THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY SCHREYER HONORS COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY

FORGOTTEN FIGURES: THE RITUAL CULTURE AND MODERN DISPLAY OF MESOAMERICAN CERAMIC FIGURINES

HANNAH TOOMBS SPRING 2016

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for baccalaureate degrees in Anthropology and Spanish with honors in Anthropology

Reviewed and approved by the following:

Claire McHale Milner Curator of the Matson Museum of Anthropology Thesis Supervisor

Amara Solari Associate Professor of Art History and Anthropology Thesis Supervisor

Timothy Ryan Associate Professor of Anthropology and Information Sciences and Technology Honors Adviser

* Signatures are on file in the Schreyer Honors College. i

ABSTRACT

For the anthropological community, Mesoamerica represents an ideal research location.

Numerous archaeological sites and a rich cultural history make this region a prime location to conduct excavations and ethnographic fieldwork. For the past century, the architecture and ritual culture of the Olmec, Maya, Mexica, and other inhabitants of the region have revealed the complex religious and sociopolitical organization of these Pre-Colombian civilizations.

However, there are particular aspects of Mesoamerican archaeology that are poorly understood in the anthropological community today. Mesoamerican ceramic figurines, although discovered in abundance, represent a relatively unexplored and misunderstood area of the region’s complex cultural history. However, these artifacts held significant sociopolitical and ritual meaning in

Mesoamerican society, a fact that is rarely communicated in modern museum exhibitions.

This project synthesizes existing research and recent literature on Mesoamerican figurines, discussing their chronology from the Formative to Post Classic periods and contrasting the ritual function of these artifacts in domestic and elite contexts. Figurine exhibits in modern museums are also evaluated to reveal effective and ineffective methods of display. The final component of this project is the design of a figurine exhibit in Penn State’s Matson Museum of

Anthropology that successfully communicates the ability of figurines to reflect the social, political, and spiritual culture of Mesoamerica.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ...... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... vii

Chapter 1 The Perplexity of Ceramic Figurines in Mesoamerican Archaeology ...... 1

An Introduction to Mesoamerica ...... 1 Problems with Preservation ...... 4 Looting and Fakes ...... 5 Context is Critical ...... 6 Establishing Chronology and Creating Classification ...... 7

Chapter 2 The Formative Figurine ...... 10

Classifying the First Figurines ...... 10 Formative Figurine Context: Elite Settings and Iconography ...... 18 Formative Figurine Contexts: Burials and Domestic Settings ...... 24 The Future of Formative Figurine Studies ...... 28

Chapter 3 The Classic Period Figurine Within an Evolving Civilization ...... 30

Evolving Figurine Style and Production Techniques ...... 31 Figurine Identity and Function in Maya Society ...... 32 Conclusion ...... 42

Chapter 4 Duality in the Post Classic World: Mexica Figurines ...... 44

Classifying the Post Classic Figurine ...... 45 Maintaining the Empire: Ritual Use of Mexica Figurines ...... 54 Clues to Colonialism Among Figurines ...... 58

Chapter 5 Telling the Story of Figurines in Modern Museums ...... 62

The National Museum of the American Indian, Washington D.C...... 62 The Penn Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia, PA ...... 65 American Museum of Natural History, New York City ...... 68 National Museum of the American Indian, New York City: Special Exhibition “Cerámica”, NY ...... 71 Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, CA ...... 75 Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County; “Visible Vault: Archaeological Treasures from Ancient Latin America”, Los Angeles, CA ...... 79 San Diego Museum of Man; “Maya: Heart of Sky, Heart of Earth”, San Diego, CA ..... 82 The Field Museum of Chicago: “The Ancient Americas”, Chicago, IL ...... 86 Harvard Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Boston, MA ...... 90 The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, NY ...... 94 Creating the Most Memorable Museum Experience ...... 96 iii

Chapter 6 Designing a Figurine Display ...... 98

Theoretical Exhibition Design ...... 99 Figurine Exhibition Outline for the Matson Museum of Anthropology ...... 106 Final Thoughts ...... 116

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 117

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Map of Mesoamerica ...... 2

Figure 2 Map of Major Mesoamerican Archaeological Sites ...... 3

Figure 3 Timeline of Mesoamerican History (Pohl, 2012) ...... 3

Figure 4 Formative Figurine Heads. Notice "coffee bean" and incised eyes (Vaillant, 1931) 11

Figure 5 Early Formative Figurines Heads and Bodies (Vaillant, 1931) ...... 13

Figure 6 Early Formative Figurine Bodies with Female Sex Indicated (Vaillant, 1931) ...... 13

Figure 7 Early Formative Figurines with Exaggerated Hip Width (Vaillant 1931) ...... 13

Figure 8 Formative Figurine Holding Child, indicating it may be female (Vaillant, 1931) .... 14

Figure 9 Middle Formative "Grotesque" Figurines, Resembling Birds (Vaillant, 1931) ...... 15

Figure 10 Early Formative Olmec Figurines with Sloping Foreheads (Joyce, 2009) ...... 17

Figure 11 Formative Sites with Evidence of Figurine Trade Network ...... 18

Figure 12 Reconstruction and Sketch of Offering 4, La Venta (Joyce, 2009) ...... 20

Figure 13 Sketch of Feature 96 and Photo of "Flying" Figurine, San José Mogote (Joyce, 2009) 21

Figure 14 Structure 35 and Superimposed Temples of San José Mogote (Joyce, 2009) ...... 22

Figure 15 Lightning Mask with iconography associated with Cocijo (Joyce, 2009) ...... 23

Figure 16 Burial 27 (left) and Burial 60 (right) at Tlatilco with interred figurines (Joyce, 2009) 26

Figure 17 Sketches of Funerary Figurines discovered in Formative burials (Joyce, 2009) ..... 26

Figure 18 House 16/17 Figurine Assemblage (Joyce, 2009) ...... 28

Figure 19 Figurine Mold ...... 31

Figure 20 Maya Ruler Figurine with Feathered Headdresses (Field Museum, Chicago) ...... 34

Figure 21 Sketch of Palanquin Figurine (right) and Physical Example (left) from Belize (Halperin, 2014) ...... 35

Figure 22 Ballplayer Figurine (Penn Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology) ...... 37

Figure 23 Male Musician Figurine with Winged Headdress (Halperin, 2014) ...... 38

Figure 24 "Common" Figurine with Broad-Brimmed Hat (Halperin, 2015) ...... 39 v

Figure 25 Lightning God Ka'wiil seen on Maya Polychrome Vase (Maya Vase Database) ... 40

Figure 26 Sketches of elderly "grotesque" figurines seen with young female figures, a possible example of "mimicry" (Halperin, 2014) ...... 42

Figure 27 Type I Hollow Figurine Head Fragments ...... 47

Figure 28 Type II Jointed Figurine Head and Body Fragments ...... 48

Figure 29 Type III Xochiquetzal Head and Body Fragments ...... 49

Figure 30 Type III Ehecatl Head Fragments ...... 50

Figure 31 Xipe Totec Body Fragment with "Flecked" Garment ...... 50

Figure 32 Tlaloc Head Fragments ...... 51

Figure 33 Xochipilli Head Fragments ...... 51

Figure 34 Warrior Figurine Fragments. Head mask (left) and eagle feather costume (right) .. 52

Figure 35 Animal Figurines depicting Monkeys (top left), Birds (top right), and a Toad ...... 53

Figure 36 Serpent Incense Burner Handles ...... 53

Figure 37 Page from Codex Borbonicus Depicting the New Fire Ceremony ...... 58

Figure 38 Post-Contact Figurine Head Fragments. Notice European-style Headdress (left) and Hairstyle (right) ...... 59

Figure 39 Post-Contact Figurine Head Fragments with "Page Boy" hats and hairstyles ...... 60

Figure 40 Post-Contact Figurine Body Fragments with Pleated Robes ...... 60

Figure 41 Panorama of Figurine Display Case, NMAI, Washington D.C...... 63

Figure 42 Interactive Screens at NMAI; Organized into the broad group of "animal" figures, very limited information about the objects is provided ...... 64

Figure 43 Mesoamerican Figurine Display Case, Penn Museum ...... 66

Figure 44 Figurines are placed in display cases throughout the gallery to help explain other concepts and cultural practices ...... 67

Figure 45 Figurines at AMNH are abundant throughout the gallery and displayed in creative ways69

Figure 46 Figurine information in the Maya and Aztec displays is limited compared to other exhibits in the Americas Gallery ...... 70 vi

Figure 47 One Exhibit features a timeline of Mesoamerican history, explained through figurine development ...... 71

Figure 48 Opening Display Case of "Cerámica" Exhibition, NMAI, NY ...... 72

Figure 49 Display Dedicated to Explaining Ceramic Iconography ...... 73

Figure 50 Figurine Head Fragment and the Mold Used to Create it ...... 74

Figure 51 Unique Exhibition Design at LACMA ...... 76

Figure 52 Jaina Figurine Display ...... 77

Figure 53 While some figurines in the galleries are emphasized and explained in detail, others are accompanied by very limited information ...... 78

Figure 54 The gallery space is dark, and visitors seem to walk through quickly ...... 80

Figure 55 Although the gallery is filled with many figurines and other artifacts, little to no description of these objects is provided ...... 81

Figure 56 "Maya: Heart of Sky, Heart of Earth" Exhibition, San Diego Museum of Man ..... 83

Figure 57 Individual Figurines within the Display Cases are not Labeled ...... 84

Figure 58 The exhibition highlights the wide variety of figurine identities and their significance within Maya culture ...... 85

Figure 59 Entrance and Opening Display Cases in "The Ancient Americas" ...... 87

Figure 60 The exhibition design places visitors "in the moment" through the use of models, maps, and interactive elements ...... 88

Figure 61 Many types of figurines are featured in the exhibition, and the explanations are specific in communicating their interpretation and function ...... 89

Figure 62 The exhibition focuses on changes in figurine production and style ...... 89

Figure 63 Exhibition Entrance and First Gallery Space ...... 91

Figure 64 When figurines are present in the exhibition, they contribute to the explanation of a larger concept ...... 92

Figure 65 Large dioramas throughout the gallery space show where artifacts were discovered 92

Figure 66 The Moche ceramic exhibit is far more descriptive than the exhibits featuring figurines93

Figure 67 The Americas Exhibition, Metropolitan Museum of Art ...... 94 vii

Figure 68 Multiple cases throughout the gallery contain only figurines, emphasizing their significance ...... 95

Figure 69 Theoretical Exhibit Layout ...... 100

Figure 70 Exhibit Title Sign ...... 101

Figure 71 Case One: The Formative Figurine ...... 102

Figure 72 Case Two: Classic Maya Figurines ...... 103

Figure 73 Case Three: Post Classic Mexica Figurines...... 105

Figure 74 Matson Museum Exhibit Layout ...... 107

Figure 75 Case One: Mexica Figurine Classification ...... 108

Figure 76 Case Two, New Fire Ceremony ...... 112

Figure 77 Exhibit Handout Timeline ...... 115

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The completion of this thesis would not be possible without the support and guidance of the Penn State community. I would like to thank my advisor, professor, and friend Dr. Claire

McHale Milner for opening the door to new opportunities and experiences, and her guidance from my Freshman to Senior year. She was the first to point me towards a project involving

Mesoamerican figurines and she has helped me every step of the way. I would like to thank Dr.

Kenneth Hirth for welcoming me into his archaeology lab to work with the figurines that inspired this project. I would like to thank my advisor and professor Dr. Amara Solari, who’s

Pre-Columbian art history course served as my first encounter with the culture area which I have fallen in love with throughout my four years of college. I would like to thank the entire faculty and staff of the Penn State Anthropology Department for helping me to develop new intellectual perspectives and inspiring me every day to share my knowledge of past and present human cultures with the world. I would like to thank the Matson Museum Committee for honoring me with the 2015 Ceramic Studies Award to continue my thesis research. Finally, I would like to thank my wonderful parents Lisa and Andrew Toombs and my older sister Emily Toombs, who have never once asked me the dreaded question of “What are you going to do with a degree in anthropology?” Thank you for always supporting me and showing interest in my studies. 1

Chapter 1

The Perplexity of Ceramic Figurines in Mesoamerican Archaeology

When considering archaeological discoveries associated with Mesoamerica, the general public and many individuals in the anthropological community may immediately picture temples, murals, obsidian blades, or well-known pyramids and monuments. In reality, ceramic figurines represent an artifact category discovered in the extremely high volume at archaeological sites across Mesoamerica. Despite the high concentration of ceramic figurines identified throughout the region, they remain an underrepresented and poorly understood part of

Pre-Colombian material culture. This chapter will provide a brief overview of Mesoamerican history and culture and explain the central reasons as to why ceramic figurines remain a mystery in modern archaeology.

An Introduction to Mesoamerica

The term “Mesoamerica” refers to a geographic and cultural region encompassing the modern Central American nations of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and El Salvador

(fig. 1, 2). Although the indigenous populations of this cultural zone could be distinguished from one another through their unique cultural practices and over sixty individual languages, the overall Mesoamerican region is generally classified by a particular set of shared practices. These culture traits include a calendric system consisting of a 365-day solar calendar and a 260-day ritual calendar, the presence of writing systems, the Mesoamerican ballgame, common 2 agricultural staples and techniques, and a complex mythology and world view. Anthropologists divide the span of Mesoamerican history into three major temporal phases referred to as the

Formative or Pre-Classic Period, the Classic Period, and the Post-Classic Period (Pohl 2012; fig.

3). These phases will serve as the outline for the chronological and cultural explanation of ceramic figurines discussed in this project. Specifically, the figurines described in this study come primarily from the Valley of Teotihuacan, a major archaeological region located in central

Mexico.

Figure 1 Map of Mesoamerica 3

Figure 2 Map of Major Mesoamerican Archaeological Sites

Figure 3 Timeline of Mesoamerican History (Pohl, 2012)

4 Although many indigenous groups existed throughout the history of Mesoamerica, three central cultures are typically associated with artistic, religious, and sociopolitical developments from the Formative to Post Classic periods: the Olmec, Maya, and Mexica1. The ceramic figurines used in this project date from the Formative (1300 BCE-300 CE), Classic (300 CE-950

CE), and Post-Classic (1000 CE-1521) periods and demonstrate the sociocultural changes seen throughout Mesoamerican history. Figurines associated with these civilizations demonstrate the changing cultural landscape of the region throughout its history.

Problems with Preservation

As previously mentioned, ceramic figurines are some of the most commonly discovered artifacts in Mesoamerican archaeology, yet remain poorly understood by the anthropological community. A significant factor contributing to this lack of understanding is the issue of preservation (Halperin and Faust, 2009; Stocker, 1991). Most figurines available for study today are made of stone or clay, durable materials which are able to survive in relatively harsh weather conditions for extended periods of time. However, ethnohistoric sources concerning

Mesoamerican cultures suggest that alternative materials may have been utilized to create these objects. For example, ethnohistoric accounts of the Mexica reveal that tzoalli, a dough-like substance made from the amaranth plant, was used to create figurines in Mexica culture.

Additionally, these doughy figurines may have worn clothing made from tree bark and paper.

Ethnohistoric accounts also reveal the use of wood, wax, and resin to create Aztec figurines among the lower or working classes (Marcus, 2009, Ballou, 1890). However, plant materials and

1 “Mexica” is the original term of the culture widely referred to today as the Aztec. “Mexica” is a term from the indigenous language of the Aztec, known as Nahuatl. 5 other natural substances cannot survive for extended periods of time in the tropical climate of

Mesoamerica. As a result, very few physical examples of these artifacts are available to support the ethnographic accounts2.

Cultures from the Formative to Post Classic periods may have used perishable materials to adorn their figurines. The Formative Olmec are known to have arranged figurines in scenes.

Archaeologists believe that these arranged figures may have once been adorned with clothing or other materials which would have revealed their identity, status, or the meaning of the scene in which they were placed. Post-Classic jointed figurines, an artifact type which will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 4, may have been decorated with feathers, beads, or other materials to serve a ceremonial purpose (Parsons, 1975). In all cases, the perishable materials that once formed and adorned Mesoamerican figurines are no longer available to archaeologists, making figurine significance and interpretation ambiguous.

An additional factor hindering figurine research is their fragmentary nature.

