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Renata Ingbrant Source: the Polish Review, Vol In Search of the New Man Changing Masculinities in Late Nineteenth-Century Polish Novels Author(s): Renata Ingbrant Source: The Polish Review, Vol. 59, No. 1 (2014), pp. 35-52 Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of the Polish Institute of Arts & Sciences of America Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/polishreview.59.1.0035 Accessed: 05-06-2015 15:01 UTC REFERENCES Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/polishreview.59.1.0035?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference# references_tab_contents You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/ info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. University of Illinois Press and Polish Institute of Arts & Sciences of America are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Polish Review. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 141.211.4.224 on Fri, 05 Jun 2015 15:01:18 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions The Polish Review, Vol. 59, No. 1, 2014 © The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois Renata Ingbrant In Search of the New Man Changing Masculinities in Late Nineteenth-Century Polish Novels This article is a part of an ongoing study, the purpose of which is to map masculinities under transformation in late nineteenth-century Polish prose, and particularly in the works of Henryk Sienkiewicz, Bolesław Prus, Stefan Żeromski, and Wacław Berent. Drawing on developments taking place in society at that time, the article explores the new types of literary heroes that appear in Polish literature toward the end of the nineteenth century: the decadent antihero, the aristocrat Leon Płoszowski as well as “newcomers” to the capitalist society, the “New Men,” Stanisław Wokulski, Tomasz Judym, and Kazimierz Zaliwski. The article argues that, even though the new models of masculinity that the protagonists represent pose a certain challenge to the prevailing romantic models, the characters remain entrapped in literary conventions that inscribe specific gender roles on literary heroes. Literature has always occupied a unique position in Poland and often played an important role in upholding its national heritage, Christian values, and patriotic feelings. During the period 1795–1918, when Poland was erased from the map of Europe, the role of literature was to preserve and strengthen Polish identity. In fact, Polish language and literature were of immense importance to nation building in the nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Polish-speaking lands. They were those exclusive spaces within which Poles could express, cultivate, and practice their ethnicity.1 Since literature fulfilled such an important identity- and nation- building function, it may be relevant to explore what role models it provided 1. Another important site for cultivating Polishness when there was no Polish state was, of course, the Catholic Church. Some scholars claim that even village life and the commercial world were sustained through a strong sense of Polishness. See Brian Porter-Szucs, Faith and Fatherland: Catholicism, Modernity, and Poland (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 7–8. This content downloaded from 141.211.4.224 on Fri, 05 Jun 2015 15:01:18 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 36 The Polish Review for Poles and in what ways these literary role models might have challenged the prevalent gender pattern. In this article, I shall touch upon certain issues that I examine in my current research project, which is devoted to the study of changing fictions of masculinity/ masculinities in Polish prose of the late nineteenth century. Drawing on develop- ments taking place in culture and society at that time, I examine images of mascu- linity in the following novels: Bolesław Prus’s (1847–1912) Lalka (The doll, 1890); Henryk Sienkiewicz’s (1846–1916) Bez dogmatu (Without dogma,1891); Wacław Berent’s (1873–1930) Fachowiec (A professional, 1895); and Stefan Żeromski’s (1864– 1925) Ludzie bezdomni (Homeless people, 1899). All the novels were written dur- ing the last decade of the nineteenth century in the territory of the Kingdom of Poland (Congress Poland). Despite the censorship, they all reflect in their own way the condition of Polish society, as well as the condition of Polish literature, in the aftermath of the 1863 uprising against Russia. The overall idea is to examine what Polish classics can tell us about Polish masculinities of that time, and whether it is at all possible to speculate on the possibility of creating new images of masculinity by identifying what literature has to say about changing social roles. Many scholars have noted the significant shift in the gender paradigm taking place with the advance of capitalism and modernization, on the one hand, and modernism in literature, on the other. They have recognized