Reviews ★ Amerikastudien / American Studies 59.4

N E , 1812: War and the Passions boosted American patriotism and why it has of Patriotism (Philadelphia: U of Pennsylva - been publicly remembered as an American nia P, 2012), xvii + 315 pp. success story. Paul Gilje, Professor of History at the University of Oklahoma, A  L  , The Challenge: Britain in the third book under review in this article, Against America in the Naval by contrast, seems at rst glance to keep up (London: Faber and Faber, 2012), 538 pp. the traditional American narrative of the War P  G, Free Trade and Sailors’ Rights in of 1812 when emphasizing Britain’s violations the War of 1812 (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, of American neutral rights and impressment 2013), 437 pp. on the high seas as the causes for America’s declaration of war. Possibly without intend - The traditional American narrative of the ing to do so, however, he also raises troubling War of 1812 emphasizes that British maritime questions about the legacy of the American practices—mainly interferences with Ameri - Revolution when he implies that the asser - can neutral trade and the impressment of sea- tion of the democratic principles that lie at the men from American merchant ships on the bottom of American identity and that were high seas—caused severe Anglo-American symbolized by free trade and sailors’ rights al - tensions in the early nineteenth century such lowed for no other alternative than to declare that Republicans—in power in the United war against the former mother country. In this States since 1801—felt the need to declare war way, Gilje’s monograph also, albeit indirectly, against the former mother country in 1812 undermines the standard interpretation by in order to defend the nation’s honor. In the nding the war’s origins in Americans’ demo - following so called ‘Second War of Indepen - cratic mentality rather than in British mari- dence,’ the U.S. Navy was able to win some time practices. impressive naval battles against the hitherto Eustace tries to explain why the war be - undefeated , the traditional story came “a popular success” (xi) by analyzing it continues, and thus made Great Britain ac - not as a “military” but as a “cultural event” knowledge American sovereignty in the Trea- (x). According to her, the United States went ty of Ghent in 1814. The War of 1812 produced to war primarily to expand westwards and to military heroes such as James Lawrence, Da - drive Indians off their lands in the West. The vid Porter, , and Andrew displacement of the Native populations, more - Jackson and thus promoted American na - over, was a goal that united white Americans tionalism, such that the initially divisive war of all stripes. Eustace analyzes how Republi - ushered in the so-called Era of Good Feel - can war supporters portrayed Indians as ruth- ings, the classical American interpretation less savages that mercilessly butchered white concludes. children and abducted and raped white wom - On the occasion of the bicentennial of the en and how Republicans thus felt justied to conict, three works appeared that fundamen - expel Indians from their lands or even to ex - tally call the assumptions of this narrative into terminate them. “The tale of the bloodthirsty question. Nicole Eustace, Associate Professor savage bent on violating women and children of History at New York University, called the in the pursuit of a population competition that war “a grave American embarrassment” (31), bordered on genocide usefully projected U.S. in which diplomatically and militarily the goals and tactics onto the nation’s enemies” United States achieved nothing and which was (151). As their resistance was broken in the marked by disastrous military failures on the war and as they lost protection by the British American side. Andrew Lambert, Professor who did not insist on taking their Indian al - of Naval History at King’s College, London, lies’ interests into account in the peace nego- found that “after a litany of defeats all along tiations, Republicans felt that their most im- the Canadian border, the capture and destruc - portant war aim had been achieved. tion of Washington, bankruptcy and the loss In a fascinating chapter on the public inter - of several warships, including the national pretation of the Battle of New Orleans—fought agship; the peace settlement had been a for - in January 1815 after the so called ‘Christmas tunate escape” for the American government Peace’ of 1814 had already been concluded— (1-2). As both authors concur that America Eustace exposes that Republicans falsely did not ‘win’ the War of 1812, they seek to claimed that the British soldiers had allegedly understand—yet in different ways—why it been promised the women of New Orleans as

