100.0 5624 TOTAL 100.0 1975 -77 3162 100.0 1213 100.0 .182 100.0 5042 100.1 Difference Is significant at the .05 level. `Difference Is significant at the .01 level. Difference Is significant Qt the .001 level.

o AZ. Table A.4 Characters Who Suffer Violence ky Race andSex 1969-74 and 1975-77 Percentage;,..:. of all ";., Majority WIlnoiiti characters

Male Female Male Female % No No % No % No. "No. 18.2 749 s204 166__, 124 97 20.1 12 9.2 1024 J . Suffer;Pai 20.0 703 22.2 174 14.3 110 22.7 23 12.6 1010 +37.0 +9.9* Percent Change +8.8 0 +15.3 +12.9 6.8 6 4.6 303 54 1969-74 228 6.2 . 36 2.7 33 1.6 229 4.5 1975-77 169 5,3 28 2.3 29 6.0 -.65.2 percent Change -14.8 -11.8 73.0 113 86.3 4297 764 Are Not 1969 -74 2695k 73.4 1137 84.9 352 Victims of . 71.3 156 85.7 3803 754 Violence 1975-77 2290 72.4 1011 83.3 346 -1.9 -2.3 -1.3

99.9 131' 100.1 5624. 100/.0 . .., 3.--,:=7,3572 100.0. 1339 100.0'482'" 1969-74 A, TOTAL. ' e-..*;,,- 11 , ., 485 100.0 182.. 99.9 5042 10.0:0 . :. 197*-77 ',': 3162 100.0 1213 99:9 .13ifferenC)is significant at the .05 level. ' Table A.5 Charactera In Selected Occutnitidnal Roles by Race and Sex 4969-74 and 1975 -77 Percentage of all Majority Minot* Characters Male Female Male ,.Fentale Oectipation . . No. °A" No A No. °A 0/0

Law 1969-74 .817 16.8 sT 28 2.1 81 16.8 1 0.8 727 12.. -e', Enforcement - , - Officers 1975-77 -,,,,.L 666 21.1 32 2.6 78 16.1 5 2.7 781 15.5 PerCent Cli'ange +25.6*** +23.8 -4.2 +237.5 +:20.2 *

1969-74 378 10.3 56 4.2 37 7.7 ..477 8.5 Managers 197'5-77 '320 10.1 47 3.9-, 44 9:1- ;. 3.3 417, 8.3

Percent Change -1.9 77.1 +18.1 -28.2 -2.4

1969-74 807 22.0 201 15.0 72 14.9 19 14.5-1099 19.5 Professiopals 1975-77 595 18.8 214- 17.6 56 11.5: 19 104 884 17.5

Percent Change -14.5 +17.3 -22.8 -28.3 -10.2* . NOne/ 1969-74' 1140 31.0 763 57.0 190 39.4 70 534 2163 38.5 1975-,77 988 31.2 683 56.3 225 16.4 116 63.7 20.12' 39:9

Percent Change +0.6 -1.2 +17.0* 19.. +3.8-

1969-74 .730 19.8 291 21.6 102 21.1 35 2 .9 1158 20.7-:-e-

All Others' I' . 1975-77 593 18.8 237. 19.5 82 16.9 36 19. 948 18.8 '- . . _ Percent Change - 5.0 -9.7 -19.9*.:t -26.4 -92*, .

.1969-q4' 3672 99.9 1339 . 99:9 482 99.9 131 ' 100.2 5624 100, TOTAL 1975-77 3162' 190.0 1213 100.0 485 -, 100.0 , .182 99.8 5042 100.6. 1 The proportion of all characters in other occupational categories in 197546 Is as follows: military personnel, 5.7 percent; service workers, 5.3 per- ,, cent; clerical workers, 3.8 percent; craftsmen, 2.7 percent; sales workers, 0.8 percent; laborers, 0,6 percent. - 'Difference is significant at the .05 level.

.Difference is'significant at the .01 level. "'Difference Is significant at tho .001 level. Table A.6 , Characters Portoyed in Specific Occupations by Race,.Sex andTime of Broadcost Pisted In Order of Frequency of Portrayal of All Characters 1975-77

"Characters in Late Evenin AU Characters Charactek in Family Hour 1", . No. % No. '°/0 Majority' Male N . c/o. Noce % No. %

Unidentifiable 223 103 , 'Unknown 422 13.3, 199 18.0 6.2 83 .4.0 Self EmplOyed 151 _44.3: ga 21 1.0 Unemployed 46' 1.5 25 2.3 21 1.0 Mixed 43 1,4 22 2.0 2.4 23 1.1 Other 49 26 9 0.4 Retired 10 0:3 1 0.1 380 1a4 Subtotal 721 22.81 341 30.9 .' % ...... Law Enforcement 430 20.9 Police 507 16.0 77 7.Q 53 2:6 Private Detective 58 1.8 5 0.5 22 1.t Governmept Agent 52 1.6 30 2.7 0.3 07 - 0 0.0 Foreign Agent 8 ______---- ,. ,505 24.5 Subtotal :7625 19.8 120 10.9 -r, rime., 3.8 210'10.2 Criminal , 252, 8.0 42 0:9 28. 1.4 Criminal (legitimate front) 1, 38 1.2 1i 52 4.7 .-. 238 11.8 Subtotal , 290 ,9.2

Miscellaneoiiss Professionals ,..,. , , . 21 1.9 59 2.9 Journalist '' ':,..5, .:80 2.5 20 1.8 2. Professional ,. 5.7 1.8 ,, Public Official 43 1.4... 12 1.1 3371 11.58, 8 a4 Scientist f- 40 VA.; : 12 1.1 5 0.2 ... q: b3,, 4. 0.4 Social Worker .,; ---t---,,... 69 6.2 140 Subtotal . ,',.. '.`.<: 209 6.6,

Ivlilitgr,: 1 55 5.0 .., 64' En liSted/NOn,ccrtn ti 119 ... 31.8 3.2 22 1.1 Military..OfftCer ..,,,,. 57 :. 1.:8. 35 20 18 '- 0.1 Foreign' Military:;,,.7. . 22 410:7 ....---'

, ..,. .; 110 10.0 .,.SUblefel,: 198 6.3 '... Medicine. 91 44 Doctor 119 3.8 28 2.5 27 13 Military Doctor 35 '1.1 8 0:7 .9 0:4 PSYchiatrist.Y.::: )- 12 0.4 3 0.3 2 0.1 Paramedic :;,' 6 r0.2 , 4 0.4 \ 0.1 Dentist 6 .' 0.2 3 0.3 - 0.1 - 0.0 Nurse . o.o ..../ 0.0 Military Nurse 1 0.0 . 0.0 0.0 - Veterinarian 1. o.o 0.1 ----- 133 SubtOtal 181 ,,., 5.7 48 4.4 , Service Work). ..,48 " 2.3 -.-.Hotelillestauraht 6.9 A;,22 21 1.9 1.2 MisdeIraileous Service 17 1.5 25 24 1.2 Guard/Watchperson .39 1.2 15 1.4e, 97 4.7 Subtotal '150 4.7 - 53 4.8

-72- Table A.6(Cealinued)1. ;

All Ctoracters Charac iri Family .1-lour Characters in Late Evoning . ., Majority Maid teentinUed) No No. N No , NO. % No.- % --1,517j7'''t) ..Education 37.: 1.8 : TeaChert. 26 8 0.4 poliedtstudSo. , 16 0.4 4 8.4 53 2.6: 1. Management MiScelleneouS Managers 101 32 -29 2.6 72 3.5 Restaurant Managerd 27 0.9 1.0 0.9 17 0.8 ,- 39 ---- 99 4.3 Subtotal .128 4.0 , e :Transportation \ "Cab/Truck-Driver . 1.4 16 1.5 29 14 . Airline personnel 9 0.9 12 1.1 17 0.8- Transportation 6 0.5 3 0,3 13 .0.6

90 31 2.8 . 59 2.9 4 Subtotal* 2.8 Law Lawyer 55 ... 14 1.3. 41 2:0 Judge 24 0.9 17 .;0.8 Subtotat 2.5 21.,1,9 58 2 :8

Enterfainer Subtotal 66 2.1 17 ' 49 ' Technical Technician 24 0.8 5 0,5 19' 0.9 Factory Worker 20 0.6 7 0.6

Repalrperson 18 0.4 10 , . 0:9 ...--. Subtetal 62 2.0 22 2,0 40 Clerical

Clericb 33 1.0 : 0.8 1.2

Clerical money) 8. 0.3 , 0.2 Secretary 0.2 0.1 s'Subtotal 4.46 1.4 7 , Clergy, Clergy 36 1:1 15.: Mllitaryplergy 5 0.2 2 0.2 Subtotal 17 1.5 1.2

,,,Salesperson Subtotal 12' 1.1.' 0.8 Arts and Crafts. Craftsperson 20 0.6 4 ..0.4 16 0.8, Artist 5 0.2 4 0.4 0.0.