the signs of a “gender confusion” or “gender anxiety” in European decadence where a new elite male gender was being constructed through aesthetics, theory, and philosophy, resulting in the exclusion and rejection (or sublimation) of femininity and corporeality.2 The “spirit” of the fin de siècle involved a general sense of cultural crisis, a disintegration of all wholeness—even of reality itself, or at least people’s ability to confront and comprehend it. Women’s emancipation, the industrial revolution, technological development, economic transformation, and the growth of the middle class all placed various pressures on male and female stereotypes in order to accommodate change. Gender patterns as a whole became evidently unstable and, consequently, the male subject had to reposition itself/himself. The supposed “fin-de-siècle crisis in masculinity” has often been understood as an effect of the general crisis in culture and described as a searching for new models, the evidence of which is to be found in literature. According to Raewyn Connell (the originator of the term “hegemonic masculinity,” which has proved very productive in masculinities studies), when talking about a possible “crisis of masculinity,” literary discourses become a privileged site for registering patriarchy’s 2. See: Rita Felski, The Gender of Modernity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995); Dekoven Marianne,”Modernism and Gender,” in The Cambridge Companion to Mod- ernism, ed. Michael Levenson (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 174–93; Ebba Witt-Brattström, Dekadensens kön (Stockholm: Norstedts, 2007); Talia Schaffer,Literature and Culture at the Fin de Siècle (New York: Pearson Longman, 2007). This content downloaded from 141.211.4.224 on Fri, 05 Jun 2015 15:01:18 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions in search of the new man 37 “loss of legitimacy” and how “different groups of men are now negotiating this loss in very different ways.”3 At the same time, cultural historians, in particular, emphasize a multiplicity of crises in the formation of masculinity in different cultures and in different periods.4 Some historical eras evince several crises, while in other eras people seem to possess a stable certainty in both attitudes and behaviors. In Polish culture, too, signs of a similar development can be observed. Against the background of cultural transformation taking place all over Europe at the time, certain models of the literary hero find their counterparts in European literature (e.g., Prus’s hero, Stanisław Wokulski, could be compared to the figure of the “gentleman of modern times” that appears in Victorian literature).5 At the same time, “Polish masculinities” in the late nineteenth century face quite different challenges from forces in society and culture from, let us say, English or German masculinities.6 Other scholars, such as Mark Breitenberg, claim instead that “masculinity is inherently anxious,” and that masculine anxiety is not “simply an unpleasant aberration from what we might hypothetically understand as normative,” rather it is “a necessary and inevitable condition” that “reveals the fissures and contradictions of the patriarchal system and, at the same time, it paradoxically enables and drives patriarchy’s reproduction and continuation of itself.”7 In relation to Polish masculinities one cannot ignore the effect that the Romantic ideals, national myths, the ethos of chivalry, and rebellion have had on this genera- tion of Poles. The “Romantic templates” have taken on various forms during different periods,8 and still activate themselves at moments when Polish identity has been threatened. (The last time the cultural imagery of the Polish nation was reinvigorated in a most vivid way was in the 1980s during the period of Solidarity’s resistance to communist rule.)9 In fact, the Romantic, Catholic, and nationalist discourses have equally shaped the Polish notions of what is male and female.10 However, due 3. R. W. Connell, Masculinities (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1996), 202. 4. See, for example, Michael S. Kimmel, ”The ’Crisis”of Masculinity in Seventeenth-Century England,” in Constructions of Masculinity in British Literature from the Middle Ages to the Present, ed. Stefan Horlacher (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 89–108. 5. See Ewa Paczoska, Lalka czyli rozpad świata [The doll or the disintegration of the world] (Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Akademickie i Profesjonalne, 2008), 178–81. 6. Herbert Sussman, ”The Study of Victorian Masculinities,”Victorian Literature and Culture 20 (1992): 366–77; Michael Kane, Modern Men: Mapping Masculinity in English and German Literature, 1880–1930 (London and New York: Cassell, 1999). 7. Mark Breitenberg, Anxious Masculinity in Early Modern England (Cambridge: Cam- bridge University Press, 1996), 2.
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