Mesoamerican figurines are rarely discovered intact, and most examples available for study are broken or worn in some way. This preservation issue creates a problem for archaeologists, particularly as they attempt to identify iconographic symbols or paint traces on these objects.

Determining the gender, animal, deity, or other identity that a figurine represents can be impossible when the artifact is broken or incomplete.

Looting and Fakes

2 Some figurines have been discovered in natural sites such as the Sacred Cenote of Chichen Itza, which is filled with water. However, they are so deteriorated that they cannot be studied extensively (Evans & Webster, 2010). 6

The theft of valuable artifacts from archaeological sites is not a new trend. For centuries, looters have robbed the world of knowledge of the past by stealing artifacts from excavations and ancient sites, typically with the intention of selling those objects. The theft of figurines from

Mesoamerican sites is no exception. Stealing valuable artifacts and selling them to tourists, private collectors, museums, and even anthropologists remains a problem today. Figurines represent an often fragmentary, unpreserved component of the Mesoamerican archaeological record. When looters disturb the already delicate provenience of these artifacts, the information that may have been gained through proper excavation of these artifacts is forever lost.

The looting issue can also lead to the production of fakes. Local people living near archaeological sites often approach tourists and archaeologists, attempting to sell them what they claim to be authentic figurine fragments or molds. While some of these pieces may indeed be real, today it is more likely that they are reproductions that closely resemble actual figurines.

Even more problematic is the fact that some of these “fakes” may be on display in modern museums around the world, presented to the general public as authentic figurines and misleading the anthropologists studying these artifacts (Stocker 1991). The looting and reproduction of

Mesoamerican figurines create a significant obstacle for the archaeological community, causing confusion in a subject area already clouded with ambiguity.

Context is Critical

Despite the many challenges in studying Mesoamerican figurines, these artifacts remain an important research area, capable of filling gaps in the archaeological record and revealing the nature of sociopolitical organization throughout Pre-Columbian history. One way in which 7 figurine interpretation reveals a great deal of information is through the context in which these artifacts are discovered. From the Formative to Post Classic periods, figurines have been found in arranged scenes beneath the ground, placed in burials alongside human remains, broken in trash heaps, in temples and pyramids, and within many other settings (Marcus, 2009; Halperin,

2014).

Figurines from the Late Classic and Post Classic periods can be found in both elite and common household sites, indicating similarities and differences in ritual practice among various social classes. The multiple contexts in which figurines are discovered reveal potential relationships between the state and households and how these interactions evolved over time.

The following chapters will provide specific examples of varying figurine context and types, demonstrating how the ritual culture of figurines developed as a result of changing sociopolitical conditions from the Formative to Post Classic period in Mesoamerica.

Establishing Chronology and Creating Classification

Figurines are stylistically diverse. Although similar themes and symbols may be identified over multiple temporal phases and cross-culturally, each individual Mesoamerican culture possesses a distinctive style of figurine and potential purposes for that object within a specific time and space. Even within cultural groups and across multiple archaeological sites, significant variation exists in figurine style and function. This stylistic variation makes it difficult for archaeologists to establish a consistent chronology and typology for figurines. Depending on the research question an archaeologist endeavors to answer, varying methods of classification may be employed. The most common methods of classifying figurines consist of a “binomial 8 classification” technique, identifying the artifacts based on stylistic or technical focus, chronological organization, and distributional analysis. All of these methods, although potentially useful in their ability to reveal important information regarding Mesoamerican civilization, primarily focus on aesthetic and physical characteristics. They do not necessarily produce a deeper understanding of a culture’s ritual activity, belief systems, or social hierarchy.

A renewed interest in figurine studies is beginning to emerge as a result of the establishment of cultural typologies. New publications and classifications about Mesoamerican figurines go beyond an explanation of physical traits and have begun to analyze their religious and social functionality. By employing cultural classification, anthropologists are able to use figurine studies to better understand trade networks and migration, cultural relationships, and specific functions of the figurines themselves. New cultural typologies within the field of figurine studies break away from the traditional scientific approach, instead classifying the artifacts based on iconography and interpretation, function, political economies, and agency

(Halperin and Faust, 2009).

I will use three specific typologies to identify and interpret the figurines discussed in this project. The Formative figurines described are based on archaeologist George Vaillant’s early

20th-century typology created during his excavations in the Zacatenco, Ticoman, and Gualupita regions of Mexico3. Classic Period descriptions are based on anthropologist Christina T.

Halperin’s 2014 book on Maya figurine interpretation and function. Post Classic Mexica figurine chronologies follow Mary Parson’s 1975 typology of ceramic figurines from the Teotihuacan

Valley in central Mexico. The figurine exhibit created at the Matson Museum of Anthropology

3 Zacatenco, Gualupita, and Ticoman are three archaeological sites located in the Basin of Mexico. They date to the early, middle, and late Formative Period, respectively, and excavations at these locations have revealed a great deal about Formative Mesoamerican culture. 9 will display several examples of the figurines featured in Parson’s work. These typologies effectively combine aesthetic, contextual, and cultural information to create a thorough description of the cultural significance of Mesoamerican figurines.

Categorizing figurines based on time period, style, and cultural interpretation is essential to generating an understanding of how Mesoamerican society changed over time. Handmade

Formative figurines of ambiguous identity are drastically different from the mold-made deity figurines seen throughout the Post Classic period. Why did figurine style and production technique change over time? How do these changes reflect the nature of ritual culture and sociopolitical organization in Mesoamerica? What features of figurines allow anthropologists to determine the identity and origin of each individual artifact? How can figurine significance be communicated to the general public in a comprehensible manner? This research endeavors to address these pressing issues and to bring greater attention to this unexplored field of

Mesoamerican archaeology.

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Chapter 2

The Formative Figurine

The Formative period represents the longest temporal phase of Pre-Colombian history.

Spanning from roughly 1300 to 100 BCE, this time period saw the emergence of the first major

Mesoamerican civilizations, including the Olmec (1200-400 BCE) and the Zapotec (500 BCE-

1000 CE). These early societies demonstrated some of the first examples of complex political organization in Mesoamerica. As agricultural techniques became more developed, chiefs and political specialists began to emerge, taking control of their communities and establishing a more pronounced social hierarchy (Pohl, 2012). One distinct characteristic marking Formative groups as sophisticated civilizations is the presence of art and ritual culture, a characteristic identifiable by the presence of figurines at Formative sites.

Classifying the First Figurines

Although later figurine production would employ the use of molds to mass-produce these artifacts, in Formative societies, figurines were constructed by hand. A majority of Formative figurines represent humans, although a small proportion of animal figurines from this period also 11 exist. Formative figurine style can be characterized based on several core features, with more specific types identifiable based on additional traits. Figurines of this period are most commonly made by placing appliques on a basic form, creating distinct facial features and adornment. The nose, mouth, and eyes may be “filleted” or incised and differ from the later stylistic qualities seen among Classic and Post-Classic figurines. The eyes of Formative figurines represent one of the more distinguishing features. A majority of Formative figurines possess what archaeologist

George Vaillant referred to in his typology as “coffee bean eyes,” while other figurines possess narrow, incised eyes or a series of appliques intended to represent upper and lower eyelids and pupils (Vaillant, 1930; fig. 4).

Figure 4 Formative Figurine Heads. Notice "coffee bean" and incised eyes (Vaillant, 1931)

Surviving examples of Formative figurines are made of clay. Each individual part of the figurine, including the limbs, head, and “trunk,” are formed separately and later joined together by hand before firing. The earliest examples are unslipped, but may be painted with red coloring 12 on the face, hands, and feet, and with brown striped designs on the body and legs. Any significance in these painted designs is not yet understood. Figurines dating from the mid to late

Formative period may also be slipped after firing (Vaillant, 1931).

Deities, rulers, or other specific identities do not appear to be represented among most

Formative figurines. However, gender is often indicated among these figures based on several notable features. A majority of figurines from the Early to Terminal Formative can be identified as female based on appliqued genitalia. Many wear elaborate headdresses or have their hair wrapped on top of their heads as if they are wearing a turban (fig. 5). Females also wear necklaces and may be seen in patterned skirts. These characteristics can be seen among figurines from multiple archaeological sites, including San Andrés, La Venta, and several other Gulf Coast

Olmec sites. The consistency in female figurine styles among these sites has led anthropologists to use gender as a classificatory trait (Tway, 2004). Among Formative figurines wearing little to no clothing, sex may be indicated with an incision or perforation (fig. 6), allowing the viewer to easily identify the gender of the figurine. Among standing figurines, bodies may be formed with exaggerated hip width (fig. 7)., breasts, or some indication of pregnancy. In rare examples, a standing Formative figurine may be seen carrying a smaller figure at its hip, strongly suggesting that the figurine represents a female, and, more specifically, a mother or caretaker (Vaillant

1931; fig. 8). 13

Figure 5 Early Formative Figurines Heads and Bodies (Vaillant, 1931)

Figure 6 Early Formative Figurine Bodies with Female Sex Indicated (Vaillant, 1931)

Figure 7 Early Formative Figurines with Exaggerated Hip Width (Vaillant 1931)

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Figure 8 Formative Figurine Holding Child, indicating it may be female (Vaillant, 1931)

Although Formative figurines are typically identifiable as humans and seem to display a certain degree of individuality in their style and formation, no specific rulers or deities can be identified among figurines until the Terminal Formative (300 BCE-200 CE). Additionally, a small portion of Formative figurines cannot be identified as human or animal, but are placed within an anthropomorphic category known as “grotesque” figurines (Vaillant, 1931;Tway

2004). This figurine type possesses an “unnatural” or amorphous body shape, stubby limbs, and can often be seen with an animal-like head and pinched face with disproportionate features.

Some examples have more than one head (Vaillant, 1931; fig. 9). 15 There are several theories regarding the interpretation of grotesque figurines. Many of the faces on these anthropomorphic figures can be described as “bird-like.” Birds were considered sacred creatures in Mesoamerican society, holding spiritual significance as early as the Formative period. Birds were revered because they had the ability to be close to the sky or

“celestial realm,” able to move between the terrestrial world and the spirit world, an action reserved for supernaturals and deities. In this way, grotesque figurines with bird-like faces may be representative of supernatural beings, or perhaps shamans transforming into or channeling spiritual entities (Tway, 2004; Vaillant, 1931)

Figure 9 Middle Formative "Grotesque" Figurines, Resembling Birds (Vaillant, 1931) Olmec figurines and art, discussed only briefly in this chapter, are distinguishable from other types of Formative figurines based on several core features. In Olmec society, elite status or identity as a deity was indicated by cranial deformation, with a high, sloping forehead. A significant proportion of Olmec figurines, particularly those from the Formative site of La Venta, display this notable characteristic. Their necks are often stretched forward, and they have slit or 16 puffy eyes, similar to those seen on Formative figurines from other regions and cultures

(Cheetham, 2009; Fig. 10).

The classification and comparison of Formative figurines among early Mesoamerican civilizations reveals not only the potential meaning of these objects, but the cultures that used them. Figurine appearance among Formative sites in San Lorenzo (1200-900 BCE), the Basin of

Mexico (1200-200 BCE), Chalcatzingo (700-500 BCE), and the Valley of Oaxaca (700-500

BCE) display striking similarities. A majority of figurine examples found throughout these regions are female, and many are found in households, burials, and middens (fig. 11). These parallel characteristics indicate the presence of trade networks and cross-cultural communication among Formative groups (Tway, 2004). The circulation of figurine style, production, and use throughout these regional sites emphasizes the importance of these objects beginning in the

Formative period. 17

Figure 10 Early Formative Olmec Figurines with Sloping Foreheads (Joyce, 2009)

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Figure 11 Formative Sites with Evidence of Figurine Trade Network

Formative Figurine Context: Elite Settings and Iconography

Formative figurines are particularly unique in terms of the contexts in which they are found. From complete figurine arrangements buried beneath ceremonial complexes to domestic settings, the location of these artifacts reveals the development of their functionality from the early to late Formative period. Although complete figurines in primary contexts are rarely excavated, several examples of whole, intact figurine arrangements exist at several major

Formative archaeological sites. 19 The few existing complete figurine arrangements have been identified in both domestic and elite settings, indicating the variability of their ritual function and interpretation within the social hierarchy. When discovered inside or beneath public buildings, temples, or other locations associated with the upper class, archaeologists suspect that these figurine arrangements may have related to state-level religious ceremonies, such as the creation of offerings to deities, a ritual which likely involved only elite members of society, such as high priests (Marcus, 2009). One of the more well-known examples of fully intact figurine arrangements is Offering 4 at the Olmec site of La Venta, located in what is today the state of Tabasco, Mexico.

Buried in front of “Complex A,” a series of mounds and surrounding plaza at La Venta, archaeologists discovered Offering 4 (fig. 12). This rare, undisturbed discovery features sixteen standing figurines made of jadeite, surrounded by six jade celts. It appears that all objects in the scene were intentionally placed, perhaps meant to reflect a specific ritual. After each figurine and celt was curated, Offering 4 was covered in white sand. All its figurines appear to be males with intentional cranial deformation. Although the majority of figures in the arrangement are similar in appearance, one stands out from the others as it was created with sandstone rather than jadeite.

Additionally, the other figures in the scene seem to be gazing at the sandstone figurine. The surrounding celts closely resemble columns in the plaza above, conveying the idea that Offering

4 may have served as a representation of an actual ritual event that occurred in Complex A. It is unclear if the sandstone figurine is being honored or prepared for sacrifice, but the location, repeated access and reburial, and overall arrangement appear to indicate elite ritual activity

(Marcus, 2009).

Offering 4 at La Venta, although likely the most well known arrangement, is not the only

Formative elite figurine assemblage in existence. San José Mogote, an archaeological site in the 20 Valley of Oaxaca, features several unique figurine assemblages indicating their ritual significance within elite contexts. Excavations at Structure 35, a two-room temple located in the northeast area of the site, revealed several figurine arrangements beneath the temple’s base.

These assemblages, referred to as Features 94, 95, and 96, consist of five offering boxes, several of which are filled with intentionally placed figurines. Feature 95 is an empty offering box, believed to have once contained perishable figurines or other artifacts. Feature 94 (fig. 13) consists of one jade statue, a jade figurine, and two jade beads. Archaeologists believe that the figurines within this particular feature should be interpreted as stand-ins for sacrificial victims.

Feature 96 is the most complex, consisting of seven individual figurines arranged in a scene.

Central to this arrangement is a miniature adobe brick tomb with a stone roof. Within the “tomb” is a bowl with an effigy figurine sitting alongside the skeleton of a “sacrificed quail.” On the miniature tomb’s roof is a “flying” figurine with a masked face, carrying a serpent tongue in its left hand and what appears to be a planting tool in its right. Finally, four female figurines stand behind the flying figure, each wearing a “Lightning mask” (Marcus, 2009).

Figure 12 Reconstruction and Sketch of Offering 4, La Venta (Joyce, 2009)

21 A number of contextual and iconographic factors relating to the Feature 96 figurine assemblage indicate its function within elite ritual context rather than within domestic settings.

The Structure 35 temple, the location of this figurine arrangement, dates to the Monte Albán II phase, a time span during the Late Formative when San José Mogote developed into an urban and ceremonial center of the Zapotec state, characterized by strict social hierarchy and organized religion. The hand-built figurines characteristic of Formative cultures became increasingly complex during this period, revealing a gradual refinement of figurine production that can be seen among the Feature 96 figurines in Figure 13 (Marcus, 2009). This public building required a relatively large labor force and an extensive time period to construct. Additionally, Structure 35 is one of three temples superimposed upon one another, thought to be constructed at the end of each ceremonial 52-year calendar cycle (Fig. 14). The organized labor, as well as the cosmological architectural design, indicate a hierarchical social structure and support the idea that only elite individuals had access to the Structure 35 temples and the figurine arrangements within them (Marcus, 1999; Marcus and Flannery, 2005).