Subtotal. 0.8 -._ 0.7 17 Sports Athlete 19 0.6 12 1.1 0.3 Recreation 4 0.1 -0.1

Subtotal . 24 0.8 1.2. 10 0.5 Tole A.6 (Continued).-

All CharaCters' Q, Characfertl..inFanilly'Hou Characters In Late. Evening No To. MajorityMale (COntinUed)..... No. % .tn. ek.'..i'lkNo. :;.%. ' No. %- '

. . . i,,,

Firefighter 4. Subtotal j8..!10,0: 14. . 1.3 0.2r : '`. 4 4 14 a LitfUjeer:r4.: . Subtbtai 0...5.: 3 0.3 0.7 HoUs6work-, Household Worker 11 0:3 .5 0.3

Hoinernakeli' ' 4 . 0.1 2 2 .0.1 Subtotal -14 6.4 0.6 0.4

tle.volutionary . Subtotal 0.1 0.0 S. TOTAL MAJORITY ,MALE r CHARACTERS ..''':' 3162 99,9 11,03 99.9 - 2059 99,9. 4-otal number of categories in Which,Majority male characters appeared,:. (60) 1

Majority Female Veidentifiable , .Unknown A 392 32.3 152.. ,04.2 240 31.2 : Unemployed 33 2.7 11 2.5 22 2.9 Self Employed 21 1:7 *.. _ 1.8 13 1.7 Other '' 19 1.6 7 1.6 12 1.6

.. 1 . Mixed , 13: 11 7 6 0,8 0.9 Retired 8 4.6.7 1 0 2 Subtotal 486; ' 40.1 186 41.9 ° 00 39.0 glerical ecretary 7.3 26'. 4.5 68 8.8 CI al 20 1.6 4 0.9 16 2.1,-. CleriCa (money), 17 1.4 : 3 0.7,, 14 1.8 ---- . °<1 98 12.7..'" Subtotal . 125. 10.3 27° 6.1 , it Education. Student .4t 58-.13.1 20 2:6 Teacher. 19 , ,1.6 10 2.3 9 1.2 . College Student -'1,3 4. 0.9 12 i.s Subtotal 113 72 46.2 41 5.3.

Medicine . Nurse 58 4.8 16 3.6 42 5.5 Military Nurse , 29 2A 10 2.3 19 2.5 . Doctor . 6 0.5 2 0.5 4 f1.5' Psychiatrist 0.1 0 0.0 1 0,1 1 94 7.7 '7.-- 28 6.3 66

,.' Housework I, -, Homemaker 67 . 5 5 38 8.6 , 29 3.8 Househ ,4.Wo 21 1.7 6 1.4 ' 15 2.0 .1 total 88 7.2 44 6.9 44 5.7

f Table A.61Cobtlnued)

). Characters In Late Evening All CharaCters Characte?ijn FomilY'Hour 0/0 No % No % No. Majority Fein:ale (Contititied) % No. No %;

MIiIcellaneous protestionals 1.4 20 2.6 .Journalist 26 2.1 0.7 12 1.6 'Professional 15' 1.2 11' 3 0.4 6 0:5 3 0.7 .Social Worker, s 40.1 Scientist 6 0.5 o1.1 1 0.1 4 '0.3 3 0.7 Public Official A___ 4,5, 4:4 37 4.8 Subtotal. 57 4.7 20 Crime 37 478 Criminal 41 4 0.9 1.0' Criminal (legitimate front) 10 0.8 .f 0.5 45 5.8 Subtotal 51.4.2 1.4 Service Work 22 2.9 - Hotel/Restaurant 30 Z5 1.8 8 1.0 Miscellaneous Service 12 1.0 0.9 1 0.1 2 0.2 1 0.2 .Guard/Watchperson ,.....____ 31 4.0 Subtotal 44 3.6 13 2.9 30 3.9 Entertainer Subtotal 37 3.1 - 7 1.6 Law Enforcement 17 2.2 Police 21 1.7 4 0.9 0.0 '6 0,8 `42iivate Detectivel 6 0.5. 0 1 ;0..1 Government Agent 4 0.3 ____3 0.7_ ___ - ,, 3.1 Subtotal 2.6 7 . 1.6

Management 1 N. 18: 1:5 6 12 1.6 tliteSifatieous Managers 6.7 lieslaurant Manager 0.4 .'0 23 6 1.4 17 Subtotal. TrangportatIon 2.3 5. 0.7 Airline Personnel 15 1.2 10 0 0.0 03 Cab/Truck Driver ? 0P '..0 10.0 Transportation 1 0.1'.. 10 2.2 8 1.0 Subtotal 18 1.5 .101 0.0 '1.0 'Lawyer 2 0.5 2 03 Judge , 0.3 1.3, 12 1.0 d. at. Subtotals . 4 6 Arts and crafts 2 0.5 5 0/ Artist 0,6 0 0.0 0.1 Craftsperson 0.1 -0.5 0.8 Subtotal 0.7

echnical 0.1 Factory Worker 0.6 6 1.4 0.5 0.0 Te -0.2 0.7 1.8 0.1 .Subtotal

1 0.2 0.4 Salesperlon Subtotal 0.3 75 TableiA.6 ex;:t

P.Glgrt_

All Characters. . ^A Characters Family Hour .Charadiersi.n.tala:Evenine-"- Majority Female (Continued) No % No % No % No % No.;"%t--.;').:'; No %

..i...1, . Laborer' Subtotal 3 4 0.3 0.5 2 0.3 Revolutlo'naly Subtotal ,) 3 0.2 0 0.0 4 3 OA Athlete Subtotal 2 0.2 0.2 1 0.1

Clergy.:: Subtotal 2 0.2 1 0.2. 0.1

Military ,,i,

Miptekflcer 1 0.1 0 0.0 1 0.1 En Wit .Noncom . 1 0.1"'" 1 0.2 0 0.0 1.-"; Subtotal 0.2 , 0.2 1 0.1 TO L AjoRrry AL ,)CHARACTERS 1213 100.0 444 100.1 769 99:6 .... i1,

7115-tar numb r of categories ,,4-.. ''. ''..itrWhich pia)rity female Characters ap eared (50) <.5-1 °.'14 4 , Minority Male

Unidentifiable .:.;

nown 96 19,8 - "50 20 46 -;*16.5 hair 34 7.0 12 :5.8 22 f 7.9 ,.. O Self Employed 27e 5.6 18 8.7 9 3.2 Unemployed .. 8 1.6 6,2/i -,: 2 0.7 Mixed 6 1.2-. ' 4 119 2 0.7 .Retired 1 0.2. 0.5 0 0.0 Subtotal 172 35.4 91 44.2 81 29.0 ..,

Law Enforcement ..,. Police 73 15.1 13 6.3 60 .21.5

Private Detective s., 2 ., 0.4 1 0.5 1 0.4 a .--...... ----.. Subtotal 75 15.5 14 6.8 61-21.9 0 Crime

?Criminal 40 8.2 10 4.9 30 ' 10.8 .`Criirinal (legitimate front) 5.' 1.0 2 1.0 3 1.1 . Subtotal 45 9.3 12 5.8 33''.11.8 jervice-Work \ % A Miscellaneous Service 18 3.7 11 5.3 7 2:5

Hotel/Restaurant .13 2:7 6 2.4 8 . GuardlWatchperson 3 0:6. 2 1.0 0.4,* , _ ____e ..*: 34 ..,, ,.,Subtotal, 7.0 18 8.7 1 5.7 -

'Education _ Student 28 5.8 23 11.2 90' 1.8 College Student . 4 0,8 4 1.9 0 0.0 Teacher 1 0.2 0", 0:0 1 -.0.4 ,.. Subtotal '33 6.8 27 13.1:4 Z2

76 Tab 4:6 (Continued

All Characters Character's In Late evening

% = No. s, % Minority Male (Contied) No % No. % No. % No.