Amerikastudien / American Studies 59. Jg., ISSN 0340-2827 © 2015 Universitätsverlag WINTER GmbH, Heidelberg Amerikastudien / American Studies 59.4 ★ Reviews their reward if they won against the American for future territorial expansion and Indian re - forces. Republicans concluded that Ameri - moval. The overall consequence of Indian de- can victory in the Crescent City thus ensured feats and the assertion of American manhood the safety of Louisianan women. As a result, was the strengthening of white American the War of 1812 could be depicted as a suc - reproductive facilities, territorial expansion, cess, even though the original war aims—free and American nationalism and consequently trade and sailors’ rights—had not even been Americans came to regard the War of 1812 as mentioned in the Treaty of Ghent, because—it a great victory. would appear—“American men had protected By turning away from Anglo-American their women” (216). Moreover, Eustace ar - relations and instead focusing on white gues that the claim that it was only through American perceptions of Native Americans, Jackson’s victory at New Orleans that Ameri - Eustace offers a convincing explanation for can women had been protected from sexual why Americans considered the war a vic - violence by British soldiers reinforced gen - tory despite their failure to attain any war der inequalities and contributed to the con- aims with regards to Great Britain and the tinuous denial of women’s right to politically maritime issues. After all, large-scale Indian participate in the American nation: “Framing resistance against whites’ expansionism was Jackson’s victory at New Orleans as a strike broken once and for all. Whereas diplomatic against sexual assault helped men maintain historians have shown that alleged British the proposition that, even in the absence of support for Indians attacking settlers on the any other economic or political rights, wives frontier played no role in the coming of the owed unquestioned allegiance to their hus - war and that the Madison Administration bands and their nation in return for simple only added the accusation that Great Brit - protection from rape” (218). ain was behind Indian warfare to the list of According to Eustace, the major results of complaints to make the war declaration more the War of 1812 therefore have little to do with justied, Eustace shows that—whatever their the maritime disputes between the United reasons for supporting or opposing the war in States and its former mother country. Most 1812—Americans tended to unite behind ef - importantly, U.S. troops had decisively beaten forts to displace Native Americans once war Indians in the Northwest and Southwest and operations had commenced. By stressing In - thus opened the areas to white settlement, as dian cruelties and threats to white American the British chose to withdraw their demand civilians, Republicans could generate support for an independent Indian buffer state in the for a deeply divisive war. In other words: they peace negotiations, preferring quick peace in tried to make Americans turn their eyes from North America after more than two decades of the East to the West. It remains an open ques - warfare in against rst Revolutionary tion, however, how inuential the discourses and then Napoleonic , thus effectively Eustace discovered in presidential speeches, betraying their Indian allies: “The decision to newspaper editorials, political cartoons, nov - do nothing at Ghent meant everything to the els, plays, poems, and tavern songs actually Indians who faced certain dispossession from were. Critics of the ‘expansionist thesis’—the that day forward” (227). The second impor - claim that the United States declared war tant result of the War of 1812, Eustace argues, in order to conquer —maintain that was of a domestic nature. As Republicans problems along the frontier concerned mostly portrayed the war as a conict between vir - Westerners and that those residing along the tuous and brave American men and sexually Atlantic seaboard were more concerned with depraved Indians and Britons, it contributed trade. Moreover, Federalists remained vehe - to the continued exclusion of women from full mently opposed to the war until the British citizenship. As American men had protected destroyed the American capital and demand - them from assault, women were encouraged ed territorial concessions in the peace nego- to marry soldiers who had defended their tiations in 1814. It is doubtful whether the Re- country and serve as ‘reward’ for their brav - publican propaganda efforts emphasizing the ery. Moreover, after men had performed their Indian threat had much purchase with them. military service to the country and opened Lambert dissects the traditional Ameri - the western land for settlement, women were can narrative of the War of 1812 by taking a expected to produce progeny for the emerg - “British perspective, focusing on the develop - ing American nation and lay the foundation ment of policy and strategy in London and