Figure 13 Sketch of Feature 96 and Photo of "Flying" Figurine, San José Mogote (Joyce, 2009)

22

Figure 14 Structure 35 and Superimposed Temples of San José Mogote (Joyce, 2009)

The iconographic interpretation of figurines in Feature 96 also reveals their elite use. The majority of figurines arranged in the scene wear “lightning masks.” Among the Zapotec, as well as in many other Pre-Colombian Mesoamerican cultures, ritual activity frequently involved the evocation of deceased ancestors through interaction or worship of cosmic forces and terrestrial elements. Through ritual, individuals of high spiritual or sociopolitical status could transcend the terrestrial realm and experience supernatural forces. One method by which this process could take place was by wearing a mask, a symbol for shamanistic transformation in Mesoamerican 23 society (Rodriguez, 2010). For the Zapotec, the most commonly referenced forces included Earth or Earthquakes, and Sky or Lightning. Rulers among their culture would often claim to be descended from Cociyo, or Lightning, to assert their power and status. The lightning iconography seen among figurines in Feature 96 reveals the potential elite function of these objects.

Iconographic qualities associated with the lightning deity Cocijo include a puffed upper lip on the mouth below a flat “pug” nose, a bifurcate tongue, fangs or buck teeth, elaborate headdress,

U-shaped eyes, a cape, and pronounced brows, all of which can be identified among the masks worn by the figurines in this assemblage (Kindrick, 2012; Markman and Markman, 1989; Fig.

15).

Figure 15 Lightning Mask with iconography associated with Cocijo (Joyce, 2009)

24 The lightning iconography associated with the ceramic figurines of Feature 96, paired with the location of these artifacts within a ceremonial temple, provides striking evidence that this Formative figurine assemblage served an elite purpose. The ritual scene likely depicts a process of spiritual transformation as described above. The central figurine in the lightning mask may represent the ancestor of the figurine within the offering box, an arrangement demonstrating the transformation of a ruler or elite individual into a glorified spiritual being (Marcus, 2009).

This elite Formative figurine assemblage serves as an early example of the close relationship between elite Mesoamerican society and state religion, a connection which would become more pronounced in later periods (Elson, 2006).

Formative Figurine Contexts: Burials and Domestic Settings

Formative figurine arrangements discovered within elite settings seem to represent enacted rituals and indicate elite relationships to spiritual entities. However, figurines found in burials and domestic contexts appear to highlight a different form of relationship.

Formative figurines interred alongside human remains or buried beneath common households are believed to have connected families and individuals to their ancestors and to one another, honoring the deceased while allowing them to continue to play a role in daily life (Marcus, 2009;

Lopiparo and Hendon, 2009).

Although Mesoamerican human burials frequently contain ritual offerings of ceramic vessels, jade, shell, and other artifacts, not all burials contain figurines. Among a relatively large proportion of Formative sites, archaeologists have uncovered intentionally placed figurine arrangements alongside human remains. At Tlatilco, a Middle Formative site located in 25 the Basin of Mexico, roughly 17% of burials contain figurine offerings (Marcus, 2009). Many of these burials are arranged in clusters beneath households or in house yards, associating the deceased individuals with specific social groups or households. The ceramic figurines within these burials may also be an indication of familial relations or ancestry (Joyce, 2001). For example, Burial 27 at Tlatilco, a young female between the ages of 17 and 19, was interred with eight female figurines. Burial 86 contained a nine-month-old baby and fourteen figurines (Fig.

16). Similar burials nearby contained other men and women with groupings of figurines, strong evidence of a ritual pattern among Formative graves at the site. This burial practice is not confined to Tlatilco; a number of other Formative sites display a similar pattern, and the style and interpretation of the figurines within the burials reveal their significance in funerary contexts. For example, at the Formative Gualupita site in Morelos, Mexico, a burial known as

Skeleton 9 featured four figurines beneath the skull of the human remains. Two of these figurines were female; one carried a baby on her back and the other was seated and cross-legged, a common pose associated with females in Mesoamerican art. The two other figurines appeared to be male, one wearing a loincloth and the other wearing seemingly ceremonial attire, suspected to be a ballplayer’s uniform (Fig. 17). The specific identity of the figurines seen among household burials at Formative sites like Tlatilco and Gualupita may refer both to the identity of the deceased individual as well as their ancestral and familial relations (Joyce, 2001). Through the intentional placement of figurines within burials, Formative cultures were able to assert their social and ancestral identity in the present life and in death. 26

Figure 16 Burial 27 (left) and Burial 60 (right) at Tlatilco with interred figurines (Joyce, 2009)

Figure 17 Sketches of Funerary Figurines discovered in Formative burials (Joyce, 2009) Similar to their placement and function in funerary settings, figurines can also be found within domestic or household contexts throughout the Formative Valley of Oaxaca, indicating 27 family association. Among Formative sites in the region, hundreds of small, hand-built ceramic figurines have been found within common residences. Typically these figurines are interpreted as females, and archaeologists believe women of the household created them for use in domestic ritual. When used in household ceremonies, the figurines likely channeled recently deceased ancestors of the family, allowing them to have a continued presence in the living world. Several features throughout San José Mogote support this interpretation. House 16/17 at the site, which included a residential unit (17) and a workshop space (16), contained an arrangement of four figurines buried beneath the workshop floor. All figures are male, and three appear to be lying on their backs while a central figure is in a seated position, believed to have originally been posed on top of the other three figurines. The heads of these four figures are conical, evidence of high status or intentional body modification, and they possess visible teeth. Each figurine wears a pendant on their chest. Archaeologists believe that this domestic figurine arrangement may have been a symbol of respect for a male ancestor of high status. The central seated figure may represent this ancestor and the three associated figures were placed below him to demonstrate their subordination or obedience. The location of this figurine arrangement within House 16/17 may have represented both Formative claims to ancestry and a means by which the deceased ancestor could continue to watch over the family (Marcus, 2009).

In some cases, Formative figurines within domestic settings may have created a protective force over the family or social group. House 2, another location at San José Mogote, contained a complete figurine intentionally buried beneath a wall foundation stone near the house’s entrance. The figurine is a seated male with arms folded across his torso (Fig. 18).

Archaeologists interpret this individual figurine as the “guardian of the household,” a significant ancestor or family member watching over his living descendants. According to ethnographic 28 documentation, later Zapotec populations frequently engaged in ancestor worship and used ancestor figurines to guard tombs and public buildings. Based on this information, it seems likely that Formative ancestor figurines played the same role in common households, watching over and protecting the family inhabiting that space (Marcus, 2009).

Figure 18 House 16/17 Figurine Assemblage (Joyce, 2009)

The Future of Formative Figurine Studies

As ceramic figurine production first appeared during the Formative Period, the function of figurines from this time remains relatively difficult to determine. However, several core characteristics regarding the significance of Formative figurines should be emphasized.

Formative figurine production took place primarily in the household, and all early figurine examples are handmade. This trend reflects the idea that figurines served a personal function that 29 varied among households and families, and the objects were produced for a specific reason.

Figurines from this time period did not usually depict specific individuals or deities, but rather male and female individuals relevant to the family who created them. Deities or spiritual entities were not represented among figurines until the Late Formative Period. Context is critical in establishing a better understanding of Formative figurines, particularly to determine which social groups utilized these objects and how they were used.

As the anthropological community continues to uncover the meaning of early

Mesoamerican figurines, it is critical that they focus not only on the object itself, but its role within domestic and elite ritual. Who arranged the figurine scene? What was the intended audience? How does the location of the figurine assemblage relate to its functionality? What ceremonial actions may have surrounded the interment of these artifacts? These research questions continue to be explored by archaeologists and will ideally reveal greater information regarding Formative figurine use in the future (Marcus, 2009).

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Chapter 3

The Classic Period Figurine Within an Evolving Civilization

Although a noticeable social hierarchy existed throughout Mesoamerica during the

Formative Period, it was not until the Classic Period that true urban city-states began to emerge.

The population expanded rapidly, art, culture, and writing systems became more refined, complex trade networks developed, and state and household relations became more structured

(Pohl, 2012). Originating in the southern highlands and northern lowlands of Guatemala, the

Maya eventually expanded to the Yucatan Peninsula, Honduras, Belize, and the state of Chiapas,

Mexico. By roughly 300 CE, the lowland Maya had erected monuments and pyramids, and established a complex trade network and economic system. They became an influential Classic

Period culture, constructing large urban centers and developing their artistic and architectural traditions. Maya art and architecture were meant to establish and assert the political power of elites and rulers, and much of Maya culture studied by archaeologists today is useful in articulating state and household relationships (Joyce and Shumaker, 1995; Halperin 2015).

Ceramic figurines play a particularly critical role in Maya history. The majority of Maya monuments, art and architecture is representative of the elite class, depicting rulers, deities, and other notable figures while providing little evidence of common, domestic lifestyles. Classic

Period figurines fill this gap in the archaeological record, demonstrating the development of sociopolitical life throughout this era and distinguishing the difference between domestic and elite ritual (Halperin, 2014).

31 Evolving Figurine Style and Production Techniques

Classic Period ceramic figurines are unique in terms of their compositional variety.

Classic Period Figurines may be hand-built or mold made, showcasing developing production techniques. As discussed in Chapter 2, a vast majority of Formative figurines were hand-built, serving a purpose specifically related to the household in which they were created. Among

Classic Period Maya figurines, this technique became more refined. The use of figurine molds, a manufacturing practice which became commonplace in the Late Classic Period (600-900 CE), allowed for the mass production of ceramic figurines. Molding manufacture techniques transformed figurine production into a component of the political economy, allowing specific spiritual and political images to be rapidly produced and distributed throughout the Maya world

(Halperin, 2014; fig. 19).

Figure 19 Figurine Mold

32 The contexts in which figurine molds are discovered, as well as the presence of associated production artifacts, reveal the nature of Classic Period manufacturing. Evidence of firing or burn marks, ceramic wasters, and various types of production tools indicate figurine production sites in a households or workshops. Workshops are most often present within Maya urban areas. Classic Period figurines were thus commissioned by elites and distributed to peripheral territories as signs of spiritual and political dominance. Differences in Classic Period figurines discovered in households and those found in elite settings are particularly important in understanding the nature of sociopolitical relationships throughout the Maya realm. As will be discussed later in this chapter, the general population throughout the Maya world used figurines to assert their role in society and life, declaring a certain degree of independence from political authority (Halperin, 2014).

Figurine Identity and Function in Maya Society

The political and economic organization of Maya civilization remains somewhat unclear.

However, it is known that the nature of these systems was incredibly complex and variable across the Mesoamerican world. Today, the Maya world is believed to have consisted of a tiered social hierarchy, with multiple classes or social ranks represented by a single household. The common population settled in towns or neighborhoods outside these urban centers, typically working as farmers or laborers to serve the noble class (Masson & Lope, 2004). As previously mentioned, the Classic Period saw the emergence of distinct identities among figurines, including rulers, ballplayers, nobles, deities, and other people and images. These distinct 33 identities, and how they were used, provide archaeologists with insight into the relationship between household and state (Halperin, 2014).

Rulers

Perhaps the most common identity seen among Classic Maya figurines is that of the ruler, or kuhul-ajaw in the Mayan language. Unlike other monumental art forms such as stelae, small- scale ruler figurines did not identify specific individuals. They instead emphasized the overarching theme of rulership, effectively communicating the role of the elite or royal class in

Maya society. Ruler figurines can be identified based on several specific features. Some ruler figurines are seen wearing fan-shaped feather headdresses, indicative of their involvement in ceremony. In certain instances, a zoomorphic mask may be seen in the center of the headdress, demonstrating transformative abilities or a connection to spiritual entities. Some ruler figurines may carry a shield or an axe, signifying their involvement in warfare. Ruler figures may be seen standing or seated and often wear heavy jewelry (fig. 20). A majority of Maya ruler figurines are male, indicated by their flat chests and loincloths, but occasionally, female ruler figurines were also produced (Halperin, 2014). 34

Figure 20 Maya Ruler Figurine with Feathered Headdresses (Field Museum, Chicago) Archaeologists have discovered Maya ruler figurines not only in central urban territories, but also throughout peripheral areas, a characteristic that reveals their social purpose. The presence of elite or ruler figurines at residential sites indicates that by circulating ruler figurines, the elite class asserted their dominance.

A strong example of this purpose among Maya ruler figurines can be seen among a category known as “palanquin figurines” found throughout the Western Maya coast, as well as

Petén4, Guatemala, and Belize. The unique palanquin figurines feature a ruler seated on a

“portable platform” with pillars and a roof. These figurines can be classified based on several core similarities; each ruler figure sits on a platform featuring a hieroglyphic design of a half quatrefoil, or a four-petal shape symbolizing a flower, sun, and an “earthly opening,” or cave.

This placement is meant to depict the ruler as “overlooking the cosmic divides” of the Maya

4 Petén is a subregion of Mesoamerica located in northern Guatemala. The Petén archaeological site is characterized today by on its unique Maya architectural styles and inscriptions. 35 world, a common theme within Mesoamerican culture5. The upper portion of the roof beneath which the ruler figure sits is carved with the likeness of a large supernatural being (fig. 21). This combination of mythological and political iconography among palanquin figurines makes these artifacts representative not only of the concept of rulership, but also the identity of a ruler’s polity and its myth history (Halperin, 2014). In this way, palanquin ruler figurines serve as highly communicative artifacts, holding great sociopolitical meaning.

Figure 21 Sketch of Palanquin Figurine (right) and Physical Example (left) from Belize (Halperin, 2014)

5 Mesoamerican societies believed that the world was split into three separate realms, including the celestial realm, the terrestrial world, and the underworld. It was believed that supernaturals, as well as powerful elites and rulers, could traverse these realms. 36 Ballplayers

The Mesoamerican ballgame represented one of the most popular forms of ritual in Maya society during the Classic Period. Although the specific nature of the ballgame remains relatively misunderstood, there is consensus among anthropologists that the sport was played on an I- shaped or T-shaped court and consisted of players using their hips to bounce a heavy rubber ball into one of two hoops attached to each side of the court. The courts were located within the central ceremonial precinct of each Maya city (Miller and Houston, 1987; “Ballgame” 2015).

The game itself took place at times of public celebration or during a significant ritual event.

Participants may have included both common and elite individuals, or the game may have been played at multiple levels of the social hierarchy. The nature of the Mesoamerican ballgame becomes more apparent through observation of ballplayer figurines. Ballplayer figures wear a yoke around their waist, arm bands, knee pads, and typically hold a ball in their arms or hands.

They may also be seen wearing an animal headdress (fig. 22). Ballplayer figurines can be found throughout a widespread area of Classic Maya territory, revealing the importance of the ballgame tradition in Classic Mesoamerican society (Halperin, 2014). 37

Figure 22 Ballplayer Figurine (Penn Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology)

Musicians, Dancers, and Performers

The image of the ballplayer among figurines would have been recognizable to citizens of

Classic Mesoamerican society. Similarly, performers and entertainers represented another common identity that can be seen among many Classic Period figures. Just as ballplayers, elites, and rulers played a significant role in ritual life, common musicians, dancers, and performers also participated in public festivities. “Performer” figurines often seen wear feathered headdresses with wings emerging from the sides of the head (fig. 23). Some examples also wear masks, dance, or play musical instruments. Gender is also identifiable among performer figurines.

Fans are a common feature among performer figurines, as the use of these objects was common during performance in the Classic Period. Additionally, figurines of this type may hold 38 objects such as copal pouches6 or rounded mirrors, signifying their involvement with a particular ritual or divination activity. The discovery of figurines of this type at Maya sites is useful to archaeologists, as these artifacts may be miniature representations of ceremonial activities associated with the Classic Period (Halperin, 2014).

Figure 23 Male Musician Figurine with Winged Headdress (Halperin, 2014)

Social Identity

In addition to the refined stylistic features and production techniques among Classic

Period figurines, the social hierarchies represented among these artifacts also reflect the evolving sociopolitical structure of Maya society. Figurines representing social classes or specific roles

6 Referred to as pom in the Mayan language, copal is a tree resin that was frequently used by pre- Colombian cultures in ritual, often burned as incense. 39 can be seen among figures from the Classic Period, including nobles, ritual specialists, and subordinate figures. Priests or scribes may be identified through iconography such as headdresses, headband wraps, and the presence of a copal bag or writing implement. Common female figurines may be seen wearing a cloth head wrap with vertical incised lines and off- shoulder dresses. Market vendors, travelers, and low-class individuals are represented through the activities they perform, including weaving and grinding on matates among females. Both male and female common figurines may also wear wide-brimmed hats (fig. 24), a style which was associated with traveling or mercantile and ceremonial activities (Halperin, 2014).