41Ned10in?:;::;:

Doctor +1?syChletrit

'MlaCellineoes Pro eesionals Journalist ' Professional PubliC Offficial Scientist .i.:..Social Worker Subtotal .' I, Managementii Restaurant Manager , ,-.

.MisCellaneOus Managers .---.,,,, . Subtot.4V,,

. . . .,14111itari . .ir ..: ,,,' enlisted/Nondom , 1.9 1.9 .-1~'... Foreign Military , p.4 1.0 -''AVY Military Officer 1. 0.2 . 0.0 Subtotal 2,9 " Entertainer Subtotal Transportation Cab/Truck Driver 4 0.8 1 0.5 1.1 Trar#ortation 0.4 2 1.0 0.0 Airline Personnel 0.6 0.5 0.7 Subtotal 1.9 "(I 1,9'

Laborer Subtotal 1.9 ^ 1.0 Technical 1.0 Technician Repairperson 0 0.0 0.7 Subtotal 1.6

1.4. 0,- Houiehold Wo,slier Subtotal :; Clerical Clerical 0.7 Clerical (money) 2 Subtotal 1.3

Salesperson Subtotal 1.5 - 4 rilevolutionery Subtotal 1 0.5 Clergy Sebtttal, 0.5

1 0.5 Athlete ^ SubtOtal Table A.6 (Continued)

Chfiracters in Late Evealno, Minority Male (Continued)f No % NO.

Lam) tom, '''..LP Lawyer 0.4 1 0.5 0.4 Judge. 0.2 ` 0 0.Q , 1 0.4 Subtotal .. 3 .0.6 .-,. Q,5' : -7---- '7..57 .1 2 -:,'''0.7. Firefighter' 0.0

TOTAL, MINORITY. MALE,.., CHARACTERS- Total number of Categories In which minority male oharact&S appeired (46).

orityPemale4b.

Unknpwn 37.4 45 50.0 23 25.0 5 ett-griployed, 2.7 2 ;5 2.2 %, 3 3.3 5 2.7 0 0.0 5 5.44 - nemployed 1.6' Mixed 1.1 2.2/J t 0 9.0 ,,- 83 45.6 50 ;55,6 33 35.9 Housewodc Homemaker HouseholdWorkert 343) .,Subt ''1),--', 4Clucation. ' Studeht "1."-k .( 19, 10 4 4.3 .ColleDe Studait -1.,....:::. 0.5' Subtotal 0 1.1.0 9 ..Clerical '- Secretary 1.1. 5.4 Clerical 22 2 2.2

(-clerical ( N 0.0' 3.3

. 13 7.1 1'3 3.3 10 10.9 Medicinck 'v Nurse 9 4.9 Mililary Nurse 1 .,0.5 Doctor

Subtolal 5t. . 10 : Service Work' ff (Hotel/Restaurant f Miscellaneous'ee ce Guard/Watchperson Subtotal Crimihal ,StIbtotal All Characters- Chgracters in Fathily Hour Characters in Late Even l g inority Femalc;(tontinned) No.. % L No. l';°/4-, % No. % No. % No.. % , . .. ? ,JAllIsCellaneous Protessionlia Jofirnalist . a 1 1.1 Scientist : - 2 2.2 Professional 0 0.0 Public Official ,"'' 0.0 3 3.3 Entertather .,;tk;;i... Police SubiOta :' Factory Worker' Subtol ,,Salesperson ..Subtotal 1' 1.1 TOTAL ,MINORITY: , FEMALE CHARACTERS''R. ' Total number of,cate6ories: in which minority female:;:. characters appealed 4(27)

. , ifylajoroccupallonal category percentages.ere:mulatad.,by d.ividin'g,the 'Plumber of characters in each category bOtfie Iotal number the sum of: perpentagesJor.eaoh jolititio W' hie of characters; major. category may not equal the proportienin the categorl due to rounding errors.,Subtotals for occupationarcatdgories may not equal 1 percent to foundirkerretrs:"-

: .

.0? Appendix A.7

Methodology andReliabilliry of.Data.--. 7 '4;t a b , _. (Dr.Nancy.Signqriellipreparedthe.following. ablelo'stibstantiate all coding decisions; that is, they ' criiiiwhe OA to point to specificactions' or segments escription of the rriethodology,usedin, the .Cultural Indicators Research Project) i'') . . inkthe Program to. explain why an item was coded in ,''' a.articular way.°Coders cannohise information that is, Message Systein'Xnalysis does ribt deal-.i with single ..vhirks, subjective perceptionst or draniatic' su "O4upplied in the specific. epispde of the program It foeuses on the gross,. unambiguous, Tura anal,zed.Por example, if a coder: knows; from understood ;acts of porlayal. These are the pre dug txpbsufe to the,progrAt, that a character,is ....:_that can be expected to provide bases fOr infera eint+lcyy01r as a teacher' but no mention is made of the and common issumpticins and definipon?, though .',-,;..11-fracter's occupationin the particular 'episode ie not.necessarily agreement, among large and heterol? .' Wiiginalyzed, the codercannot-codethat character. kather, the,coder must nse the "cannot °' geneolis ma* publics. . . , 'Isji.i.'-, as a teacher. In Message System Analysis, coder§, ari'trainein pode" or "unknOlvd' category. Coders thus rely only a special)zed kind' f obsegvation. They mustJeliably,,, upon information supplied during thecourse-of the make the discriminations requiredby therecOrding particular episode they are assigned to code. instrument and record theM in- a. specified form.' The training,' also involves ;coding .' 10 CoderS focus .presented in thet Mate 1 .preselected programs that have been.fitibjected to andnothow it -might' bejudged by:4,4tical Vie& r' intensive analysis.- by, the entire Message Systenl, Imagg. Their task is-to.generate the data fOrthe subSeqUent Analysis staff. These programs Ilave been speci y.,, analysisthatwill -permit :interpretationof the selected to illustrate speific definitions' :6d especi* common message elementsand structures available. ly,difficitreaspects of the. recording-instrument ,.4,..44.t. to a publi&Of diverse viewers...: N6- ,,4! ,-The trainee group is: split into .randomly2 assigned.`' Message dataforeach sample ;of programs 'cing teams of two people. All olthese par' lien. collected. part of the annual- IndiCatoisPrOAct deeed to code the first thre4/14 prOgrams. have been generated by a staff .ofobetWeen 14 td;20:-:Each coder -pair 'works, indepe .ently of allother and trained. coders. Coders are .emplOyed.eaCh pairs,and returns-one jointtcoding foreaCh. pr4ram.. for a 12- to 16=week period andwork for In thenext 'general meeting, the entire staff