Amerikastudien / American Studies 59. Jg., ISSN 0340-2827 © 2015 Universitätsverlag WINTER GmbH, Heidelberg Reviews ★ Amerikastudien / American Studies 59.4 the conduct of war at sea” (3). According to against smaller and more lightly armed Brit - him, the Madison Administration declared ish vessels of only 46 guns. According to Lam- war against Great Britain in 1812, since they bert, there was little glory in these battles, believed it was “a golden opportunity to seize since the American were superior to land from the British” (3). When the United their British equivalents in size, repower, States declared war, Napoleon invaded Rus - and crew. Moreover, the outcome of these sia. Expecting the French dictator to win, Re- encounters did not have an inuence on the publicans decided to use the opportunity of outcome of the war: “They did not affect the British distress, Lambert argues, to take Brit - balance of power at sea, impede the reinforce - ish North America—or Canada, as we call it ment of the Canadian army, or raise British today—and incorporate it into the union. In insurance rates” (102). The Republican Ad - his analysis, Republicans’ complaints about ministration, however, used these naval ex- British interferences with American trade and ploits to arouse patriotic sentiment at home, the impressment of American sailors were a which had suffered because of the failed inva - suitable pretext for Republicans to declare a sions of Canada, and trumpeted the glory of war actually embarked upon for territorial ex - the U.S. Navy. They tried to downplay the fact pansion: “In truth American statesmen were that Napoleon’s invasion of Russia had failed not fools; they saw a quarrel about maritime and French forces were in retreat at the end of trade and neutral rights as an ideal opportuni - 1812, such that Britain would subsequently be ty to acquire land” (13). If America’s war aim able to redeploy forces from Europe to North was the conquest of Canada, Britain clearly America and effectively blockade the Ameri - won the war, since it repelled the American can coast with its superior navy. invasions of its provinces in North America, The next year, moreover, witnessed Brit - destroyed the American capital, defeated the ish defeats of American frigates. The turning American navy, and established such an ef - point in the naval war of 1812 came, accord - fective blockade of the United States that the ing to Lambert, in June 1813 when the HMS American government found itself bankrupt Shannon defeated the USS Chesapeake , re - in 1814, customs from imports being the pri - storing British naval prestige in the North mary source of its revenue. Why—in view of Atlantic. As Lambert found that the British these facts—Americans then boasted that the won the encounter because of superior War of 1812 had been victorious is the ques - seamanship, he is very critical of Americans’ tion Lambert seeks to answer in his book. excuses for their defeat. In an attempt to turn He proceeds in two steps. On the one hand, the American James Lawrence into he reinvestigates naval battles between the a martyr, the court martial blamed the de - U.S. Navy and the Royal Navy in order to show feat on bad luck and thus transformed it into that Great Britain won the naval war of 1812. a moral victory, making the words Lawrence In particular, he shows that the three small- ushered when dying in battle into a national scale naval combats that the American navy rallying cry: “Don’t Give Up the Ship” (184). won in the early stage of the war and Ameri - By that time, however, British naval superior - can historians have usually focused their at- ity had resulted in a close blockade of all im- tention on, pale in importance compared to portant American harbors bottling up the re- the later frigate battles from which the Royal mainder of America’s small navy as well as its Navy emerged victorious. On the other hand, merchant marine. As a result, only a twelfth he analyzes how American contemporaries of America’s merchant vessels were able to get at the time have misrepresented the naval en - out to sea in 1814 and the customs revenues of counters and created myths around them to the federal government plummeted, depriving boost American nationalism, thus giving the it of the means to keep up the war effort on impression that the United States had won the a meaningful level. American privateering, naval war of 1812. moreover, increasingly lost in importance, as Lambert dismisses America’s three early the Royal Navy established an effective con - naval victories in 1812—the USS Constitution voy system protecting British merchant ves- versus HMS Guerrière in August, the USS sels and as an increasing number of American United States versus the HMS Macedonian in privateersmen ended up in British prisons: October, and the USS Constitution versus the “After mid-1813 American were HMS Java in December—since they were un - responding to British measures. Fewer pri - equal contests: the U.S. 54-gun frigates fought vateer commissions were taken up as the war