Figure 24 "Common" Figurine with Broad-Brimmed Hat (Halperin, 2015) Deities

During the Classic Period, the representation of deities among ceramic figurines became more widespread. Unlike other identities represented among figurines, deity figures were characterized by more restricted access, limited to production and use among the elite class.

Most often, the figures represented are patron deities, intended to reference political or religious authority. Some of the more frequently represented deities among Classic Period figurines include the Sun God Ajaw K’in, recognizable by large eyes, a large nose, and T-shaped front 40 incisors, the lightning god K’awaiil (fig. 25), the Maize God, the Wind God, and other beings associated with earthly or celestial forces.

The majority of figures within this category are discovered in elite contexts, once again serving as evidence of access limited to the upper classes. Deity figurines represent a strong example of how these artifacts were able to emphasize and maintain the social hierarchy of the time. Rulers likely used these objects to associate themselves with supernatural entities.

Although rare in the archaeological record, this category of Classic Period figurines demonstrates how rulers asserted their ancestry and authority through material culture (Halperin,

2014).

Figure 25 Lightning God Ka'wiil seen on Maya Polychrome Vase (Maya Vase Database)

Social Media

Most types of figurines dating to the Classic Period can be associated with particular identities from Mesoamerican society based on their iconographic features. However, some 41 Classic Period figurines are more difficult to classify. Archaeologists have recently proposed a new theory to explain their unique style.

Tricksters and ritual clowns are figurine categories that appear in the archaeological record during the Late Classic Maya Period. Falling into the classification of “grotesque realism,” these figurine examples are believed to mimic rulers, prominent elites, and state officials. Just as the elite classes of Maya society had exclusive access to patron deity figures, the common classes may have used and circulated these “grotesque” figurines to create a social commentary or critique of the upper classes. Tricksters and “ritual clown” figures are most often depicted as ugly, old, and animalistic, and they often hold musical instruments. Their poses and actions are intended to mimic the formality of Maya state ceremonies. These figurine examples contradict social norms, and may be shown in a “hypersexual” manner or take a non-human form

(Halperin, 2014)

Other variations of these grotesque figurines include fat men, dwarves, and elderly individuals. “Fat men” figurines commonly date to the Late and Terminal Classic Period. They have large stomachs, jowly cheeks, swollen eyes, and may be naked or wear little clothing.

Anthropologists suspect that these figures may be humorous depictions of Maya warriors who were unfit for battle. Dwarf figurines are identifiable by short height, a large head with disproportionate features or a sunken face, and a drooping lower lip. This figurine type may have represented mythical characters or historical figures associated with the Maya royal court.

Elderly figurines represent one of the most popular categories of grotesques (fig. 26). Age was a central theme in Maya humor, and it was most often used to imitate or make fun of the elite 42 class7. Many examples of elderly Maya figurines are seen paired with younger females, behaving lecherously or making inappropriate advances (Halperin, 2014; Taube, 1989).

Figure 26 Sketches of elderly "grotesque" figurines seen with young female figures, a possible example of "mimicry" (Halperin, 2014)

Conclusion

Ceramic figurines dating to the Classic Period help to make sense of the complexity of this period of Mesoamerican history. Figurines of the Classic Period represent overarching social categories, such as ballplayers, rulers, and common people, reflecting the various social niches

7 According to Mesoamericanist Karl Taube, several Maya state ceremonies included rituals in which rulers would dance with young, beautiful women, and these examples of grotesque elderly figurines may have been a humorous commentary on those rituals (Taube, 1989). 43 that existed within the Maya realm. The discovery of patron deity figurines at elite Maya sites also demonstrates the social hierarchy of the time, suggesting that particular themes and objects were restricted to use by rulers and state officials. Similarly, the “grotesque” figurines found within common household sites and barrios show how the lower classes were able to maintain a certain degree of influence over the Maya social world. The possible use of these objects as

“imitations” of existing rulers and elites gives a voice to the common people of the Maya realm.

The interpretation and potential functionality of Classic Period figurines demonstrates how these objects played a role not only in spiritual rituals throughout Mesoamerican history, but also in the sociopolitical contexts.

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Chapter 4

Duality in the Post Classic World: Mexica Figurines

Although many sophisticated civilizations and cultures inhabited Mesoamerica throughout its history, the Post Classic Period saw the emergence of one of the most powerful of these civilizations: the Mexica8, or Aztecs. By roughly 1400 CE, several small city-states had emerged throughout the Valley of Mexico, including Texcoco and Azcapotzalco. As these small kingdoms increased in influence, they began to compete with one another for control of the region. During the Tepanec War of 1428, an alliance of Texcoco and Tenochtitlan defeated the military forces at Azcapotzalco, and ultimately formed the Triple Alliance, a union of

Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan. Tenochtitlan, located on an island in Lake Texcoco, became the center of Mexica civilization. Over the 90 years of their rule, the Mexica established a strict social hierarchy, maintaining their dominance over peripheral territories through their military power. A largely hereditary noble class held the majority of power in the Mexica realm, dictating public rituals and state level religion. This alliance of city-states, each of them possessing their own territories and smaller kingdoms, remained in power until the arrival of the

Spanish (Carrasco, 2011; Smith and Berdan, 1992).

Peripheral Mexica territories supplied the urban centers with tribute goods. These smaller settlements also participated in widespread exchange networks, with some provinces serving as trading posts. Others were strategically located on the outskirts of Mexica territory, serving as

8 “Mexica” is the linguistically accurate, Nahuatl term referring to the indigenous population of the Basin of Mexico. A European explorer coined the term “Aztec” in the 19th century, a reference to “Atzlán,” the sacred place of origin of the Chichimecs, or Mexica ancestors. 45 “buffers” in the case of attacks by foreign enemies. Mexica leaders sometimes had military fortresses constructed in these outlying territories. These peripheral areas, although controlled by the centralized Mexica political administration, had their own local leaders. The lives of citizens in these territories were not necessarily as heavily controlled as those of the people living in the urban centers (Smith and Berdan, 1992).

An understanding of Mexica political organization is essential in the interpretation of

Post Classic figurines. During this period of Mesoamerican history, figurines took on both a ceremonial and political meaning. Specific imagery began to appear among these objects, and their use in state-level ritual contributed to both the maintenance of the sociopolitical hierarchy and the continuation of the Mexica world.

Classifying the Post Classic Figurine

As previously mentioned, ceramic figurines of the Post Classic Period depicted specific identities, unlike those of the Formative and Classic Periods. Deities, animals, and other identifiable figures were common during this time, and each figurine type served a particular ritual function. Anthropologist Mary Parson’s detailed typology on Post Classic Period figurines will be used to describe figurine examples from this phase of Mesoamerican history. The photographs of figurines below are part of Penn State’s own figurine collection, and are also the examples featured in the exhibit outlined in Chapter 6.

Type I: Hollow Rattle Figurines

The first of three central figurine types dating to the Post-Classic Period consists of

“hollow rattle figurines.” General characteristics of this particular figurine type include hollow 46 bodies, incised eyes, open, rimmed mouths, solid, thick heads, and smooth surfaces. Hollow figurines are typically unpainted. Type I figurines also consist of a vent hole in their base or sides, a feature which likely allowed these objects to maintain their hollow form while being fired. Anthropologists believe that these figurines were used as rattles, as many examples from this particular group hold a small clay ball inside.

Hollow rattle figurines commonly depict several notable Mexica deities. Many examples represent earth goddess Coatlicue. She is identifiable by several core traits, such as a large protruding nose, circular earplugs, a molded necklace, and a diamond-patterned skirt. Coatlicue hollow figurines may be seen sitting, kneeling, or standing, and some examples carry copal bags.

All examples wear an elaborate twisted-loop headdress consisting of two top projections or feather plumes (fig. 27). Coatlicue would have been a very recognizable deity during the Post-

Classic Period; according to Mexica myth history, Coatlicue was the mother of Huitzilopchtli, patron deity of the empire. Many representations of Coatlicue in other forms of Mexica art include iconography of writhing snakes and a necklace of human hearts, references to the story of her sacrifice during childbirth. The diamond-patterned skirt among these figurine examples is thought to represent the snake skirt seen on other depictions of Coatlicue.

Coatlicue figurines may also represent Cihuacoatl, goddess of childbirth, and

Xochiquetzal, goddess of love and weaving. Within Mexica culture, many deities could be representative of multiple identities, and iconography is often overlapping among Post Classic art and artifacts (Parsons, 1975).

47

Figure 27 Type I Hollow Figurine Head Fragments

Type II: Jointed Figurines

One of the most unique examples of figurines dating to the Post-Classic Period is the jointed figure. These figurines are identifiable by a flat, slab-like body, rectangular shape, and holes punched in each of the four corners of the torso. The limbs of these figurines are separate from the body, and were likely tied on or attached to the frame so that the arms and legs of these figures could be moved. Some jointed figurines may wear a skirt or carry an infant. Most examples wear a necklace and elaborate ear spools (fig. 28).

Jointed figurines may be indicative of several male and female deities. Jointed figures with curled hair may represent god Xochipilli, deity of games, beauty, flowers, dance, and song.

Many jointed figurines are also identifiable as female, indicated by breasts. These female examples are thought to be representations of goddess Xochiquetzal, as she is the female counterpart to god Xochipilli. Jointed figurines likely had a ritual function within Mexica households throughout the empire. Most jointed figurines have been discovered in domestic settings, and their perforations may have allowed the objects to be suspended on household walls 48 or for other ceremonial materials to be attached to the figures, such as beads or feathers (Parsons,

1975).

Figure 28 Type II Jointed Figurine Head and Body Fragments

Type III: Solid Figurines

The third and largest category of Post Classic Period ceramic figurines is referred to as

“solid figurines.” This group is characterized by a basic structure, including a flat back, an angular base, and facial features molded in relief. Type III figurines also seem to demonstrate the greatest stylistic variety among Post Classic ceramic figures; Parsons separates this group of figurines into over twenty sub-categories based on their stylistic features and identity. The features and individual interpretation of Post Classic solid figurines reveal significant elements of Mexica life, including their central deities, rituals, and themes common to their daily lives.

One of the most commonly seen deities among solid figurines is Xochiquetzal, goddess of love and weaving. Similar to her representation among Type I hollow figurines, she is 49 identifiable through the presence of an elaborate headdress or hairstyle with projecting plumes, a twisted headband, or other ornamentation, and, occasionally, a diamond-patterned skirt. She may be seen seated or in a standing position (fig. 29). The widespread presence of Xochiquetzal representations among Post Classic figurines may indicate traditions of spinning cotton, weaving, or embroidering as tribute to the state. In order to maintain control of the empire, the central Mexica administration required leaders of peripheral territories to pay tribute in the form of trade goods or desirable resources. Embroidered or woven textiles very likely could have served as valuable goods within this system (Parsons, 1975).

Another common identity seen among solid figurines is Ehecatl, god of wind. He is identifiable by a distinctive headdress with a conical cap, a base of rectangular pieces, and a central knot (fig. 30).

Figure 29 Type III Xochiquetzal Head and Body Fragments 50

Figure 30 Type III Ehecatl Head Fragments

Xipe Totec, god of flayed skin, agriculture, vegetation, and rebirth is identifiable by

“flecked” garments and a double mouth to represent flayed skin, flapped eyes, a headdress, and occasionally a shield or rattle (fig. 31). Xochipilli, god of art, games, dance, and flowers may be seen with a high peaked cap headdress, an open mouth, round relief eyes, and circular ear spools

(fig. 33). Tlaloc, the deity of rain, fertility, and water, is always recognizable through his goggle- like eyes, fanged mouth, headdresses in various forms, and an animal-like appearance (fig. 32).

Figure 31 Xipe Totec Body Fragment with "Flecked" Garment 51

Figure 32 Tlaloc Head Fragments

Figure 33 Xochipilli Head Fragments

Not all Post Classic figurines depict deities. Other social roles are frequently represented among these artifacts. Similar to figurines produced during the Classic Period, musicians, warriors, males and females, and several other distinctive identities can be seen among Type III figurines. Some Post Classic figurine body fragments can be seen holding drums, flutes, or other instruments. Warrior figurines are also a common identity found among these objects; the Post

Classic Mexica possessed strong military forces, as warfare was essential in the maintenance of their empire. War was used not only to expand to new territories, but as a method to assert the 52 power of the empire through military force. The most powerful and respected warriors were assigned to one of two military orders, including the “jaguar” and “eagle” societies. These two animals are frequently referenced in Mexica art as symbols of power, courage, and other noble qualities (Saunders, 1994). Among Type III Post Classic figurines, warriors are identifiable through their jaguar and eagle costumes (fig. 34), similar to what they would have worn in reality

(Parsons, 1975).

Figure 34 Warrior Figurine Fragments. Head mask (left) and eagle feather costume (right)

Some Type III figurines represent less traditional identities. Depictions of animals are commonly found throughout Post Classic Mexica sites. Representations of monkeys, rabbits, coyotes, toads, and, most commonly, birds are found within temples and in domestic contexts

(fig. 35). Animal figurines, particularly serpents, were also incorporated into more utilitarian objects. Parsons classifies serpent head incense burner handles as their own sub-category of Type

III figurines (fig. 36). Incense burners may have been used in ceremonial contexts at both the household and state level (Parsons, 1975).

53

Figure 35 Animal Figurines depicting Monkeys (top left), Birds (top right), and a Toad

Figure 36 Serpent Incense Burner Handles

54 Maintaining the Empire: Ritual Use of Mexica Figurines

The presence of various deities and other identities among Type III Post Classic figurines may indicate a variety of functions in both state and household ritual. During the Post-Classic

Period, the production of figurines likely took place at designated workshop sites and was commissioned by elites. The widespread presence of specific figurine identities, rather than figures unique to each household, supports this idea. Additionally, figurines of the same type or identity can be found at both state and household sites, indicating the existence of an organized state religion (Marcus, 2009; Parsons, 1975).

Mexica Figurines in the Household

Archaeologists believe that deity or supernatural figurines may have been used for

“healing” purposes in households. The Mexica believed that supernatural entities had the ability to cause or cure physical anomalies and illness, as well as the power to influence conception and childbirth. Based on discoveries of deity figures and anthropomorphic figurines at household sites, there is a possibility that these objects were used by family members to ensure health or fertility. Children may have worn ceramic figurines suspended from their necks to prevent illness, or they may have received them as a reward for participating in a ritual activity such as fasting or bloodletting. Recent mothers, the elderly, or the sick may have worn them in a similar manner, believing that it would make them healthy. In household settings, animal or human figurines may have been thrown in rivers or burned as an offering to the gods in an effort to cure the sick or injured (Halperin, 2009).

Mexica figurines also assisted in the maintenance of traditional gender roles throughout the common population. Although females had some degree of influence in Post Classic society, they remained confined to a gender hierarchy which revered male warriors and masculinity. 55 However, female identity was important within Mexica ritual culture. Several central deities, such as Xochiquetzal and Coatlicue, were female, and theses specific goddesses are frequently represented among figurines discovered at household sites. The widespread presence of these figures in homes throughout Mexica territory indicates that these objects may have been used in rituals associated with fertility and sexuality (Taube, 2014). Figurine use in domestic ritual may also have served a significant purpose for Mexica elites.

The Duality of Post Classic Figurines

Post Classic art and architecture served a dual function. Much of Mexica art, figurines included, took on not only a ceremonial meaning, but a political significance. As previously mentioned, Post Classic figurines were mass produced and circulated throughout the Mexica empire. The distribution of deity figurines and other identities among households in peripheral territories allowed the empire to establish and maintain a common visual culture. Smaller provincial territories did maintain some degree of autonomy over their artistic imagery. As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, centralized political authority was less present in these outlying areas. Mexica figurines in these provinces may have still represented local identities (Smith and Berdan, 1992). However, consistent themes associated with state level religion were the most widespread.

The reproduction of common, recognizable images allowed figurines to become more than a ceremonial object; they became political tools that Mexica leaders could use to maintain control over their empire. Similar to the way in which Maya figurines had reinforced the social hierarchy, Mexica figurines reinforced social roles while engaging common citizens in state level religion. Large-scale ceremonies involved everyone in the Mexica realm, from local leaders to 56 the common citizen, and figurines occasionally played a significant role in the success of those rituals.