mum}muini of 20 hours and a maxim) -,:25 hours administrative, and codingdisCuSses: encountered in the three-program exercise When eid re specifically traed use_the cultural these prpblems h4..rie- been resolved, the, coder pairs grams. Coder7::,,,..i. nd ator Message em Analysis Recordihg ,code the remaining seven training 10SYAinient. The training period requires 4 to 6 weeks 'Pairs Meet at leaSt tw re times during this partg'': ciElqlOiveinstrtiction and testing. SeVera) uc- trainin,g,a°disc esolve coding problems. In toryAe'sslons are devoted to an itent-by-item _- additioA, the df each Coder- airis - Mon of the reyording instrument, Each defin. snit closelYjindnito . administrative staff.; f the' . category sell'emeik fully explained and int. (! pegnotes a speCif G problem, iftis brOu to the CoderS are explicitly ,instructed "Plat they mu:A be attntion of the coder-pair. , s . friends, or lovefrs. to opera i We havefouQd,that cosling is e ely Led" us work and thatco eandot work efficiently for more tha hours e h day. ' An important part of this process isthe; Ve Assessment of Reliability extensive training program that each coderlpair must The purpose of reliability measures in content complete. Each item in the recording instrument is analysisisto ascertain the degree to which the explained and described. Furthermore, allitem's, recorded data are ,consistently representative, of the especially those that are most complicated and material being studied, rather than a reflection of potentially confusing, are illustrated by their codings observer bias or instrument ambiguity. Theoretically in the 10-program Each item has been both types of contamination can be corrected by coded by the staff. a oder-pairs must coinpare refining the instrument and/or by intensifying coder their codings of each '.of -these programs with ,those training, or, as a last resort; by eliminating the generated bythe.staftMistniderstandings and unsalvageable variable or dismissing the incorrigible confusions are fully discussed and clarified in all coders. Thus, measures of reliability may serve two meetings. functions: (1) as diagnostic tools in the confirmation The data generated by the coder-pairs for the 1( of the recording instrument, and (;) as arbiters of the training programs are keypunched and sgbjected to replicability of the procedure, assuring confidence in computerized agreement analysis. On the basis of the final data. In this project, they serve both' these results instructions; definitions, and classifica- during the prelintinaty period of instrument revision .tion schemes are further discussed and perhaps and coder training, they identify Problem areas in tie' revised and idiosyncratic cOder.pairs are dismissed."recording process, and the final Measures computed , The coder-pairs:)Who survive the training-testing on the study's entire corpus of double-coded data process, then proceed to aVyze the season's video- determinetheacceptabilityof informationfor analysis and provide guidelines for, its interpreta- taped program sample. : ,','. . ,... .DUring both .thetraining and data-collection tions. phases,.,,pot,,,pairs. monitor their video- ;Agreement due merely to chance gives no indica- JaP4;:ifrcigfa. as ,often as. necessary. i.4.14t..the data truly reflect the, phenotnena under pcTrtions ;aCked. All programs-in the sample are of m-Va. ion. Simple percent-agreement measures dre,.. coded indepetfently by two separate coder -pairs to therefore, inadequate indicator's of reliability, since. provide double-coded reliability Comparisons. they fail to account for the amount of., agteeifrAt.. A .-...finaldatasetfor subsequent analy isis',expected by chance. Reliability measures in thetin piled from thefulldata base by ran omly of agreengeontcoefficients, ;,,,however, indicate the ecting' one of. Ifie two codings !for each pro ra,in, degree to which agreement among independent As a last check against deviant coding; reliability observersisabovechange.Ingeneral,then, ,.ensures are coniputed for each pair before-the final Coefficient of observed diSagreernent_ n. hi.*. pro4)ure identifies prObleinpco ^Agriement expected disagreeMent yot:have been screined out in the tra ,Valueshicdelficients of this form will range from. retest -pliase. In siach an instanceith one when agreement is :perfect, to zero when fded by the questionablepair would be excluded agreement is purely accidental(or perfectly o' the selection and: coding dom)to negative values when, agreerite (Ove .the colute of this study, only two cases have han that' etcted due to chance.. These c .fr been encountered.) gener ygive more ;'-cOnS6rvative' ,-kt . :.-:/. ,-,,,,,, of reliability thanwill :simple -percent-agredifient measures. Nu. . Five computational formulas are avai ble for .caldiraiing4hettreement coefficient.3 T ya are distinguished tiy different formulations the disagreement function L-depending wJ ether The variable iFonsidered a nominal,. ordin,interval,

Data"lin Sociologicalitlethodo logy:ed. E.F_.E rgitta and Bohrristeclt " F f9rmal discussionofpart of' s faMilxofcoefficients. see Klaus. Krip d'orff, 13ivariate Agreeme (Minn S. for the ReliAility of "- (San FianciSco: JOssey-Bass, Inc., 1970). ortratio scale. The project's double-coded The cumulative reliabilityqesults for both, the items sample of data is alyzed for agreement via these and the compound measures and indicators govern coefficients with the aid of a computer program.4 the reporting of the results. 4 Klaus Krippendorff, "A Computer,Program for Agreement sis of Reliability Data, Version 4,' Philadelphia: .The Annenberg 5 ool of Communications, July 1973 (mimeo).

J P

Table A./ Reliability of Variables forPrime Time Television Drama Characters 1 77 Major and Minor Characters

./ Sex .982 N Race .897 Chronological Age .8 Qcc Viol: Committed Victimization .774. N *or Characters Comic Role '.688 0 , ,,613 0

82 Table 13.1 0 Aker Roles by Race and Sex, 1974-75 and 1977

Public 7 Private Figure Crirnlnal- Figure

'41o. % No.i % Majority A Male 1974-75 62 '93.9 18 '69.2 1.1 ,'71,3 1977 124 93.9 26 .4i.;,..!:166.6`.1 _ . . +12.3* Percent Change t-k,14 +36' 14 9.9. 'Female 1974-75 1 23.5 1977 2 22.6 '9.1. 41i Percent Change .4- 7.3 N

Minority kate 1974775 2 19771 3, 16,1 +172.97*. Percent Chadde , :±38.70 74.0

Female 1974 -75" 0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 , 1 OA 1977 o

Percent Change 88.6* ....- -,-,,, .18A 15 10.6. 34.'24.1 141 100.0 , T014 1974 -75 66 46.8 26 31'''''Y'.." 12.4 11 4A 249. 100.0 1977 132 53.0 ., 34 . 13.6 ', 41 16A

Percent Chgglapk, 26:1%. + 54.T Table B.2 Gender Distributions of Correspondent Appearances, by Network and Month, 1977

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr, May June July Aug.Sept Oct . Nov. Dec.Total ABC .. No. 131 138 159 147 143 157 184 189 f77 177 162 1935 Appea.randes 87.9 90.8 -94.1 93.6 89.4 934 92.0 87.9 88.5 90.'5 84.8 90.2 29 211 ,Fetnalel No. 18 14 10, 10 17 11 16 26 23 18 19 12.1 9.2 5.9 6:4 10.6 6.5 8.0 12.1 11.5 9.5 15.2 . 9.8 Appeilranes s.

No. 149 152 169 1,57 160 '4168 200 215 200 189pf, 196 191 2146 Ubtotal.: % 100.0100.0 109.0 166: 0 1oQ0 993 10019 100f 100.0 100.04:l'1 00.0100.0 . Male No 189 174 199 182 200 176 194 209 91 172 V,170 , 185 2241 Appearances %. *9 90.6 89.6 90.5 90.1 88.0 85.1 90.9 4.1 96.6 +90.4 33.9 90.8

Female I4 ;18 23 19 '22 24 34 21 12 6 18 12 228 Appearances NO. .1 '9.4'10.4 9A 9:9: 12.0 149 9.1 5.9 3.4 9.6 5,1 9.2.

No. 208 192 222 222, 299 4228 230 203 178 188 197.2469 Subtotal 100.0 100.0,100.0 100.0100.0 1003 , % 100.0100.0 100.0 99.9196,0100.0 100.0

NB .7..9 Male No. 167 139 158 -149 155 152 153 176 '164 172 200 165 1950 Appearances % 90.8 82.7 82.7 83.7 88.1 86.8 84.5 .91.2 91.6 91.0 94.3 85.9 87.9

F le No. 1 7 2 9 33 29 21 23 28 17 15 17 12 27 268 14.1 12.1 Appearances % 9.2 ,17.3 17.3 ;163 . 11.9 13.2 *15.5 8.8 .8.4 9.0 5.7

A A ' , a t No. 184 11;0 -',191 , 478 176 175 181 193 179 189 212.192 2218 Subtotal % 100.0 10430q17100'.0 99°.9 190.0loos) 100.0 loo .o.000 J loos)100.0loom166.0 -', ,-. , Total Male No 487 01.4-'7,0'516 478 496 485 531 5'.4 532_ 515 547 512 6124 91.8 88.3. 89.6 Appearances % 90.0 88:1°' 88.6 . 89.2 88.9 893 87.2 90.0 91.4 92.6

61 66 58 62 58 78 64 50 41 49 68 709 Total Female No 54 ,.. Appearances % 10.0 11.9 11.3 10.£1 11.1 10.7 12.3 10.0 8.6 7.4 8 2 11.7 10A

.Total Appearances No. 541 512 582 5361,558 543 6y19 638 582 556 ' -5 e 580 min % 106.0100.0 99.9100.0, 100.0 .,.,1 00.0109.0 100.0 100.0, 100.0 100.0100:0100.0

, )1, ., , Table B.3 Female Correspondents Appearing on Network Television News in 1977

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. MAT June duly Aug. Sept. Oct. NoW Dec. 'Total

No. ABC

Bettina Gregory. 2 2 4 4 9 2 6 6 4 7 56 25.0 Ann Compton 2 3 2 4 11 3 3 ' 6 50 22.3-

Julie Eckart 3 2 3 4 3 3 1 2 .35 15.6 t, -

Hillary Brown 1 2\ 3 6 1 1 2 0 17 7.6 M rgaret Osmer. 1 0 0 1 2 0 2 0' 1 1 ) 2 11 14.9 D reen Kays' 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 7. 8 3.6 °)-Catherin Mackin 0 0 0 0 0 0' 2 1 1, 3 ' 7 ,3.1 Sylvia Chase 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 5 '0 7 3.1- -,--

Lynn Sherr 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 1 2 0 7 3.1 Barbara Walters 0 0 0 1 r0 0 0 :I 1 2 5 2,2 ,Sonya Friedman 0, 0 0, 0 1 0 0 0 3 Lynn Ganser 0 0 0 0 0 -,-- Cl 1 0 0. 2 0.9 Miscellaneous' 1.3 TOTAL 10 11 16 26 23 18. 19 29 211 . 99,8.