Amerikastudien / American Studies 59. Jg., ISSN 0340-2827 © 2015 Universitätsverlag WINTER GmbH, Heidelberg Amerikastudien / American Studies 59.4 ★ Reviews progressed, prot margins declined, and oper- Since the War of 1812 was a mere sideshow ations were conducted at ever greater distance to Great Britain, few British contemporaries from the home base” (226). At this point, ac - bothered to investigate the conict, leav - cording to Lambert, the United States had de ing the eld open to American writers who, facto lost the war. Lambert complains, have tended to distort the In March 1814, U.S. naval operations in the facts. As a result, many American historians Pacic came to an end when the U.S. frigate have come to the erroneous conclusion that Essex had to surrender to a superior British the War of 1812 had not been an American force. According to Lambert, the American defeat but a tie between both countries. captain David Porter was to blame for the loss The merit of Lambert’s monograph is that of his frigate since—in search for glory—he it provides a needed corrective to previous had deliberately sailed into the Chilean port American interpretations of the naval aspects of Valparaiso, even though he knew that the of the War of 1812. Together with Brian Ar - port was a trap in which a superior British thur—who has already shown in 2011 that the force could easily blockade him. When he Royal Navy won the naval war of 1812 and tried to escape, the HMS Phoebe wrecked his that Britain’s naval blockade of the United ship and he had to surrender. Instead of ad - States in 1813 and 1814 decisively contributed mitting his mistake in sailing into the Chilean to the Madison Administration’s decision to trap, Porter blamed a series of misfortunes for drop the neutral trade and impressment issues his loss of the Essex . The Republican Admin - in the peace negotiations—Lambert demon - istration—eager for good news to make up for strates convincingly that the emergence of the renewed failure to invade Canada—ad - American national heroes in the naval war of opted Porter’s version and hailed the battle as 1812 had less to do with their accomplishments an exemplary display of American heroism. than with Republicans’ need for glorious news Instead of chastising Porter for irresponsibly to generate support for the oundering war ef- taking up a ght with a superior force, Repub - fort. 1 Their works are particularly important, licans—desperately needing a new national since the historiography of the War of 1812 hero—emphasized his unprecedented brav - has been dominated by American and Cana- ery. Consequently, Republicans prevented a dian historians, while British historians have court of enquiry from ascertaining the facts so far neglected the conict—understand- of the naval battle. Lambert is equally criti - able in view of the fact that, to the British, the cal of Stephen Decatur who commanded the War of 1812 was a mere distraction from their USS President . In January 1815, he had to sur - much more existential conict with Napole- render to the HMS Endymion after a fair ght onic France. in which the British gunnery had proven su - Lambert’s deliberately British perspec- perior. However, Decatur would subsequently tive, however, also makes him oblivious to spread the lie that he had actually beaten the Republicans’ motives, the domestic context Endymion and that he had only surrendered of the war declaration in the Unites States, after the HMS Pomone arrived and he was and the psychological needs of a postcolonial hence outnumbered. nation. For example, there is little apprecia- In 1814, America’s economy lay in sham - tion for the complexities of Republican ide- bles, the federal government was functionally ology when he writes that “Jefferson was, at bankrupt defaulting on payments due on the heart, authoritarian and anti-democratic” public debt, its capital was in ashes, and its (22) or when he detects in Jefferson’s poli- navy had either been beaten or was bottled cies a “trend towards totalitarianism” (22). up in American ports. In consequence, the Lambert also underestimates the implications Madison Administration instructed its com - of the British practice of impressing seamen missioners in Ghent to accept a peace upon from American merchant ships on the high the terms of the status quo ante bellum, ef - seas for American nationalism when he dis - fectively giving up all its war aims in the face misses American complaints by observing of defeat. Lambert ascribes British victory in that “less than 10 per cent of the American the War of 1812 to the failure of American in - vasions of Canada and to the successful naval 1 Brian Arthur, How Britain Won the War blockade of the American coast by the Royal of 1812: The Royal Navy’s Blockades of the Navy and its ability to put most of the U.S. United States, 1812-1815 (Woodbridge: Boy - Navy and American privateers out of action. dell, 2011).