The New Fire Ceremony

One of the most well-known state level ceremonies of the Post Classic Period is known as the New Fire Ceremony, and this particular event serves as a strong example of how common citizens engaged in large-scale ceremony through the use of material culture. Celebrated every

52 years at the overlap of the ritual and solar calendars, the New Fire Ceremony represented a renewal of the Mexica life-cycle while reinforcing the social structure of the Post Classic world.

The event required the involvement of all inhabitants of the empire, including the leaders of neighboring territories and common citizens. In the days leading up to the ceremony, all people throughout the empire engaged in various ritual activities such as bloodletting, fasting, and

“cleansing”; all households destroyed their property and ceremonial objects, including ceramic figurines of deities and supernaturals (Pharo, 2014).

At sunset on the final day of the 52-year cycle, a group of Mexica priests would walk from the empire’s center at Tenochtitlan to Huixachtitlan9, or “Hill of the Star,” atop which a ceremonial platform sat. A sacrificial victim, typically a captive of war or an individual from a peripheral territory, walked with them. The hill’s summit was likely visible from most places throughout the Basin of Mexico, and people throughout the region would leave their homes to stand outside and watch from their roofs as the ceremony progressed. When the group of priests reached the top of the hill, all fires in households and temples throughout the Mexica kingdoms were extinguished, and everyone waited in anticipation for the Pleiades star cluster to reach its

9 The “Hill of the Star” is an archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico. It served as a ceremonial location for the Mexica as it was the site of an extinct volcano, a geographical feature which plays a significant role in Mesoamerican myth history. 57 zenith in the night sky. At the precise moment the stars aligned, the priests atop the hill sacrificed their victim, removing his heart with a “fire drill”10 and lighting a fire within his chest. From this fire, the priests would light several torches and hand them off to runners who would travel throughout the Mexica realm, distributing this new fire to the citizens who would use it to light their households. This would mark the beginning of another 52-year cycle (fig. 37). The entire ceremony was incredibly important to the Mexica people; for the average citizen, this event represented the continuation of their world (Pharo, 2014).

For the elite, it also represented the maintenance of the empire, not only in the cosmological sense, but in the political sense. By requiring foreign leaders and common citizens to take part in the ceremony, both as participants and spectators, Mexica leaders reinforced the social hierarchy of their world. It was the actions of the elites that “allowed” the continuation of the Mexica life-cycle, and if the common population failed to take part in ritual activities, such as the destruction of household objects and figurines, they put their own lives at risk (Pharo, 2014).

10 The “fire drill” was a cylindrical wooden tool used to create the fire in the body of the sacrificial victim after the chest had been opened with a flint knife. 58

Figure 37 Page from Codex Borbonicus Depicting the New Fire Ceremony

The Post Classic figurine played a major role in both domestic and state level ritual, allowing common citizens to take part in the cosmological workings of their world while providing Mexica leaders with a means of maintaining their own power and influence. This dual functionality among Post Classic ceramic figurines and other art remained central to Mexica culture until the arrival of the Spanish in the early 16th century.

Clues to Colonialism Among Figurines

The Spanish Conquest of Tenochtitlan lasted from roughly 1519 to 1521, bringing cultural change to the Mexica. During this period, Spanish explorer Hernando Cortés and his expedition members attempted to incorporate Christian symbols into the indigenous culture. 59 They established alliances with local populations against Tenochtitlan, ultimately bringing nearly a century of Mexica rule to an end. Ceramic figurines are particularly valuable in tracing this cultural shift. Figurines discovered throughout the Basin of Mexico reveal distinctive stylistic differences to traditional deity, warrior, and ruler figurines from the Post Classic Period. This particular group of artifacts is referred to as “Post-Contact Figurines (Parsons, 1975).”

One of the most noticeable differences among Post-Contact figures is the structure and form of the face. Unlike earlier examples, with flat heads and bodies, incised eyes, open mouths, headdresses, and other low relief facial features, Post-Contact figurines possess a doll-like form.

Examples of this figurine type often have puffy cheeks and a protruding brow, and they wear a

European-style headdress or hairstyle. They have faint, round eyes and are most often seen with closed mouths (fig. 38). Some examples can be seen with “page boy hair” or hats of a European style (fig. 39), likely created to mirror the clothing worn by Spanish colonists during the time period.

Figure 38 Post-Contact Figurine Head Fragments. Notice European-style Headdress (left) and Hairstyle (right) 60

Figure 39 Post-Contact Figurine Head Fragments with "Page Boy" hats and hairstyles Evidence of forced religious change is also evident among Post-Contact figurines. As the

Spanish colonists introduced Christianity among the Mexica, ceramic figurines show evidence of both traditional Mesoamerican religious culture as well as new Christian iconography. Some figurine examples discovered in household contexts can be seen dressed in pleated, floor-length robes with elaborate garments beneath. They stand with their hands separated or against their chests or abdomen, and some hold objects which identify them as Christian saints (Parsons,

1975). For example, figurines holding keys are representations of Saint Peter, one of the Twelve

Apostles (fig. 40; Carmack, Gasco, and Gossen, 2007).

Figure 40 Post-Contact Figurine Body Fragments with Pleated Robes 61 Ceramic figurines represent one of the most abundant artifacts and long-standing cultural and artistic traditions of Mesoamerican history. Their production and development from the

Formative to Post Classic Period, as well as their continued existence into the Colonial Period, communicates their importance within the sociopolitical and spiritual landscape of the region.

62

Chapter 5

Telling the Story of Figurines in Modern Museums

Although ceramic figurines represent a widely misunderstood and underrepresented area of study within Mesoamerican archaeology, these artifacts reveal critical information on the lives and ritual culture of Mesoamerican societies from the Formative to Post Classic Period. How can anthropologists and other research professionals communicate the significance of Mesoamerican figurines to modern audiences? One solution is to reform the manner in which these artifacts are displayed in museums.

During the 2015 to 2016 academic year, I visited ten anthropology and art museums throughout the United States in order to observe and evaluate the efficacy of Mesoamerican figurine exhibits. Each museum used different methods of exhibition design, space allocation, interactive elements, and text to create an educational and aesthetically pleasing experience for visitors, and each institution achieved varying degrees of success. By thoroughly analyzing these figurine displays, I tried to determine the most useful and effective techniques that could be employed to create the most successful figurine exhibit.

The National Museum of the American Indian, Washington D.C.

The National Museum of the American Indian’s Washington D.C. branch, part of the

Smithsonian, is dedicated to the life, languages, literature, history, and arts of the Native

Americans of the Western Hemisphere, including cultures of the Americas. Although this institution effectively represents many Native American cultures from around the world through 63 their exhibitions, there is little focus on figurines in this particular museum. As a result, the visitor does not leave with an understanding of their significance within Mesoamerican culture and history.

Layout and Design

There is no individual display or exhibit specifically devoted to ceramic figurines anywhere in the National Museum of the American Indian. In fact, only one display case in the entire building features figurines. The case itself is not particularly noticeable to audiences, as it is situated in an open space between galleries. The long case is suspended against a wall, and it is separated into several sections. The interior is packed with many artifacts, figurines included, which sit on shelves. All items are visible, located at eye-level or slightly above. However, there are no labels within the case to identify individual items (fig. 41).

Figure 41 Panorama of Figurine Display Case, NMAI, Washington D.C. Situated in front of the case are four interactive screens on pedestals. These touch-screens can be used to observe and explore information about the objects in the cases in greater detail.

When the viewer selects an object on the screen, they are shown specific information about the object, such as its provenance, catalogue number, culture of origin, date, and dimensions. The viewer can also “zoom in” on the object to observe it more closely. Although the addition of this interactive component creates an engaging experience for the visitor, little additional information 64 is provided. It is certainly useful to know where the artifact is from and how old it is, but there is little to no information regarding the function, interpretation, or significance of the objects themselves (fig. 42). The information provided on the screens also reveals the poor organization of the display. The figurines shown in the case are from many different time periods, cultures, and locations throughout the Americas. There is no apparent organization within the display.

Although the visitor may learn that there is great aesthetic variation among figurines and that they are created in many different places, they walk away with little information about their cultural and historical importance.

Figure 42 Interactive Screens at NMAI; Organized into the broad group of "animal" figures, very limited information about the objects is provided

65 Conclusions

Overall, the National Museum of the American Indian’s Washington D.C. branch is not a particularly strong example of a figurine exhibit. Although it communicates the variation and abundance of figurines across time and space, it provides little cultural context or interpretation for audiences. The definition of “figurine” is broad, and the assemblage of artifacts presented to visitors in this particular display does not specify the meaning of these artifacts. The absence of a strong figurine exhibit does not make the NMAI a poor museum. However, by displaying figurines without detailed context or an explanation of their significance, the museum loses an opportunity to educate the visitor.

The Penn Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia, PA

The Penn Museum, home to the Anthropology Department of the University of

Pennsylvania, houses roughly one million artifacts, including a collection of Mesoamerican figurines. The Americas gallery at the Penn Museum, although relatively small, makes the most of the space it has to provide an overview of figurines throughout Mesoamerican history.

Layout and Design

In the Americas Gallery of the Penn Museum, which fills up a single room within the building, one particular area of the room is dedicated to Mesoamerican figurines. One horizontal free-standing case sits in a corner of the gallery, displaying only figurines. The figurines within the case are all from early Mesoamerican cultures, including the Olmec, Formative cultures from the Guatemala Highlands, and several other regions. The manner in which the figurines are arranged focuses on their chronology, progressing through time to demonstrate how they change 66 in form and style. Visitors can benefit from this type of display because it emphasizes the importance of figurines. As this is the only type of artifact featured within the display case, the viewer senses that figurines represent a particularly important part of Mesoamerican culture.

The text within the case is also informative. A description of each culture area represented within the case is provided, and a strip of labels runs along the top of the case, identifying individual figures (fig. 43). However, more detail could be added to the figurine descriptions. Although the label text mentions the abundance of figurines discovered at

Mesoamerican archaeological sites, there is no strong focus on figurine interpretation or significance. The exhibit might be more understandable or interesting to an academic audience with at least some prior knowledge of Mesoamerican culture and history.

Figure 43 Mesoamerican Figurine Display Case, Penn Museum Figurines are featured in other areas throughout the gallery. Several figurines can be found in display cases that focus more on the people and cultures of Mesoamerica, rather than the objects they created. By displaying figurines in these places, the viewer understands that 67 these artifacts were created by many different cultures throughout Mesoamerican history, and how the objects changed over time. The gallery also includes photographs of figurines in several display cases; for example, one particular exhibit focuses on specific practices and traditions of

Mesoamerica, including weaving and rituals. The inclusion of figurine photos here reveals their potential use or association with those practices (fig. 44).

Figure 44 Figurines are placed in display cases throughout the gallery to help explain other concepts and cultural practices Conclusions

Overall, the Penn Museum makes the most of the space provided to create an effective figurine exhibit. By placing figurines by themselves within a display case, they demonstrate the importance of these artifacts to the visitor. However, the written explanations of figurine function and form are not particularly specific. Although there is background information on the culture areas and archaeological sites where these artifacts were found, without a more extensive explanation of the figurine use, the visitor does not learn a great deal about the significance of these items. A stronger exhibit would focus more heavily on figurine iconography, interpretation, and potential function. 68 American Museum of Natural History, New York City

I overheard an interesting comment while visiting the AMNH in New York City. One visitor mentioned that they were surprised to see figurines and other archaeological materials displayed in a natural history museum. The fact that the AMNH possesses a large gallery focused on Pre-Columbian art and culture represents one of its strengths. The display of figurines in a natural history museum communicates to visitors that this type of artifact represents the materialization of human behavior and culture. The Americas gallery at the museum contains an abundance of ceramic figurines, and a selection of these artifacts can be found in almost every display case. The exhibits throughout the gallery space are aesthetically pleasing and provide visitors with a general understanding of figurine chronology and production. However, no specific organizational pattern seems to be present, meaning that the visitor could become confused and leave with a somewhat limited understanding of figurine significance.

Layout and Design

The Americas gallery at the AMNH is large, consisting of multiple rooms. Many Central and South American cultures are represented throughout the exhibits, and display methods range from cases lining the walls of each room to freestanding cases within the central gallery space.

The displays are organized by culture and region, and there seems to be a selection of ceramic figurines represented in the majority of displays. There are individual exhibits focused on

Guerrero, Pre-Classic Central Mexico, Huasteca, Costa Rica, Panama, Teotihuacan, Vera Cruz, and cases focused specifically on the Maya and Aztec. Individual artifacts are labeled within the cases, and longer descriptions are provided at the bottom of each case. In cases with figurines, the artifacts are suspended at eye-level. Rather than being placed on pedestals or surfaces, the 69 figurines are displayed in a more creative manner, suspended at different levels in front of colorful backdrops to make them stand out to viewers (fig. 45).

Figure 45 Figurines at AMNH are abundant throughout the gallery and displayed in creative ways The information provided through the museum text is particularly useful in the Americas galleries. Individual displays include information on changing ceramic styles and production techniques, as well as stylistic variation. However, some information on figurines is rather limited. For example, the Maya and Aztec cases feature very brief explanations of figurines. The

Maya case mentions them only once, describing the “abundance of figurines” found at Maya sites and mentioning the Maya population’s “skill in making [figurines].” There is an abundance of figurines displayed within the case, so it seems strange that the explanation provided for these artifacts would not be more extensive. Similarly, in the Aztec case, only one sentence is dedicated to figurines and their importance to Post-Classic culture (fig. 46). This is disappointing, as figurines were such a significant part of Mexica civilization. 70

Figure 46 Figurine information in the Maya and Aztec displays is limited compared to other exhibits in the Americas Gallery Other displays throughout the galleries provide more detailed explanations of figurine significance. In one exhibit, there is an explanation of varying figurine style over time. This display case includes a variety of figurines and other ceramics suspended from the wall on top of a timeline designating the period in which they were made (fig. 47). One display case also includes an explanation of mold made figurines, a very significant aspect of figurine production that is unmentioned in a majority of museums. 71

Figure 47 One Exhibit features a timeline of Mesoamerican history, explained through figurine development Conclusions

Overall, the American Museum of Natural History provides the visitor with an idea of the abundance of figurines found throughout Central and South America, and gives the viewer some context in terms of where and when these artifacts come from. However, the explanations of figurine function and interpretation are fairly vague, and more detail could be added to enhance the visitor’s understanding of these objects.

National Museum of the American Indian, New York City: Special Exhibition “Cerámica”, NY

The National Museum of the American Indian’s New York City branch features much of the same material as its sister museum in Washington D.C. However, this particular Smithsonian branch possessed several traveling exhibitions that went above and beyond many of the displays 72 seen in Washington D.C. The temporary exhibition “Cerámica” provides visitors with an overview of ceramics of the Americas from different cultures and time periods. This exhibition featured a wide variety of figurines, focusing not only on their appearance or abundance, but also on their production and interpretation.

Layout and Design

The entire gallery space that the “Cerámica” exhibition filled opened with a display case full of ceramic figurines from throughout the Americas. This opening display featured Classic

Maya figurines, as well as artifacts from Panama, Honduras, the Caribbean, and other regions

(fig. 48). By opening the entire exhibition with a display focused exclusively on figurines, this museum immediately communicated the importance of these objects to visitors. Additionally, the inclusion of figurines from different cultures and places in the opening case made it immediately clear that great variety exists among this particular type of artifact.

Figure 48 Opening Display Case of "Cerámica" Exhibition, NMAI, NY The museum text throughout the gallery spaces was detailed, providing basic information on what the objects were, where they came from, time period, and medium. However, more 73 extensive information was also provided throughout the exhibition. One wall within the central gallery was exclusively dedicated to an explanation of ceramic iconography, something that was unseen at any other museum analyzed in this project (fig. 49). As communicated in previous chapters, iconography, symbols, and ideas associated with ceramic figurines represent an important component of understanding these artifacts. This element greatly enhanced the learning opportunities available to visitors in this exhibition. One of the most unique and strong elements of the museum text as a whole throughout the exhibition is that it included text both in

English and Spanish. In an exhibition focused on materials from throughout the Americas, this was very appropriate, and something that is overlooked in most other figurine exhibitions.