'Mean No. of ,-, Appearances2 3.6, 2.5 2.5 3.4 2.g,....: 4.0 . 2.6. 2,47 1:6 1.9 *2.9 : 2.5 . 1Inclj4des..the following correspondents who appeared once: Karen Kelley, Au4ust;'..tual Bloom, August; Adrienne Alpert,October... 20nly those correspondents known to be employed by' BC in a given month were counted Whertfcleterminingmeans.. Thus, until August only.the first five correspondents Wi3rcrused when determining means, For.qx.areph.i.'during the month. of January, the first five correspondents madea total of. 18 appearanCes,for an average of 3.6 appearances per correspOn.dent,(Barbara Walters, whose anchor role'Was Increasingly transformed Into, a c orrespondent's role, was counted as a correspondent from August through December.) .. ..,,, ttBS

Robin. Wright 1 1' 3 4. 1 ' 4 3 14. Betty Ann .Bowser 3 2 6 3' 2' 3 '2 3 1 2 0 ". 30 13.2 5 4.eslie Stahl 2' 4 --3 0 3 9 0 24 10.5 ___. Marya McLaughlin. 3 0 2 0 4, 4 4 1 0 - 2 0 23 10.1

Sharron LovejoY' 3' 4 '2 2 0 3 ,, 1 0 0 0. 19 .8.3 Renee F'oussaint 2 1 4 1. 2 4 . 3 1 . 0° 0 0 0 18 7.9 :44ie Casselberry 3 0 .3 1 1 G; 0 5.7. Susan Peterson 0 .0 1 1" 2 '0 12' 5.3 0 Sitsan Spencer 0 0 , '0 1 '0 1 111 4.8 0 Betsy Aaron - 2 1 4 0 11 4.8 ?Lee Thornton' o 2- 1 0. 0 1----2 10 4.4 'Martha Teichner -0 '0 , '0 .,..0 4 3 31 - o i, Miriam Bjerre o one 0 3 IA 4, . 1.8 Jana Miller 0 t o 0 )0 3 1.3 Jhrl Snyder 0 0 - .0. Joan Half 0 1 0. Miscellehenyis: . 2.6

TOTAL' ' 19 . 18 -23 19 22 228 99.2 Mean No. (11 Appearances' 1.7 1:6 2.1 1.7 2.0 2,',0 1.8, 1.5. 1.0:. 2.2 2.0 .1.8 .-.',..- . i ' "Includes the following correspondents wtio;a0Peared once Vivian lion januaryi...Connie Chung, Janpary; Melinda Ni, x March; Mellrida Liliu, .4.1uly; Linda Kobbel, August;.Angela ShelleY;°.SOterriber. -.-.:. 7,,:,::: Xonly4hose Correspondents known to be employedaseorreificrgeatiin-agly Month' weie counted. For example, Les1,_ Stahl left the CBS'' Evening .News. to co- anchor, the CBS Morning pews in Seefe,mber: The.aVerages Ore probably high because severaLinfreQuew., appearing cerresi3andents were not counted if they did nct.aPPear again later'iri; the year; such as. Joan Snyder, Betsy'Aaron, and - -ton Lovejoy, 85 Table 8.3 (Continued) 0

Dec. Total Jan. Feb. `Mar. Apr. May June July Aug.!' Sept. Oct. Nov. No.

4' NBC 0 1 :. 60 22.2 Marilyn Berger 7 11 10 11 9 0 2 6 6 56 20.7 Jut0Oodi.bff 2 2' 5 6 6 . 2 10 ,. 47 17.4 5 2 6 3 .4- 5 4 lo Parole%Simpson 1 r 5 4 0.. 1 5 7 32 '11.8 Linda Ellarbee 2 6 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 21 7.8 'Catherine Mackin3 1 4 4 ..4 -1 0 16 5.6 1 1 2 0' 0 2 0. Betty Rollin ..., 0 0 9 3,3 Hillary Brown 0 ,,,, 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 -3.0 ary Alice VVilliame.OV 0 0 o' . , 2 0 1 2,'2 2 7 2.6 ,4i.401ca Savitch 0 . 0 0 0 '0 . 0 0,. 0 0 0 5 0 Ti . ,tfi.iiiie Wildman 1 3 1 0 '. 0 i,.. 0 0. 0 10 3.7 iscellaneous° 0 ,, '. 1 0 '2 ____ , : 27 .270' 99.9 TOTAL' 17 29 33 29 23 !3 28 17 15 17 12 x. ,, Mean No'. of ao 3.81 2.9 3.5 2.8 2 1. Z4 3.8 Appearances° 2,4 3.6 4.1 2.9 _ February; Stephanie Fowler, March; Jan Ryan, April;Sandy G ore, ,,Includes the following corre ndents who appeared once:.Heidi Schtilmnn, TierI.Rolland,-Octe oblh broth, April; Tricia Toyota, Jane; Audroy.lune Taylor, June; Liz Trotta, July; and April; Betty Furness, Ap , CleterminIng moans; if a, correspondentla known io have left NBC, asIn the "Only, those rredpoanti already omployed worocounted whenfor those months In which a.zero appears. . case of Cat arenaackin or Diane Wildman; she was not counted

61'

0 -.

ta,

86 93' Appendix C ?S, titration of Etnplciyees in Nine.Job Categories o 4.,,...-.."...- -,:l' 40StaticAAample '1.1105and: 1977 - 'e ..,.,?... t.:,':' .;.'; 1975 , 19i7: . .., , %Change 9,V --No. % froM1975

Official's Managera;, 1,093.,13.4 4,175 14.4 +,7.5 Wafessicmale 2 159 20.4> '..2,2694' 28.0 +6.1" Techniditins `..2 524 2,618 32.0 3.6 Sales 310'.. 3,8 252, tit. 3.1 -16.4

5tittotal 6,086 74.5 6,33.4 77.5 + 4..0**

''Clerical 1,438 1,7.6 1,469%, 18.0.0-3.3 Craftsmen 415 5.1, 172 2.1 ° 58.8""" Operatives 99 1.2 -N 1.1 -8.3 Laborers 25 0,3." 0.3 Service Workers 113 1.4; f00 1.2 -14.3

Subtotal 2,090 25.6 1,85,1 22Z-11.3**

TOTAL 8,176 100.1 8485 100.2 *Difference is significaht etRe .05 level. DIfference Is significant at. the .01 level. "'Difference is significant at the .001lever

Table C,2 ,.. :s Comparison of Percentages of OffIcial.andManagOEMployeet Vstsus All Employees (40-station sample) = 4 1977, Total and Percellkilf ...- ",,, --,..Aiffetf American' Officials mit-, . . . Managers .Ariidglogiti .. Indian /', Among All . 0' b.".,-°.-,_ Alaskan .4, PaniC Employees White '.atlitack ''''.::Y.. Native ,' . I4- Female r. Male Female... FcMale male 9 ' 11 75 61 52 12 ,c; Official and 11o. 763 250 " 1. '0.8 14.4 Manager Employeet 64.9, 4.4 : 10 178 11.8, 8185 4682 7642: 1689 561 \ 76 84J. 13 0.9 1.1 .0.2 0.1 2.2 1A 99..9 EmployeN:. 57,2 21.'8 8.4 '8..8 5; 813 - 29.4 - 75.0 Percent Difference +11.9":* -1.4 -61.5*** -54.5".4+ 10.0

. "DiffeAnce significanlrat the .001' level.. is

87 Table C.3 Utilization Ratios' of Employees at 40 Televisidn Stations,by, Race Ethnicity, and Sex 1977

White Black;' ;7°$ Hisizenie Male Femalei. Male ,frenlaie Female.