Amerikastudien / American Studies 59. Jg., ISSN 0340-2827 © 2015 Universitätsverlag WINTER GmbH, Heidelberg Reviews ★ Amerikastudien / American Studies 59.4 maritime workforce suffered” impressment their abuse by the Royal Navy was hence- and that “[n]o more than half the men im - forth interpreted as a challenge to America’s pressed from American ships were actually democratic self-conception and perceived Americans” (27). It is understandable that a as a threat to the very success of the Ameri - newly independent nation would be sensitive can Revolution. He concludes that free trade to blatant violations of its sovereignty by the and sailors’ rights became part of America’s former mother country. Lambert is too quick national identity and combined the Enlight - in diminishing Republicans’ moral outrage at enment hopes of the Republican leadership British maritime practices as mere rhetoric and the democratic aspirations of the com - disguising their actual land hunger. The ‘ex - mon people. Their symbolic importance thus pansionist thesis,’ originally brought forward transcended the immediate diplomatic issues by American historians such as Louis Morton at hand and explains why the West and the Hacker and Julius Pratt, has been thoroughly South—sections of the country that were less repudiated by scholars such as Bradford Per - involved in foreign trade than the Northeast— kins and Donald R. Hickey, but Lambert does were vociferous in their support for the war. not engage this literature. 2 So his claim that More clearly than historians analyzing the Republicans declared war to annex Canada is strictly diplomatic aspects of neutral trade not very convincing. and impressment, Gilje demonstrates how In contrast to Lambert, Gilje emphasizes free trade and sailors’ rights were symboli - that the protection of America’s foreign trade cally linked to the heritage of the American and her seamen were the primary causes of Revolution and explains why Republicans in - the War of 1812, dismissing the claim that the terpreted their violation as an attack not only United States went to war to annex Canada on American sovereignty but on the founda - or to end alleged British assistance to Native tions of American identity that needed to Americans along the frontier. However, he be resisted by a recourse to war. Since Gilje does not simply reiterate the maritime issues is mostly laying out the larger cultural sig - between both English-speaking countries, nicance of free trade and sailors’ rights and as many other scholars have done in detail. does not analyze in detail the politics behind Instead, like Eustace, he takes a cultural ap - America’s war declaration, his account could proach to understand the origins and legacy leave one with the impression that the war of the War of 1812. He poignantly shows that, was inevitable and that armed conict was to Americans in the postrevolutionary period, the only way to satisfy America’s democratic free trade and sailors’ rights symbolized the sensibilities. Even though it was probably not success of the and that Gilje’s intention to declare the War of 1812 as they therefore interpreted their violation by unavoidable, his book thus raises an impor - Great Britain as an attack on their democratic tant issue about postrevolutionary America, aspirations. The Republican elite associated namely that the American Revolution did free trade with the Enlightenment belief that not produce a peaceful nation content with its increasing international commerce would newly established democratic institutions but lead to world peace and those at the bottom of rather created a nationalistic, aggressive soci - the social ladder hoped that free trade would ety that believed war was a suitable means to promote economic growth and thus create assert its political principles internationally. more jobs and higher wages. Sailors’ rights Rather than accepting Britain’s naval policies were also deeply linked to the revolutionary as a reaction to Napoleonic warfare on the heritage. In the colonial period, sailors had Continent, Republicans believed they needed been considered the lowest class in a strictly to militarily make their former mother coun - hierarchized society. After independence, as try acknowledge the superiority of the Ameri- Gilje points out, their treatment thus became can political system. a standard of measurement for American Gilje’s book portrays a nationalistically egalitarianism. No longer part of a rigid social aroused American society that in 1812, by re - structure, sailors were given full citizenship ferring to the ideals of the American Revolu- in the United States, according to Gilje, and tion and the alleged threat Britons posed to them, felt justied in waging war against the 2 Jasper M. Trautsch, “The Causes of the former mother country in order to afrm their War of 1812: 200 Years of Debate,” in: Journal democratic principles. Eustace exposes how of Military History 77.1 (2013): 275-278. Republicans subsequently sought to unite

Amerikastudien / American Studies 59. Jg., ISSN 0340-2827 © 2015 Universitätsverlag WINTER GmbH, Heidelberg Amerikastudien / American Studies 59.4 ★ Reviews the divided nation during the war by inciting ity of republican over monarchical principles. hatred of Indians and by clearing the lands in The traditional narrative—blaming Great the West from Native American populations. Britain for the War of 1812 and declaring the Lambert’s book shows how Republicans used United States its victor—can no longer be up - the War of 1812 to promote American na- held, as it has been exposed as a nationalistic tionalism by building up national heroes who American myth. had allegedly displayed better skills and more courage and thus demonstrated the superior- Paris Jasper M. Trautsch

Amerikastudien / American Studies 59. Jg., ISSN 0340-2827 © 2015 Universitätsverlag WINTER GmbH, Heidelberg