Figure 49 Display Dedicated to Explaining Ceramic Iconography The majority of individual exhibits within the galleries focused on specific concepts, such as representation of females in ceramics, the significance of jade in Mesoamerican culture, spirit 74 transformations and shamanism, and other ideas. Similar to the American Museum of Natural

History, there is a display focused on the use of molds in figurine production. In the “Cerámica” exhibition, there is a special emphasis placed on this production technique, as the display case holds only a figurine and the mold that was used to create it (fig. 50). As previously explained, figurine production techniques are not often discussed in museums, but this particular exhibition successfully communicates the importance of this method within Mesoamerican society.

Figure 50 Figurine Head Fragment and the Mold Used to Create it The exhibition begins and ends with cases featuring exclusively ceramic figurines, highlighting their significance throughout the entire viewing experience. The final display case in the exhibition contains a particularly meaningful body of text, explaining how ceramics reflect the identity of indigenous groups of the past and present. The placement of these figurine display cases, paired with the strong museum text, creates a memorable learning experience for the visitor and leaves them thinking about the figurines they have seen.

75 Conclusions

The “Cerámica” exhibition, although small and temporary, provides a very strong example of figurine display. Through thoughtful organization of artifacts and display placement, the visitor begins and ends their viewing experience by acknowledging the importance of ceramic figurines within Mesoamerican culture. Information on ceramic iconography, figurine production techniques, and the significance of these objects within indigenous cultures makes this exhibition especially valuable in terms of the learning experience offered to visitors. The use of both Spanish and English text also demonstrates a level of respect towards the cultures represented in the exhibition.

Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, CA

In most museums, whether they are anthropology, natural history, or art museums, there is some sort of attempt to create a visually pleasing exhibition for visitors. However, smaller objects like ceramic figurines may be difficult to display or emphasize in a creative way. The

Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA) provides a strong example of an aesthetically pleasing exhibition, making its artifacts, figurines included, stand out to visitors. However, its aesthetic strengths do not necessarily match the detail of information provided for visitors.

Layout and Design

The Americas gallery at LACMA is large, consisting of multiple rooms, each filled with an extensive amount of artifacts from Central and South America. Various display techniques are used, with display cases lining the walls of each room, and individual pedestals and larger artifacts displayed in the central space. However, the most striking feature of the LACMA 76 galleries is not necessarily their layout, but their design. Each room consists of ridged walls which curve out into the central space. The display cases on the gallery’s periphery are set within these walls, creating a unique viewing experience. The ceilings and blank wall spaces are painted in vibrant reds and oranges, and the lighting throughout the galleries is bright, allowing the objects to stand out (fig. 51). Chandeliers hang from the gallery ceilings, and colorful curtains frame the outline of each room in the exhibition.

Figure 51 Unique Exhibition Design at LACMA Many of the display cases feature ceramic figurines. However, very limited information about the objects is provided in these exhibits. Often, figurines are placed within cases dedicated to explaining a broader concept, such as the Mesoamerican ballgame, warfare, or other ideas. No individual case is specifically dedicated to figurines. There is one display titled “Ancient

Technology: Ceramics,” but there is little discussion of production techniques within the case.

Although there are both moldmade and handmade figurines in the display, there is no 77 explanation of the significance of this change in production. In the “Vera Cruz” exhibit, there is mention of figurine production with molds, but this is rather misleading, as this technique was used in many of the other locations and cultures represented throughout the galleries. Other displays throughout the exhibition are more detailed; one display focused on Jaina figurines11 explains their potential interpretation and includes a map with photographs designating where these artifacts were discovered throughout the Yucatan Peninsula and other regions of Central

America (fig. 52).

Figure 52 Jaina Figurine Display Descriptions and museum text concerning individual figurines within the gallery are limited, providing only basic details such as where the object is from and the time period it was

11 Jaina figurines come from a Maya archaeological site off the coast of the modern Mexican state of Campeche. They represent one of the most developed and sophisticated ceramic traditions of Mesoamerican history. The naturalistic style of these figurines is valuable to archaeologists, as it reveals information about the dress, customs, and daily lives of the Maya (Halperin, 2014). 78 created. Additionally, some figurines are more emphasized than others throughout the galleries.

Some sit alone or with a limited number of other artifacts on pedestals throughout the room, while others are grouped in larger assemblages within display cases. This organization is rather misleading, as the visitor does not necessarily detect the significance of these objects within

Mesoamerican culture (fig. 53).

Figure 53 While some figurines in the galleries are emphasized and explained in detail, others are accompanied by very limited information Conclusions

Overall, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art provides visitors with an engaging visual experience, using vibrant colors and interesting display methods to capture their audience’s attention. However, the aesthetic features of the exhibition overshadow the information provided. There is limited information concerning individual figurines and artifacts, and significant themes, such as figurine production, are mentioned sporadically throughout the displays, misleading the visitor and resulting in possible misunderstanding of the artifacts.

Although more information could be provided in this particular exhibition, it is important to 79 recognize that LACMA is an art museum, and their intention may be more aesthetic than educational.

Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County; “Visible Vault: Archaeological Treasures from Ancient Latin America”, Los Angeles, CA

When an average museum visitor enters an exhibition space, they may expect to see a

“typical” organization technique within that gallery, with glass cases, museum text, and other formal methods of showcasing art or artifacts. However, many visitors have no knowledge of the massive amount of artifacts not on display within these institutions. The Natural History

Museum of Los Angeles County attempts to shed light on the “behind the scenes” aspect of museums through their exhibition “Visible Vault: Archaeological Treasures from Ancient Latin

America.” This exhibition is unique in its theme and display methods, but provides little information on the artifacts themselves. Although the museum seems to accomplish its goal of increasing the visitor’s understanding of museum storage, a lack of labels and organization allows the visitor to walk away with little to no additional knowledge about the Latin American artifacts they have seen.

Layout and Design

The single room “Visible Vault” exhibition is intended to resemble a museum storage room. Either side of the gallery contains a large glass case against the wall, containing multiple shelves filled with hundreds of artifacts. The gallery itself is almost like a hallway that visitors pass through as they walk between exhibitions in the museum. An open door is situated at either end of the gallery, allowing visitors to pass through the space rather quickly (fig. 54). The room itself is very dark, even within the cases. Although this is similar to the way the lighting would 80 be in an actual storeroom, it makes it very difficult to see the artifacts within the display cases.

At either end of the gallery space is a large screen displaying scrolling images of individual artifacts from the cases. This component seems rather out of place within the gallery, and there is no apparent significance to any of the specific artifacts highlighted on these display screens.

Figure 54 The gallery space is dark, and visitors seem to walk through quickly Many artifacts within the cases are not labeled, and when they are, limited information is provided beyond time period, medium, and the culture they came from. The overall gallery does not seem to have a very specific organization technique. It may be arranged by culture area or artifact type, but this organization is not consistent everywhere in the exhibitions. Although museum storage facilities do contain artifacts from many different cultures and time periods, there is always some organizational technique utilized (fig. 55). Aside from the fact that the artifacts in this exhibition are from “ancient Latin America,” there does not seem to be a consistent organizational pattern. Without more information, the visitor cannot ascertain this significance or how they are related to one another. 81

Figure 55 Although the gallery is filled with many figurines and other artifacts, little to no description of these objects is provided The exhibition’s title may also contribute to its weaknesses. The “visible vault” concept is unique and the layout of the gallery space does provide visitors with insight into how artifacts are stored. However, to label this exhibition as a showcase of “archaeological treasures from

Latin America,” is misleading for several reasons. First, to refer to the figurines and other artifacts in the displays as “treasures” is to assign them material value rather than communicate their cultural significance, which is rather unethical and misleading. Additionally, if the museum advertises this exhibition as a showcase of Latin American artifacts and culture, then more information about these artifacts should be present.

Conclusions

The “Visible Vault” exhibition at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County presents visitors with an opportunity to understand how artifacts are stored in museums when they are not on display. However, little to no information about the artifacts themselves is provided to visitors. The dark lighting and “cluttered” nature of the exhibition space may 82 overwhelm visitors and make them confused about what they are seeing. The situation of the gallery in its “hallway” setting also causes visitors to rush through the space without really observing what they see. Although it is important and interesting for museumgoers to learn about what goes on behind the scenes at these institutions, this particular exhibition lacks a clear purpose, and visitors walk away having learned very little about ceramic figurines and other significant archaeological artifacts.

San Diego Museum of Man; “Maya: Heart of Sky, Heart of Earth”, San Diego, CA

The San Diego Museum of Man is an anthropological museum in San Diego, California, housing 72,000 artifacts, many of them from Central and South America. The exhibitions featured in this museum are often engaging, featuring visually impressive designs and interactive elements to appeal to visitors of all ages. A recent exhibition at the museum titled “Maya: Heart of Sky, Heart of Earth,” showcased a small but impressive collection of ceramics and other artifacts from Maya sites. The figurines featured in this exhibition were displayed in an eye- catching manner and included valuable information about the significance of these particular artifacts within Maya culture.

Layout and Design

The Maya exhibition, a temporary showcase, was situated in the central space directly inside the entrance of the museum, making it immediately noticeable for viewers. The small gallery space featured large, ceiling-height castes of Maya stelae12 framing the exhibits within

12 “Stelae” are archaeological artifacts commonly discovered at Maya sites throughout Mesoamerica. These stone monuments consist of a column carved with the likeness of a ruler, 83 the space. Behind the gallery was a large painted mural of a jungle, resembling the rainforest environment of the Yucatan (fig. 56). This exhibition design immediately engages the visitor, drawing them towards the individual displays.

Figure 56 "Maya: Heart of Sky, Heart of Earth" Exhibition, San Diego Museum of Man The gallery features a central display area with cases wrapping around the exterior of the gallery. Several cases are dedicated specifically to Maya figurines. Within the cases, the individual artifacts are visually striking; some sit on small shelves, while others lean on stands on the bottom surface. All of the artifacts are somewhere near eye-level to be easily observed by the viewer, and each case contains internal lighting to make the objects stand out. The display features both human and animal figurines, but no individual artifact labels are included to identify them specifically (fig. 57). However, museum text included alongside the cases does provide useful information. The text briefly describes figurine significance within Maya culture, and the back side of the stela features glyphs communicating ancestry and themes of Maya kingship. 84 explaining gender identity among figurines, their use in ritual, interpretation of clothing, and significance of specific gestures. This information, although brief, provides the visitor with a general understanding of the importance of figurines within Maya society.

Figure 57 Individual Figurines within the Display Cases are not Labeled Figurines are placed within other display cases throughout the gallery as part of an explanation of other Maya cultural traditions. Displays feature themes like the Mesoamerican ballgame, pageantry in Maya society, and other ideas. A wide variety of figurine identities are represented throughout the gallery, including elite females, flute players and musicians, figurine rattles, whistles, and other figures (fig. 58). The inclusion of multiple figurine identities within the exhibition contributes to a valuable learning opportunity, communicating to the visitor that

Maya figurines played a role in multiple cultural institutions of the time period. 85

Figure 58 The exhibition highlights the wide variety of figurine identities and their significance within Maya culture Conclusions

Overall, this exhibition provides a strong example of how figurine significance can be communicated in a small museum setting. The “Maya: Heart of Sky, Heart of Earth” exhibition at the San Diego Museum of Man is strong in its organization and use of space, drawing the visitor in and encouraging them to learn as much as they can about figurines and other artifacts through a visually engaging design. The overall exhibition is small, but it presents a great deal of useful information regarding figurines. Although the museum text is not necessarily detailed or elaborate, it provides a general, informative overview of the importance of ceramic figurines in

Maya culture. The exhibit could be stronger in terms of the figurines on display. As communicated in earlier chapters, the majority of figurines discovered at Mesoamerican archaeological sites are fragmentary, and it could be misleading to visitors if all the figurines they observe are complete examples. 86 The Field Museum of Chicago: “The Ancient Americas”, Chicago, IL

“The Ancient Americas” is a permanent exhibition at the Field Museum of Chicago and by far the largest individual exhibition discussed in this analysis. Covering multiple galleries over 19,000 square feet, the exhibition leads visitors through 13,000 years of history in the

Western Hemisphere, with multiple exhibits dedicated to Mesoamerican culture and ceramic figurines. “The Ancient Americas,” through interactive elements, visually striking displays, and in depth museum text, creates an engaging, educational, and memorable experience for museumgoers.

Layout and Design

The overall exhibition is arranged chronologically, separated into roughly seven large gallery spaces, each focusing on a specific time period, culture, or concept. The exhibition is situated just inside the main entrance of the museum, allowing the visitor to see it almost immediately when they arrive. The exhibition entrance consists of a large stela cast beneath a striking banner displaying the exhibition title. The galleries take the visitor from the Ice Age to the modern day, and each room is filled with eye-catching displays and interactive features.

The first three display cases just inside the exhibition’s entrance are filled with figurines from different time periods and places, immediately emphasizing their significance to the visitor.

Every individual figurine and artifact is labeled, identifying the object, its region of origin, and the time period when it was created (fig. 59). Each room within the exhibition also features a map or timeline indicating the location of the culture featured in that specific gallery while identifying other significant global events that took place during the same time period. This addition provides specific, understandable cultural context for the visitor to help them better interpret the materials they see throughout the exhibition. Each gallery space seems to place the 87 visitor “in the moment,” with the exterior of the room covered in models and murals that resemble the civilizations they focus on. Additionally, each room features its own anecdote, prompting the visitor to “picture themselves” living and performing daily activities in the time and places represented throughout the exhibition (fig. 60).

Figure 59 Entrance and Opening Display Cases in "The Ancient Americas"

88

Figure 60 The exhibition design places visitors "in the moment" through the use of models, maps, and interactive elements Ceramic figurines are present in a majority of display cases throughout the galleries, particularly in the rooms focused on Teotihuacan, Tenochtitalan, and other specific locations and cultures. In the Maya gallery, the figurine displays feature explanations of their interpretation and potential function. For example, in a case of Maya ruler figurines, the museum text emphasizes how these artifacts were intended to represent the concept of rulership rather than specific individuals, an important idea that is unmentioned at most other museums. The displays feature a variety of figurine identities, including dwarves, ballplayers, females, and elite figures

(fig. 61). Additionally, figurine production is explained in great detail throughout the exhibition; one exhibit is dedicated exclusively to figurine production, and there is even a plaque with figurine fragments and mold castes that visitors can touch. The exhibition also successfully demonstrates the stylistic variety among figurines through their displays. One case features

Mexica jointed figurines from the Post-Classic Period, and a series of individual exhibits 89 highlight specific concepts that figurines and other artifacts represented in Mesoamerican society, such as fate, agricultural fertility, and ancestry (fig. 62).

Figure 61 Many types of figurines are featured in the exhibition, and the explanations are specific in communicating their interpretation and function

Figure 62 The exhibition focuses on changes in figurine production and style Conclusions 90 “The Ancient Americas” exhibition at the Field Museum demonstrates a very strong example of figurine display. Through interactive elements that invite the visitor to place themselves in a specific time or place, touch artifact models, and understand the cultural traditions of Mesoamerican societies throughout history, the exhibition successfully communicates the importance of figurines in interpreting the past. The detailed, specific museum texts, visually impressive displays, and variety of figurines featured within the exhibition engage the visitor from start to finish, creating an experience that is both enjoyable and educational.

Harvard Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Boston, MA

The Peabody Museum at Harvard University, one of the oldest anthropological museums in the world, houses over 1.2 million artifacts. One of the museum’s most extensive collections focuses on objects from Central and South America. The two-room Latin America exhibition is filled with individual exhibits focused on specific cultural aspects and traditions. Although the overall exhibition is informative, there are very few ceramic figurines on display and there is little discussion of their importance.

Layout and Design

The Latin America galleries are situated on the second floor of the museum. The space is filled with many individual exhibits. Rather than seeming cluttered, this arrangement seems to control visitor traffic by offering museumgoers many paths to move throughout the space (fig.

63). However, there does not seem to be any specific organization or pattern to the exhibition design. Additionally, very few figurines are displayed throughout the overall exhibition. The 91 display cases in the galleries focus on overarching concepts and ideas, such as cacao production, textiles, and ritual action. There is no specific display devoted to figurines, and where they are present in the galleries, they contribute to the explanation of a larger concept, such as weaving or textile production (fig. 64). Additionally, little interpretive information on figurines is provided.