New York' Upper Four Job Categories 1.43 0.43 0.76 1,30 0.44 '0.81 0.77 °0.94 1.78 1.11 0.64 1.30 0.79 1.12 1.61 : 1.11 0.86 0.90 0.44 0.79 0.79 0.54'

All Nine Job Categories 1.25, p.63 0.63 0.12 0.79 0.46 '-gli L04 0.71 0.84 0.79 1-.16 1.28 1.78 0.98 0.77 1.18 0.88 0.9,1 1.16 1.78 0.83..' 1.16 0.75 0.65 219 - 0.71 Los Angeles

Upper Four Job Categories 11'6 0.47 , 1.24 0.62 0.71 0.35 1.14 0.67 0.94 0.75 1.17 0.81 0.75 0.14 1.22 2.27 1.11 0.48: 1.70 0.67 0.57 0.18 1.50 110' 1.18 0.52 1.36 0.23 0.84 0.22 0.18' 0,53

All Nine Job Categories 1.04 0.63. 1.13 0.76 0.64 0.72 1.04 0.60 0.74 0.96 1.11 1.64 0.74 0.26 0.90 3.30 0.91 0.64" 1.43 1.10 0.66 ..0.63 1.82 2.20 ' 1.0 0.64.r ' 117 0.50 0.86 0.36 0.31. 1.60 Chicago Upper Four Job Categories. 1.74 0.44 0.87 0.26 :88 1.91. \ 0.33 0 :55 0.32 0.17 1.72-"0.31 1.04 0.40 1:29 013 1.73 0:49 0.61 0.08

. All Nine Job Categories- 1.51 0.58 0.78 0.44 0.86, 0.65 1.76 3.52 1.7,1 0.46 046, 0.50 0.5Q 0.69 3.501' 1.76

.1.45 0.42 1:01 0.98 c\.. 1.17 , 1.13 4,41 0.59 1.50 0.67 0,75 3.53 5.29

petreit . Upper Four Job Categories 1.52 .0.30 0.76 4.1.59 ". 0.96 0.57 Ni.).Q7 .428 1.4 0.38 1.17 43.18. -.- . 4.40 1.41 0,47 4'1 0.62 =`.- C"" All Nine Job Categories. '1.18 0.57 'f4t1; v 1 1 1.22 ..:.,=;;;,..5.74 19- 1.67 4.12 ' 0.75 0.64 1 .9q-,....2!51 - .18.12 1.24 0.52 1.25 p.76 , - 1.67 510 0.68 0.61 1.1.4 , 2.62- 6.25 Philadelphia I Upper Four Job Categories 1.44 t.29 .0.76 0.45 0.49 3:33,i} 1.35 0.45 0.72 :. "0.79 Q.21 5.2 -77 4.28 1.59 0.26 0.41 ;025 6.78 1.22 0.51 1.45 '0.32 0.98 All Nihe Job C4tegories 1.27 k);0 0.00, 0.42 11.18 1.42 1.90' 1-.14 0.63 0.07 0.33 8.23 - 0.52i 1:.30 0.50 -0.63 0.92 v._ 8.23 5Q0 - 1.07 0.71 1.39 0.65 0.84 4.12

88' Table C.3 (Continued) San Francisao Upper Four Job CategOries 1,13 0.16 0,24. 0.28 0.67 0:56 1.78. 0.34 1.23 sf 0.34 0.67 0.22' - 0.75 0.56 1'.84 0.28 1.30 0.24 0.72 0.65 0.20. 0.82: -2.09 1.05 0:20 :' 0.29 038 . 0.33 0,65 0.25.- All Aloe Job Categories ,-,i 75. .4,, .0,96 0 34 't -'- :0 , 0,62::1.04 -'11.36;0.64- 0.7'' 514.,91'-,''0,93 '11.51 4!- . 1.19 0.55 7 9;55, 7. 0. -A14 0.78 1.00 0.50 o,41 0.3Z 0.55 0.27 ,- St. Louis Upper Four Job. Categories 2.03 042 8.12 18.60 0.95 .0.39 1.60 5.71 0,54 0.39 1,60 0.80 0.19 2.401( All Nine Job Categoriei 1.70 1.55 5:00 11.43 0.92 1.74 2.60 4.30 0.66 0.81 1.40 0.92 1.13 1.60 Cleveland Upper'Four.job Categories 1.91 0.19 1.43 0.29 1.51: 4:70 1.84 0.33 1.15 0.28 3.64 1.82 0.21" 1.32 0.65 2.08' 7.06 1.72 0.50 0.71 0.42 . All Nine Job Cidegories 1.72 0.32 1.46 p.56 _1.32 4.12 1.58 0.46 1.06, 0.93 .- 2.73 1.50 0.44 1.32 1.00 1.70 6.80 4:70 ' 1.42 6 0.57 0.-60 2.80 P Washington, D.C. Upper Four Job Categories / 1.07 :r 1.02 0.86 0.96. 0.19 1'.33 1.16 0.62: 0.07 1.64 1.34 '0:49."" 0.54 0.14 0.55 0.23 0.72 0.53', 0.93A; 0.66 f 1,0.86 .37 0.780 1.05.° .''0:96: 1.16 6. X22.; 0.83 0.06 1.- 37 1i1h 1.53 0.86 "0 11 0441 0.17 1.35 1.34 0.68 6,86 Atlant a.. - Upper F9,ur Job Categories q, 1.32- 0.65 4 1.16 0.22 '1.20 0:77 1.07 0,69 - 1:52 0.31 1.09 0.39. 7.27 --- . 1:58, 0.35 0.78 0.42-,,, ,A, AU Nine Jobtgalegories . 1.15 0.84 -1.05 0.49' 9 .14 0.92 0.77 .1.49 1.59 1,19' 0.Z7.;, 0.94 0.77 ;1.33,- 0.61 ."'' 0.70 0.92 , %. .. . 1 , , tPar)ty if.00) is achieved whenthe percentage . of employees of each group at a televislowstatibn equals the percentage,of eachgroup in the local . SKISA,Tabor force. In the cases of Ghicago and Cleveland, population data. were substituted for labor force data due to the unavailability laborforcb dataiubdividect b9 sex. of . . - . . . nfikostAMSAs, labor force data are not ermVed,seearately for'Asian and ether es'"other races." ThispqmrnIssion Pacific Island Americans and American Indians; Ins,tatid, theyare g, uped to obtain data foreachgroup separately. Asian and PacificIslandAmericans and .;.l'-leallindiansoften :constitute relatively sniallsmall percentagespercentages of labor forces and the employment ofeven one person.from either of these. groups altetion-wittr.relativity foi4einployees often.,, artificially raises their utilizatiOnratios, as can be seen In' some of These data,' eleleytaiarkursicbts are ran-ked.ascprdia4 to loow.4tully the stations inthemarketutilizeminoritiesand women, 44e*.1(WittinetlIlei,and.4*nen are.moreltilly ikiliaed'ari'd in`Atlentathey are less fully utilized. , .. rieth irdicatei:that.peopfe of this gtroiiiara.10 fhO;1.0cal..faf bor force but none are .ogteloyed at the station. '''':'. Z".1.' .!*. ., ',.. .. .V:,:.:7, :

89 Table C.4 FCC Form 395 Submissions by ABC, CBS,and NBC,

Number of Number pf Number of ABC - Employees CBS Employees NBC Employees v. 1. Radio-TV Los Angeles 1. TV Network Division 1. TV Network (Chicago,. . (includes San Fran- (Los Angeles) 957 Burbank, Washington, cisco Stations) 1,088 2. TV NetworkDivision DC) 2,807 2. Radio-TV New York 3,204 (Washington, '.77 2)TV Network (Burbank) 1,126 3. Radio-TV Chicago 77 3. TV Network (New York) 1,800 3.7V Network (Washing 4. Radio-TV Washington, SUBTOTAL 2,834 ton,DC) 153 D.C. 228 4. TV Network Consoli- 4. TV Network (Chicago) 58 5. TV Network News At- dated(NY,DC, LA, 5. Station HQ (Chicago) 15 _ lanta - 31 Chicago, Detroit) 2,834 6. Station HQ (San Fran- SUBTOTAL 4,628 5. CBS TV Stations Divk . cisco) 3 ,(Employees at owned sion 213 ° 7. Station HQ. (Detroit) 3 stations submitted sep- .(Employees at owned 8, HQ owned TV-Radio 109 tarately by stations) 1,986. stations submitted sep- 9. Radio Netviork (New, 6. Consolidated Report .6,614 aratelyby station) 1,324 York) 292 SUBTOTAL 1,537 10. Radia Network (Wash: 6. Consolidated TV Sta- ington,' DC) 36 tions Division 1,5-37 11. Radio Network (Bur- : 7. CBS RadioNetwork bank) Division New York) 230 12. Radio Network (Chicago) 7 8. CBS Radio Stations SUBTOTAL ' 4,612 Divisiori (New York) 85 (Employees at owned ( Employees at owned stations submitted sep- stations`subrnitted separately by stations) arately by stations) 699 13. Congolidated Report SUBTOTAL 784 9. ponsolidated CBS RadioStationsDivi- sion 784 10. CBS. Newsdivision (Washington, D.C.) 109 11. CBS it News Division (New York) 768 SUBTOTAL 877 12. Consolidated CBS News Division 877 No Overall Consolidated Report submitted 6,614 6,032 Source: Form 395 Employment reports submitted to the FCC.

90 Table C.5 . Officials and Managers by Race, Ethnicity and SexFor Network-Ownedg bo*;41 Verius NetWork He,adquarters !y.1`,,' 1977.1/- ) " rt,t,tfi

Asian, American ,I American/ Indian/ Pacific,islancV Alaskan Native 1110 - . White' Femlet. MaleFeMple Male Male 'Female Male . Female , Male ABCs Owned No. 208 76 7 Stations -1 % 65.2. 23.8 2.2 a I Headquarters No. 722 , 167 28 ,(1/0 75.0 17.4 2.9 -12.5 +8 Percent Difference 4:1.5.0" -26.9**+31.8 -66.0*i* -33.3

CBS I 0 2 6 '.:4 4reL11 Owned 'No. 148 93 14 21 3 0.7 0.0_ 0.7 2.0 -IA 50.5 31.7. ''44 'Stalions dz 5 0 , 0 13 1,, 4 Headquarters 619 163 29 13 /5 0.0 0.0 1.5 ":0.1 72.1 19.0 3.4 1.5 1..8 0.6 - 25.0 -92.8- percent Difference + 42.8* ",* -40.14**.-: 29.2 - 79.2*** +80.0-'14.3

NBC 1 0 1 0. Owned No. 157 36' 0.4 OM 1.7 0.0, Stations % 69.8 16.0 4.0 'OA X679 5 3. 0 1- 1 10 1 Headquarters No. 559 80 19 0.1 1.5 .0.1 14.7 82.3 11.8 2.8 0.7 0.4 0.0,, . . - . -75.0 -11,8 +27.8*** ,1 Percent Difference +17.9"*. -26.2 . -63,2***-82.5*

. - data shown here...Official and itted,tbrthe FCC in 1977 were used to deveriap the "headquarters" reports Source: Network headquarters reports subm thrOugh,S, ABC; reports' 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10; and 11; CBS; and s, ; manager employees include theser reportedfor each headquarters unit: reports 1 it designations.) Owned-statiOn data include both television and,radio station official and manager 1 through 12, NBC. (See table IC.3 for these employees are included because it is impossible to. employees repocted by ABC, . CBS, and NBCfor each of their owned:stations, Radio station C.3. ' . . from radio headquarters emplciees. See. table. 4 pr, ...-...... se paratelelevisidn 'headquarterb employees . . *Difference Is significant at the .05 level. ,. 'Difference is significant at the-.01 level. DIffere'rice is significant at the .001 level. Table t6 . . employees by Race; Eihnie-Ity.and Sex For * work-Owneil Stations Versus Network Headqudi ers t977

. , Total Employees Asia . American and percent ' Ameilc n/ Indent at Stations .Pacific I land Alaskan Native' Hispanic .. and Head -.° Malt' emele MaleFemaleMale Female querlers

ABC \ 1 :Owned. No 1216 417 110 123, 21 25 4 32 1986 Stations % 61.2 r 21.0 5.5 6.2. -1.0. ", 0.3 0v2 t6 1.7 30.0 -- , . Headquarters No 2744 1166 237 213 / 37 22' 2 2' A28 ' 77. 4628 % -59.3 % 252 5°.1 4.6 -0:8 0.5 0.0 0.0- 2.8 1.7 '70.0 Perc.ent ;Difference- --3.1 +'20,0 *-1:3 25,8." 20.0 .; -15 ; - +75.0 " 'cps cek

Owned' No, 104 378 128 123 -10 25 4 52 ' 26 17 )3442..1.4. Statlorid 58.4 21,1 7.1 6.9 0.6 .4 0.0 0:2 2.9. 1A 29.7

Headquarters No. 2611 1028 215 159 67, 0 0 99 31 4239 % 61.6 . 24.2' 5:1 1.6 cl.,0 0.0 2.3 " 0.7' -70.3

Percent Difference 5.5*- 428.2** .- 44.9*.1.-* -1,166:7.** - -20:7 -50.0**

NBC

Owned 'No. 1042 408 2088. 157< 29 5 57 =32 1962 Stations %, .53.1 20.8 ,10.6/ 8.0 1.5 0.2 0.4.: 2.9 1.e 29.8 Headquarters. No. 2813 1087 220 240 '37 1. 3 15 6 11g_ 59 4612 % 61.0 23.6, 48 , 0.8\ 0.3 .0,1 2.4 1.38 70.2

Percent Difference +14.9*** +13.55 * 35.0* " * 46.7* *\ -5.3** +50.0 - -718.8 ,

Source: Network headqu.arter;rePorts submipedato the, FCC .in 1977 were used to develop the'headquarters" data shown here: All employees. . include those reported for each headquarters unit.Owned- station data include both radio andtelevision station employees reported by ABC, CBS, and NBC for each of their owned stations..41adio station einployeee were included becatlse. its impossible to separate radio hltadquarters employeefNm television headquarters employees. See table,C.3. - *Difference is significant at the :05 ievel.. "Difference is significant at the .01 level. "" "Difference is significant at the .001.1evel. Table C.7 . EmployeeS in Nine Job Categories at Network Headqtkarters by Race, ethnicity and Sex's 1977 , Asian AMerican7 American Indian/ White. '13litck -Pacific Island.. .Alailcan Native Hispanic - Total

Male FemaleMale FemaleMaleFemale Male Female ..MainFemale Employees .

Officials-and ., Managers --,. ABC No. 722' 167 28 17 8 I 2 0 0 13 5 962

. % 26.3 14.3 11.8 .8.0 21.6 1 9.1 0.0 0.0 10.2 6.5 20.8 . . -, CBS No. -- 619 163 29 13 15 1 6 0 0 13 1 858 % 23.7 15.9 , 13.5 8.2 22.4 °17.2 0:0 OM 13.2 3.2 20.2

No 559 80 19 5 3' 0 1 1 10 1 679 % 19.9 7.4 8.6 .2.1 8.1 0.0 6.7 16.1 8.9 1.7 14.7

rofessionals

ABC No 516 220 38 14 7 6 0 2 16 4 ..'-822 % 18.8 18.9 16.0 6.6 18.9 ,22.7 0.0 100.0, 12.5 5.2 17.7

CBS No 591 215 39 -.26 . 18 8 0 15 -9 921 % :. 22.6 20.9 18.1 18.4 26.9 27.6 0.0 0.0'I 15.2 29.0 21.7

NBC No. 723 257 51 , 35 11 10 0 1 26 4 1118 r % , 25.7 23,6 23.2 14.6 ` 29.7 43.4 0.0 16.7 23.2 -6.8 24.2 r Technicians

ABC No. 1015 44 68 6 15 2 2. 39 .0 1191 `Ye 37.0 3.8 28.7 2.8 9.1 100.0 0.0 36.5 0.0 25.7

CBS No 932 37 . 81. 1 17 1 0 0 38 2 '1109 °A 35.7 3.6 37.7 0.7 25.4 3.4 0.0 0.0 38:4 6A 26.2 I' I

- NBC No. 959 49 ' 49 18 1 0 44. 1 11'36 34.1 4.5 22.2 2.9 48.6 4.3 53.3 0.0 39.3 1.7 24.6