There is no explanation of iconography, function, or other specific details about figurines.

Several individual exhibits throughout the Mesoamerica gallery display large dioramas depicting well-known archaeological sites. These models provide interesting context for visitors, demonstrating where many of these artifacts were found (fig. 65).

Figure 63 Exhibition Entrance and First Gallery Space 92

Figure 64 When figurines are present in the exhibition, they contribute to the explanation of a larger concept

Figure 65 Large dioramas throughout the gallery space show where artifacts were discovered The second room in the Latin America exhibition focuses on South American ceramics, specifically a collection of stirrup-spout vessels13 from the Moche culture of Peru. Although these are not the same as the Mesoamerican ceramic figurines discussed throughout this project,

13 Stirrup-spout vessels refer to a specific type of ceramic form common in Pre-Columbian cultures of South America. The vessel consists of a hollow pot attached to handle with a spout at its top. The structure of this vessel prevented evaporation of liquids, and they were commonly used in rituals and daily life. They are commonly decorated with specific figures, such as deities, animals, or other identities. 93 the explanations and museum text accompanying these objects at the Peabody Museum are more detailed than the text provided with the Mesoamerican figures (fig. 66). The museum text describing the Moche ceramics includes significant details on iconography, production techniques, and evolving style of the objects. This information would have been useful to provide in the description of the figurines in the first gallery, both to create consistency throughout the Latin America exhibition and to provide visitors with a more valuable educational experience.

Figure 66 The Moche ceramic exhibit is far more descriptive than the exhibits featuring figurines Conclusions

The Latin America exhibition at the Peabody Museum is strong in the amount and variety of artifacts displayed throughout its galleries, but falls short in terms of its focus on

Mesoamerican figurines. Very few of these specific artifacts are seen throughout the gallery spaces, and their description is limited. The amount of detail included in the museum text in the

Moche ceramics gallery should also be applied in the Mesoamerican gallery. 94 The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, NY

The Metropolitan Museum of Art is a highly regarded institution, showcasing over 5,000 years worth of art and culture through their exhibitions. The Americas gallery of the museum is large, and features a collection that represents multiple Pre-Colombian cultures of Central and

South America. The exhibition also features a large amount of ceramic figurines. Unlike other art museums, the Met provides an explanation of these objects beyond their aesthetic value, also emphasizing and explaining their cultural significance.

Layout and Design

The Americas exhibition at the Met is large, consisting of several galleries containing display cases around the room exteriors and pedestal exhibits in the central space (fig. 67).

Individual exhibits are organized by culture, and many of these individual exhibits feature ceramic figurines. The cases themselves appear to be arranged in a somewhat chronological order, beginning explanations of Formative cultures, such as the Olmec, and progressing to the

Post Classic Mexica. Figurines within the cases are placed at eye level, and lighting within each case makes them stand out. Several cases contain only figurines, emphasizing their significance to the visitor (fig. 68). Labels alongside each individual object provide information such as the object’s classification, culture of origin, and time period.

Figure 67 The Americas Exhibition, Metropolitan Museum of Art 95

Figure 68 Multiple cases throughout the gallery contain only figurines, emphasizing their significance Figurine descriptions within the gallery are not particularly detailed or specific. However, an extensive explanation of cultures represented throughout the gallery is included, and the inclusion of figurines in the majority of display cases repeatedly emphasizes their importance to visitors while highlighting their stylistic differences across time and culture.

Conclusions

The Americas Gallery at the Metropolitan Museum of Art provides surprisingly detailed information about the Pre-Colombian cultures represented throughout the space, something relatively unexpected for an art museum. The variety of display methods within the cases and throughout the galleries causes the figurines to stand out and prompts visitors to observe them more closely. Although the descriptions of the figurines themselves are not particularly extensive, the visitor can detect the importance of these artifacts in Pre-Colombian cultures based on their abundance throughout the exhibition. More detailed information about the figurines could be communicated to visitors through the museum text, but as the Met is an art museum, 96 this may not be the overall intention of the exhibit. Overall, the Met provides a good example of figurine display in an art museum setting.

Creating the Most Memorable Museum Experience

Based on an intensive analysis of all ten of these anthropology, art, and natural history museums, several features seem to stand out as strong exhibition design techniques. The exhibitions that proved to be the most engaging from the start, such as “The Ancient Americas,” and “Maya: Heart of Sky, Heart of Earth,” utilized unique display methods; both exhibitions captured the visitor’s attention immediately through striking models, reconstructions, and printed text. This proved effective even within the smaller space available for the exhibition at the San

Diego Museum of Man. It is essential to gain the visitor’s attention from the start, so they remain engaged throughout an exhibition.

To emphasize the importance of figurines, several of the museums included display cases that featured only this specific type of artifact. In order to emphasize the importance of figurines, a strong exhibit will focus exclusively on these objects. Additionally, each figurine should be clearly identified and classified, whether through a label within the display case or with a handout. At institutions such as the Penn Museum, Field Museum, and the “Cerámica” exhibition, labeling individual figurines provided the visitor with more detailed information and a greater sense of understanding about the objects they saw.

One significant feature of stronger figurine exhibits was the communication of central themes or ideas. Individual exhibits or displays should highlight a specific concept. For example, the “Cerámica” exhibition had an individual exhibit devoted to explaining ceramic iconography. 97 Similarly, the American Museum of Natural History has an exhibit focused on Mesoamerican figurine chronology. Exhibits with specific themes communicate a very clear message to the visitor and help them to better retain the information they learn.

A strong figurine exhibit should utilize both visual and textual methods to create an educational experience that appeals to audiences of all age groups and backgrounds. The visitor’s attention should be held from the moment they enter the exhibition, and the central theme should remain clear to them throughout their visit. Museum text should be informative but concise, providing useful information that is understandable to an audience with little to no prior knowledge of the subject matter. For visitors who may want more information than what is seen on labels, there should be a handout or other materials available to them, so they can take the material home to learn more and share with others.

Ceramic figurines may be small artifacts, but they can be used to communicate important concepts in the museum setting. Through creative, visually appealing exhibition design, clear and understandable text, and recognizable themes, museums can successfully emphasize the significance of these Mesoamerican artifacts to modern audiences.

98 Chapter 6 Designing a Figurine Display

As discussed in the last chapter, there are many techniques that can be used to successfully communicate the significance of Mesoamerican ceramic figurines in museum settings. This chapter will outline a potential figurine exhibition to be installed at Penn State’s

Matson Museum of Anthropology based on the results of the figurine exhibit analyses conducted at other museums around the country. Two exhibit proposals will be featured, including a model of the “most ideal” figurine display based on the observations made at other museums, and a smaller model that can be implemented with the artifacts and resources available at the Matson

Museum of Anthropology.

These exhibit designs will incorporate the most effective display elements discussed in

Chapter 5, such as immediately engaging visitors, placing them “in the moment” of the topic or time period discussed, and clearly communicating cultural context early on in the exhibit, to provide visitors with sufficient background information. Exhibit text will be clear and concise, communicating not only basic background information on the figurines and cultures that created them, but also detailing the importance of iconographic interpretation. The display cases will be visually appealing, maintaining the visitor’s attention while creating an interesting educational experience for audiences. Handouts will also be available so visitors who would like to learn additional information about the objects and cultures represented in the cases have the option to do so. 99 Theoretical Exhibition Design

As communicated in earlier chapters, Mesoamerican ceramic figurines varied in style and function from the Formative to Post Classic Period. The ideal figurine exhibit would highlight this variation, using visual design techniques that create a clear message regarding the ritual use of these artifacts. An effective exhibit would also keep the visitor engaged, utilizing creative display methods to appeal to audiences.

Title and Theme

The title of this theoretical exhibit would be “Forgotten Figures: Uncovering

Mesoamerican Ritual Culture Through Ceramic Figurines.” The purpose of the exhibit would be to demonstrate the importance of ceramic figurines within Mesoamerican rituals in the

Formative, Classic, and Post Classic Periods.

Design

The theoretical exhibit would consist of three horizontal, freestanding display cases. The exhibit will begin with a brief explanation of Mesoamerican history to provide visitors with cultural context and give them a better idea of the geographic region in discussion. Each case would represent a specific time period of Mesoamerican history, including the Formative,

Classic, and Post Classic. Within each individual case, the layout will communicate a specific example or outline of how ceramic figurines were used in ritual during that time period. The exhibit will include text in the cases as well as a handout with additional details that visitors can use as they explore the exhibit. They will also be able to take the handout with them when they leave the exhibit.

To make the exhibit more engaging and to emphasize the ceramic figurines themselves, each individual case will be designed in a way which allows the artifacts to be viewed as if they 100 are in situ, as they would have been discovered at archaeological sites. The cases are intended to be viewed from left to right. As each case is freestanding, visitors will be able to view the exhibit from all sides, allowing the figurines to be observed from many different perspectives. The horizontal freestanding cases will also facilitate the viewing experience for visitors. As visitors will be able to walk around the cases, it will prevent the exhibit from becoming too crowded in one place, and more viewers can observe the displays at the same time (fig. 69).

Figure 69 Theoretical Exhibit Layout The text for individual display cases will be attached to the glass beneath the case’s top surface. The exhibit title will be displayed on a stand next to the Formative Period display case.

The stand will also hold the handouts for the exhibit so visitors can take them before they proceed to the individual cases. The location of the exhibit title will also direct visitors, prompting them to follow the chronological progression of the exhibit, beginning with the

Formative Period case. This first case will also provide visitors with background information on

Mesoamerica, providing them with cultural context before they proceed to the main content of the exhibit.

101

Figure 70 Exhibit Title Sign The Formative Period case will be the first of the three in the exhibit. This individual display case will communicate the importance of figurines in Formative burials. The bottom surface of the case is covered in “fake sand,” reflecting the idea that the artifacts within the display have just been unearthed at an archaeological site. The case contains a skeleton model surrounded by multiple Formative figurines, as they would be found in reality within

Mesoamerican burials (fig. 71).

The main body of text for the case is attached to the top surface. The goal of the

Formative display text is to emphasize the importance of figurines in funerary ritual during this early period of Mesoamerican history. The text will also mention stylistic features of these early figurines, highlighting their handmade production and core features. The case will also include a map of Formative Period sites so visitors with little to no prior knowledge about Mesoamerica can gain a better idea of the geographic area in discussion. The exhibit handout will include additional details on stylistic variation among Formative figurines from different times and cultures. 102

Figure 71 Case One: The Formative Figurine The center case in the exhibit will focus on Classic Period Maya figurines. This case is divided into two sections, with the left side portraying figurine production and use in elite settings, and the right focusing on figurine use among common Maya citizens. The section focused on figurine use in elite settings is meant to resemble a production site. This side of the case will feature figurine molds, ruler and ballplayer figurines, and small lumps of fired clay, representing the types of artifacts that serve as evidence of figurine production sites. Similar to the Formative figurine display case, the Classic Maya case will use the same “fake sand” to maintain the in situ theme. The right side of the case will contain the types of ceramic figurines associated with domestic ritual, including “grotesque” figurines, clown figurines, and the old man-young woman coupled figurines (see Chapter 3) (fig. 72). Several photos of Maya archaeological sites will be included throughout the case to provide clear context for the visitor, demonstrating where these types of artifacts are found.

There will be several bodies of museum text for the Classic Period figurine display case.

One will be situated on the case surface in the top left corner of the display. This text will explain the overarching figurine identities associated with the Classic Period Maya, including the 103 concept of rulership, popular identities, and the representation of broad ideas rather than specific individuals. The text will also highlight the gradual transition from handmade to moldmade figurine production, pointing out the figurine mold in the case and explaining how the elite Maya distributed these figurines throughout the Classic Period city-states to maintain the social hierarchy.

Another page of museum text will be located on the bottom right corner of the case’s surface to explain the use of ceramic figurines in domestic contexts. The text will explain the

“social media” aspect of Maya figurines among common citizens (see Chapter 3), the comical and imitative themes visible among these figures, and how they were able to give the common

Maya population the ability to create “social commentary” during the Classic Period. Similar to the Formative Period display case, the Classic Period case will have a map of Classic Period

Maya city-states to provide clear context for the visitor. The exhibit handout will highlight additional details regarding Maya figurine style, production, and distribution during the Classic

Period.

Figure 72 Case Two: Classic Maya Figurines

104 The final display case of the theoretical figurine exhibit will focus on Mexica figurines of the Post Classic Period. To give visitors a very clear understanding of the duality of these objects, (as described in Chapter 4) the specific ritual example of the New Fire Ceremony will be the central theme of the display case to better communicate the role of figurines in state level religion. Similar to the Classic Period case, this final display case will be separated into two sections. The top half of the case will feature photographs of pages from the Codex Borbonicus14 that depict the New Fire Ceremony. The museum text for this top half of the case will include an explanation of the Mexica ritual and solar calendars and the importance of the New Fire

Ceremony in perpetuating that life cycle. The text will also explain the difference between the terms “Mexica” and “Aztec.”

The bottom half of the display case will contain a collection of Post Classic Mexica figurines, including deities, animals, and temple figurines. Once again, this section of the display case will be designed in a way that makes the artifacts appear as if they are in situ. The figurines will be a reference to the ritual “cleansing” of households that took place in the days leading up to the New Fire Ceremony. The accompanying text for the bottom section will explain the mass production of figurines during the Post Classic and the more “political” purpose of the objects in their distribution throughout the Mexica kingdoms. Additionally, there will be an explanation of the significance of breaking these objects in the days before the ritual. The separation of the case in this way visually represents the duality of Post Classic figurines. The top section with the codex pages highlights the more spiritual aspect of the state level ritual while the bottom section provides a commentary on the sociopolitical use of these artifacts. Similar to the first two display

14 The Codex Borbonicus is one of the most well-known Mexica codices. The 46.5-foot document is painted with glyphs and pictorial depictions of the Mexica divinatory calendar, a documentation of each solar day in the 52-year life cycle, and a section focused on specific rituals and ceremonies. 105 cases, a map will also be provided to demonstrate the scope of the Mexica empire. Additional information on the exhibit handout will include more specific details about the many identities represented among Post Classic figurines (fig. 73).

Figure 73 Case Three: Post Classic Mexica Figurines

This overall figurine exhibit design combines some of the strongest display aspects observed at the museums referenced in the previous chapter. The exhibit, although small, features figurines exclusively in the three display cases, emphasizing their significance to visitors. The individual focus of each case allows visitors to progress through the exhibit chronologically, meaning they gain a greater understanding of figurine style, production, and ritual development throughout Mesoamerican history while learning about the potential functionality of these artifacts. The “in situ” design feature of the theoretical exhibit makes the displays more visually engaging, attracting audiences of all ages and maintaining their attention.

The maps on each case also provide context for visitors, adding to their understanding of where these objects are from. The inclusion of an in situ design, maps, and images of archaeological 106 sites provide very specific context to increase the audience’s understanding of how these artifacts are discovered at archaeological sites.

The focus of the museum text on each case is concise and specific, communicating the central ideas of figurine use in various rituals and how they changed in form and function over time. Additionally, if visitors want to learn about the objects and their interpretation in greater detail, they have the option to use the handout. All artifacts are individually labeled so the visitor can observe them in greater detail and better perceive how they varied in style from the

Formative to Post Classic, and between domestic and elite settings.

This theoretical figurine exhibit design represents the most ideal display scenario for these artifacts. However, in order to create an actual figurine exhibit at the Matson Museum of

Anthropology, the breadth of this exhibit design will need to be condensed to successfully communicate the significance of these artifacts with the figurines available at Penn State.

Figurine Exhibition Outline for the Matson Museum of Anthropology

The majority of Mesoamerican ceramic figurines in storage at Penn State’s Matson

Museum of Anthropology are from the Post Classic Period, meaning that an actual exhibit will have to focus exclusively on this time period. To make the most successful exhibit with these available artifacts, the focus of the theoretical exhibit will be revised to explain the ritual use of

Mexica figurines during the Post Classic Period. The title of this revised exhibit will be “Small

Figures, Big Themes: Mexica Figurines of the Post Classic.” This title reveals a slightly different theme than the previously described exhibit; rather than focusing on changes in figurine ritual throughout Mesoamerican history, it instead emphasizes how Mexica figurines, although small 107 artifacts, can reveal a great deal about this particular Mesoamerican culture. The goal of this exhibit will be to communicate not only the ritual function of Post Classic Mexica figurines, but also to explain their production, identity, and interpretation.