Sales I

ABC No , 63 . 21 4 2 0 0 .. 0 0 0 1 91

% 2.3 1.8 . 1.7 0.9 -0.0 0.0 2.0 . , 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3

CBS Nd. 76 15 5 7 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 97 %r 2.9 1.5 2.3 --0.0 1.5 ' 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.3 NBC No 42 , 7 4 1 0 0' 0 0 0 0' 54 . cYr, 1.5 , 0.6 1.8 0.4 -- 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 t2

:Office and !Clerical

' ABC No., 190 705 68 172 7 13 0 0 42 67 1264 . °A, 6.9 60.5 28.7 80.8 18.9 59.1 0'.0 0.0 32.8 87.0 27.3

, CBS No. 121 596 16 116 7,,d, 15 r 0 0 8 18 897 4.6 58.9 7.47 73.0 10.4 ,,,..61:3'.110M 0.0 8.1 58.1 21.2

No. 198 685 61 190 1 12 0 4 14 52 1217. 7.0 63.0 27.7 P-79.2'. 2'.7 52.2 0.0 66.7 12.5 88.1 26.4 . 93 Table. e.l..(Coatinued)

Lower Four

No. 238 9 31 2, 0 0 0 , 0 18 0 298 0.8 13.2 1.0 0.0 ,0.0 '0.0 0.0 14.1 0.0 6.3 8.7 4 CBS No. -272 2 45 3 9 O. 0 0 25 , 1 '367 10.4 0.2 20.9 1.9 13A 0.0. 0.0 , 0.0 .25.2' 3.2 8.4.

No: 332 9 36 2 4 0 6 0 18 1" 408 11.8 0.8 1.6.4 0.8 10.8 0.0 40.0 3.0 " 1E1 "1.7 13.8.

C No 2744. 1166 237 213 37 22 2 2 128 77 .4628 % 100.0 100.1 99.9 100.1 99,9 100.0 100.0.166.0 ,100.1 100.0' 100.0 CBS No.. 2611 1028 215 159 67 29 Cr '0.' 99 31,4239 .. % 99.9 100.1 99.9 100.2 100.0 99:9 0.0 0.0 `,1,00.1 99.9 100.0 ,,, NBC No 2813 1087 220 240 37 23 1 §1, 6 112 59 n 4612 100.0 99.9 99.9 100.0 99.9 99.9 100.0 100.1 ,160,0 100.0 99.9 , Federal CommUnications Commission Washington, D.C. 20554 July 19, 1978

Louis Nunez - Acting Staff-Director United States c9mmission on 1121 Vermont Avenue, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20425 1 . ,

Dear Mr. Nunez: ', J ThiS is in referenCe to.yoUr letter of June 9; 1978, transmittingfor this agency's ' consideration "copies of a report,' entitled "Windotv DreSsingon the Set: An:, Update," to be piIblished by the .United States Commission onCivil Rights ,(CCR), Spepiflcally, you reques'ethat we review the draft report. forany material we Tay consider to be inaccurate.. . : .Unfortunately,,time constraints do not.permit a li,ne-by-lineanalysis.of.the factual employment data which the CCR compiled 'front theannual employment repOrts, (FCC Form 105). of the selected 40 television stations.HOweVer, the employment inaccurate.,WhileCCR acknOWledges.thattlitse . ) figures do not appear substantially figures reflect increased 'minority and'female particpation,levels in 1976 and 1977, it;: finds on the basis of a study of employee"job titles, sa1aries,4iand status' on organizational charts" at eight of the sampled stationsthat minority and .femalesdo nbt occupy decisionmaking positions. Accordingly, the CCRcriticizesas it had in its earlier report-.the inflated classification of employeesin the various FOrm 395 job categories, particular tbe officials and managers category.Whether the .tise 'of the present', FCC Form: .305 results in an inaccurateand misleading picture of minority and female employmer because the job categories aretoo vague and/ are inot function:oriented. was \ the pnmar concern,tVhich led the Commission.. to institute in November of 1977; a general ruleMqking inquiry concerningthe annual, employment -report.. In the' instant report, CCR commends thisaction of theI Commission and urges Ahe \ expeditious resolution of thatinquiry,. Implicit in the refport is CCR's suggestion that once an accurate picture ofth'et6atus of women and minorities in the television industry is get forththeCominission would be attentive . tito their inclusion:in 'true decisionmaking positions attelevision broadcast.stations. We believe that the implementation, of sucha itcothinendaiibri, be it expressly, stated' or otherwise, would be fully compatible withthe C,orninissiOn's regulatory responsibilitiesin the. EEO area. 0 The remainder of the report details a survey ofthe .portrayaf of minoritieg and women in television dramas'afid their coverageand participation in network news programs. Based essentially upon a monitoring of twoweeks of prini time network prograrnming, CCR concludes that there has been a decline inminority andfemale A , . . news Coverage sinceits. its earlier report and that minorities and females are now._

portrayed in entertainment, peogicams both in an underrepreSented fashion'andin a 1 ,stereotyped manner to an even greater extent than befcire. We believe. thatthe/ conclusioq draWn by'CCR from the stated comvpilations cannot be readily-acepted wttbout am analysis of the7actual programs monitored andan assessment of the , subjective determinations Made by die monitors. More importantly,eventif the -problem does exist as reported by CCR;we continue to believe, as earlier,statirl in I our response to the first CCR report, that the. Commission, for constitutionalas well as,practical.reasons,, cannot allow itself Co be drawn into the role of overseeingthe content of entertainment prograink, judging role models, or otherwise improperly a intruding in!o the prOgramraingrjudgments of itteleviSion licensees. ' In the updated report, CCR acknowledges the tightropethe.Comraission must walk with respect"tO"the regulation ofteleVision, programming fareand the limits of orr '1' regulakry 'authority with respect to the three 'national televiiiOnnetworks. °. 'Nevertheliss, CCR submits that the folloWing issues should, beexplored in, the 'COmraission's pending inquiry 1 - regarding theSe ,shOuld be explored inthe,:,

Commission's pendinglquity'regarding these networks: . , -- DO6 the fact that netWdrk prime time entertainmentprograms exeljde and or:'

underrepresent, minorities andwomen and Pairay them in stereotypedroles constitute a failure .to serve the public interest? To what extent do exclusion, underrepreratation, and stereotypingresult from concer>tratial of pro priming decision-makingat the networklevel? To what extent d ve the failure of the networksto employ minorities and women in significant rs in decision-making positions result in the continued .and, even, increased Tgihire of the networks to include, minorities and women in

representative numbers and roles that generate respect? . To what extent is the failure of the networks to covernews about minorities and women and to seek out female and minority newsmakersa restilt of the overwhelming dominance of theirnews opdra0ons by white males?,-/ I ,hive consulted with the Network Inquir'41 staff andwe do not .believe that expansion. of the network inquiry in the Manner suggested by CCR is essentialto a meaningful ,evaluation of the - matters at issue in that proceeding, namely,whether the netWorke ,,re engaging in practices which might unduly encroach on the programming Ncretion of television. broadcast licensees or unnecessarily 'restrict '4., the development of new sources of television programming.Moreover, such enlargeMent would embroil theCoMmisSion in thetype of programming review that it mst, as indicated above, eschew.

Sincerely yours,

Wallace E. Johnson Chief Bioadcast Bureau _ L Appendix E

Federal ConimunicationsCommission Washington,' D.C. 20554, Oct. 16, 1978

Mr. Louis. Nunez Acting Staff Director United States Commission onCivil Rights -1121 Vermont Avenue,N.W. Washington; D.C. 20425

Dear Mr... Nunez.

portions of your report :Pursuant to your request wehave reviewed the re-drafted In thisregatik' entitled "Window DieSsing onthe Set:' AU Update" for accuracy. more complete FCCpolicy information andnetwork employment, data was 1. . provided to your staff on October12,1978. unwarranted at this time because youhave Ftirther comment on the report appears _ wish ou tnote' also not provided ns with thefortliZOming recommendation: We to the Commission'sNotice ofrInqui concerning . that we anticipate a' resolution 395Yin the near -the Imenddent of the AnnualEmploym'ent Report (FCC Form 31, 1978): For tliesereasons:We future. (A special meeting isscheduled on OctObec 'prefer to respond in atmore.detailed,mannerwhen yoUrseport is published.

Charles D..Ferris t Chairman

1979 622-734/583 tr U. S. GOVERNMENT PRrNTING NA 8, .