Layout and Design

The Mexica figurine exhibit for the Matson will consist of two horizontal freestanding cases rather than three. The first case will focus on Post Classic figurine classification, providing an introduction to Mesoamerican figurines and displaying a variety of these artifacts so visitors can observe the similarities and differences among them. The second case will go on to explain their ritual use, using the specific example of the New Fire Ceremony, similar to the design described for case three of the theoretical exhibit (fig. 74).

Figure 74 Matson Museum Exhibit Layout Case One

The first case focused on Mexica figurine classification will display examples of five of the different Post Classic figurine groups described in Chapter 4, including hollow rattle figurines, jointed figurines, solid figurines, animal figurines, and Post-Contact figurines. This first case will also provide visitors with an introduction to Mesoamerica and the Mexica, including a map of the geographic region in discussion as well as images of Tenochtitlan, showing a sketch of what archaeologists believe the site originally looked like as well as a photo 108 of the archaeological site beneath Mexico City. Museum text for this case, similar to the theoretical exhibit, will be attached to the bottom surface of the top of the glass case. The exhibit title will be placed in the top left corner of the first case.

Each category of figurine within the case will be grouped together, and the different groups will be slightly scattered throughout the case. Each grouping will have its own individual number to identify the figurine category represented. Numbers next to the individual figurines will correspond with listed numbers within the museum text, indicating the artifact type referenced. Larger bodies of text on the case will be situated around the figurines, explaining their form and classification (fig. 75).

Figure 75 Case One: Mexica Figurine Classification Case One Text, Page One

The ceramic figurines in this case may be small artifacts, but they reveal a great deal about Mesoamerican cultures. These Mexica, or Aztec, figurines from the Post Classic Period

(1000 CE-1521) represent the deities, belief systems, and cultural change that characterized the

Mexica throughout their history. The Mexica dominated Mesoamerica for nearly a century, establishing a rigid social hierarchy and state level religion. Although they used military force to 109 expand their power, they were also able to maintain their dominance through shared material culture and iconography. These figurines depict deities, animals, and other important identities from Post Classic Mexica myth history. They were mass produced in workshops and distributed to households throughout the empire in order to create a common visual culture. Ceramic figurines became a political tool for Mexica elites. By distributing these specific images to the common population, they reinforced their control of sociopolitical and spiritual institutions throughout their territory.

Case One Text, Page Two

What is Mesoamerica? Why is this region so interesting to anthropologists? Mesoamerica is a cultural and geographic zone, encompassing the modern day countries of Guatemala,

Mexico, Honduras, Belize, and El Salvador. Throughout Mesoamerican history, many complex and sophisticated cultures came to dominate this region, including the Mexica. Remnants of these great civilizations can be seen throughout Latin America today, and anthropologists have long been enthralled by the monumental architecture, developed artistic traditions, and lifestyle of Mesoamerican cultures. The Mexica, more commonly known as the Aztecs, represent one of the most powerful cultures of Mesoamerican history. Their developed belief systems, rigid social hierarchy, and ritual culture are still studied today. Mexica ceramic figurines dating to this period of Mesoamerican history can help anthropologists learn more about this great civilization and their cultural traditions.

Case One Text, Page Three

Mexica figurines vary in form and style, and many separate identities can be seen among these artifacts. Hollow rattle figurines (1) can be identified by a hollow body, incised eyes, open, rimmed mouths, and a smooth unpainted surface. Some examples of this figurine type have a 110 small clay ball inside, meaning they may have been used as toy rattles or musical instruments during ritual. Many examples also have a vent hole in their base or sides, a feature which likely allowed the objects to maintain their hollow form during firing. Many hollow figurines depict earth goddess “Coatlicue,” mother of the Mexica patron deity Huitzilopotchli. She is identifiable by her large protruding nose, circular earplugs, necklace, and a diamond-patterned skirt, representative of interwoven serpents.

Jointed figurines represent another style of Mexica figurines. This category is recognizable by flat, slab-like bodies, rectangular shape, and holes punched in each of the four corners of their torsos (2). The limbs of these figurines are separate from their bodies, and were likely attached to the body frame so the figures could be moved. Archaeologists also suspect that the body perforations may have been used to suspend figurines on household walls, or to tie on ceremonial ornaments, such as feathers or beads. Jointed figurines most often represent god

Xochipilli, the deity of games, flowers, dance and song. He is recognizable by his curled hair.

His female counterpart Xochiquetzal, goddess of love and weaving, is recognizable when breasts are present on the jointed body fragment.

Solid figurines represent the largest, most common form of Mexica figurines (3).

Examples of this type consist of a flat back, angular base, and facial features molded in relief.

Many specific Mexica deities are identifiable in this figurine category. Xochiquetzal, goddess of love and weaving, is recognizable by a wrapped headdress with top projections and a diamond skirt. Tlaloc, god of storms and agricultural fertility, can be identified by his goggle-like eyes and fangs. Xipe Totec, god of flayed skin and reincarnation, can be seen with “flecked” skin and a double mouth, iconography associated with flayed skin. 111 Animal figurines are commonly found at Mexica sites throughout Mesoamerica (4), reflecting their significance in Mexica culture. For example, birds were revered for their ability to move from land to earth, or travel between the terrestrial and celestial realms. Animal figures such as rabbits, serpents, wolves, toads, and other creatures have been discovered cached within temples or tombs as offerings to the gods.

Figurines can serve as evidence not only of Mexica culture, but also of the cultures that influenced their civilization. When the Spanish arrived in the early 16th century, noticeable changes among figurines can be distinguished (5). Post Contact figurines have more “doll-like” faces and features. They often wear European style headdresses or hats, and some figures wear robes as Spanish priests may have during the colonial period in Latin America.

Case Two

The second case in the Matson Museum figurine exhibit will be a similar to the final case described for the theoretical exhibit. This case will focus on a specific example of ritual use among Mexica figurines. As the first case includes both a map and the exhibit title, this case will have more space to display information about the function of the artifacts. The case will use the specific example of the New Fire Ceremony to demonstrate the role of figurines in Mexica ritual culture. The top right half of the case surface will display images from the Codex Borbonicus and Codex Magliabecchi, depicting the New Fire Ceremony and events of ritual sacrifice significant to Mexica culture. Accompanying text for these images will describe the importance of these rituals in perpetuating the Mexica life cycle. The remaining sections of the case will display fragmentary Mexica figurines. This will create the “in situ” image described in the theoretical exhibit outline. This display method is intended to mirror the way common households ceremonially “cleansed” their homes in the days leading up to the New Fire 112 Ceremony (fig. 76). Additionally, the use of more fragmentary figures from the collection will emphasize to viewers that this is how ceramic figurines are commonly discovered by archaeologists.

Figure 76 Case Two, New Fire Ceremony Text in this section will describe the importance of breaking the figurines prior to the ritual as well as the events which took place during the ceremony.

Case Two Text, Page One

During the Post Classic Period, the Mexica life cycle was based around a 365 solar calendar and a 260 day ritual calendar. Throughout each year, the Mexica engaged in elaborate state-level ceremonies intended to ensure the survival of their culture. These rituals involved making offerings to deities, both in the form of human sacrifice and the “sacrifice” of ceremonial objects, including ceramic figurines.

One of the most significant large-scale Mexica rituals is known as the New Fire

Ceremony. This event took place only once every 52 years, at the overlap of the solar and ritual calendars. The ritual represented the renewal of Mexica life and the beginning of a new 52-year cycle. In the days leading up to the event, all households throughout the empire were required to 113 engage in a process of “ritual cleansing,” disposing of all ceremonial possessions, including figurines. Figures of deities, animals, musicians, an all other types were broken. When archaeologists discover Post Classic figurines in household settings, they are often fragmentary, such as the figurines seen in this case.

Case Two Text, Page Two

The New Fire Ceremony required the participation of all people throughout the Mexica realm, including common citizens and leaders from small peripheral kingdoms. On the night of the ritual, all fires throughout the kingdom were extinguished. A group of elite Mexica priests, dressed in costumes resembling deities, processed from the Templo Mayor in their capital city of

Tenochtitlan to a ceremonial platform on the Hill of the Star, a sacred site on the banks of Lake

Texcoco. A sacrificial victim joined them in this procession. Throughout the empire, citizens watched from their rooftops as the ceremony progressed. When the priests reached their destination, they watched the night sky, waiting anxiously for the Pleiades star cluster to reach its zenith and end the old 52-year cycle. When the moment arrived, the priests sacrificed their victim, removing the heart and lighting a fire within the chest. From this new fire, the priests lit torches and handed them to runners who traveled throughout the Mexica realm, distributing the flame to households. This marked the beginning of a new 52-year life cycle.

Case Two Text, Page Three

The complex ritual and sociopolitical culture of the Mexica becomes clearer through the observation of ceramic figurines. The same deities, animals, and other images represented among the figurines in this case have been discovered in both domestic and elite settings at Post Classic archaeological sites, strong evidence of state-level religion. Figurines were important in Mexica social life, as they allowed common citizens to take part in large-scale rituals, such as the New 114 Fire Ceremony. Much of Mesoamerican archaeology reveals information about elites and the ruling class. However, ceramic figurines shed light on the lives of the common citizen, filling gaps in the archaeological record and revealing important information about the Post Classic

Mexica.

Exhibit Handout

A handout will be available at the Matson Museum figurine exhibit, providing additional information on Mesoamerican figurines that may interest visitors who want to learn more. The handout will be double-sided. The first side of the exhibit handout consists of a timeline of

Mesoamerican history that highlights variation in figurine style over time. The timeline lists each major phase of Mesoamerican history and includes photographs of Formative, Classic, and Post

Classic figurines on the top half of the timeline. On the bottom half of the timeline, a short, concise paragraph on figurine style during each temporal phases is included (fig. 78). The second side of the handout will include information corresponding to the figurines in the second case, identifying the objects. The second side will also include additional details not mentioned in the text within the cases, such as the difference between the terms “Mexica” and “Aztec,” and more information on figurine production throughout history. 115

Figure 77 Exhibit Handout Timeline Timeline Text

Formative Period: The Formative Period represents the earliest phase of sociopolitical complexity in Mesoamerica. Although less politically organized than their successors, Formative cultures still possessed developed social systems, an agrarian economy, and artistic traditions.

Evidence for this development can be seen among Formative figurines. Ceramic figures from this time period were made by hand. No specific identities can be seen outside of male, female, and anthropomorhic figures. Formative figurines were likely produced in households and used in burial rituals to connect to ancestors.

Classic Period: The Classic Period saw the emergence of one of the most well-known cultures of Mesoamerican history: the Maya. During the Classic Period, mold made figurine production became increasingly common, and specific figurine identities circulated throughout

Maya territories. Rulers, ballplayers, musicians, and particular social roles were just a few of the 116 themes communicated through the distribution of ceramic figurines during this period. The circulation of these objects among the Classic Maya helped to maintain the social order.

Post Classic Period: Post Classic Mexica figurines were mass produced by crafters through the use of clay molds and circulated throughout the empire. Specific deities are represented among these objects. The distribution of these common visual themes throughout the

Mexica realm allowed for the maintenance of state level religion and a strict social hierarchy.

Post Classic figurines can be seen in many forms, including hollow rattles, jointed figures, and solid figurines. Mexica figurines played a role in large-scale rituals, involving both common citizens and elites.

Final Thoughts

The purpose of this research was not only to emphasize the importance of further exploring Mesoamerican figurines, but also to communicate how museums play a pivotal role in interpreting the past for modern audiences. Through refined exhibition design techniques, clear and interesting museum text, and interactive display mechanisms, visitors can take more away from their museum experience. Ceramic figurines, although small and often fragmentary, can offer a wealth of information about Mesoamerican cultural history, and museums can help to communicate this fact.

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Academic Vita of Hannah Toombs [email protected]

Education The Pennsylvania State University Schreyer Honors College B.A. Anthropology, B.A. Spanish

Honors: Schreyer Honors Scholar (Anthropology) Student Marshall, Anthropology

Thesis Title: Forgotten Figures: The Ritual Culture and Modern Display of Mesoamerican Ceramic Figurines Thesis Supervisors: Dr. Claire McHale Milner, Dr. Amara Solari, Dr. Timothy Ryan (Honors Adviser)

Work Experience: Museum Assistant at Penn State’s Matson Museum of Anthropology May 2015-August 2015  Conducted independent research on Mesoamerican figurines through literature review and artifact analysis  Researched de Forest pottery collection through document transcription and summary  Edited exhibit text and resolved design issues in new museum displays  Enhanced communication and teaching skills by guiding educational tours  Generated greater interest among varying age groups through implementation of interactive lessons for school children and summer camps  Ensured museum remained clean and organized

Research and Exhibition Design on Pueblo Indian Culture September 2015-Present  Researching objects, particularly ceramics, from the Southwest Pueblo culture  Designing exhibition to be shown during environmental history conference in April, 2016

 Extending written iBook presentation of Pueblo history and archaeology

Independent Thesis Research with Mesoamerican Ceramic Figurines August 2013-Present  Researching and classifying ceramic figurines from the Formative Period, Classic Period, and Aztec occupation of central Mexico  Comparing ritual use of figurines in domestic and elite settings  Creating a detailed figurine chronology to be used as a reference for individuals studying figurines and figurine chronology in the future  Traveling to museums throughout country to evaluate figurine displays  Designing an exhibit at the Matson Museum of Anthropology at Penn State University  Presented condensed version of thesis research to faculty and students from the Schreyer Honors College

Volunteer Archaeology at the Speaker’s House and Muhlenberg House July 2011-July 2014  Participated in survey and excavation of two 17th-18th century German American homes in Trappe, Pennsylvania  Classified and analyzed artifacts  Collected and recorded excavation data and created site maps to be referred to during future excavations  Served as a leader to new field students and provided tours for visitors to the site  Volunteered at Muhlenberg House museum, organizing and classifying artifacts from previous excavations

Student Teacher at Perkiomen Valley Middle School West May 2012-June 2012  Worked with sixth grade students in a world history course, instructing children on ancient cultures  Presented an interactive discussion on archaeology and ensured that students remained focused and on task during activities and lessons

Grants Received: 2015 Ceramic Studies Award, Penn State Department of Anthropology

Awards:  History Undergraduate Award in Digital Publishing, April 2016  Phi Beta Kappa Honor Society, April 2015

 2015 Ceramic Studies Award, Penn State Dept. of Anthropology, March 2015  Evan Pugh Scholar Award, Penn State University, March 2015  President Sparks Award, Penn State University, March 2014  Paterno Fellows Program, Penn State University, September 2013  Phi Kappa Phi Honor Society, August 2013  President’s Freshman Award, Penn State University, March 2013

Presentations:  “Scones and Scholarship” Thesis Research Presentation, Schreyer Honors College  Thesis Research Colloquium Presentation, Penn State Department of Anthropology  History Conference: Presentation on the Impact of 19th-20th Century Commercialism on Pueblo Material Culture in the Southwest

Community Service Involvement: President, UNICEF Penn State  Leading meetings and planning fundraising, awareness, and advocacy events focused on protecting the human rights of children in over 190 countries worldwide  Educating members and the Penn State community on issues of poverty, hunger, water access, HIV/AIDS, refugees, gender inequality, and more

Volunteer, Club Tennis THON  Participating in annual fundraising events leading up to THON weekend, such as canning, canvassing, THONvelopes, Family Carnival, and THON 5k  Supporting our THON family, the Beltz, and our THON child, Xander  Supporting Club Tennis dancers and THON families during THON weekend every February

International Education (including service-learning abroad): Sustainability Issues Across the Americas: Study Abroad Program in Peru May-June 2014  Studied the impact of globalization on Peruvian environment and culture through hands-on research

 Worked to preserve indigenous Peruvian cultures by researching the Peruvian tourism industry  Created two informative documentaries focused on ecotourism and alluvial gold mining, major industries impacting Peruvian culture and economy  Conducted and translated interviews from Spanish to English  Used iMovie program skills to create final video projects

Language Proficiency: Proficient in reading, writing, and speaking Spanish