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ISSUE BRIEF 06.11.19 50th Anniversary of 11: America’s Race to the

George W.S. Abbey, Senior Fellow in Policy

In October 1957, the startled ongoing activities to focus on returning to the world by launching the first man-made the moon. And it should be a cooperative into , . This event created effort, building on the foundation of the great concern in the and the International partnerships, in Western world, as it demonstrated the Soviets order to achieve success. had unexpectedly advanced its technological capabilities—technologies that could, in turn, lead to very capable intercontinental ballistic NASA IS ESTABLISHED AND . The Soviets subsequently achieved SETS A GOAL further firsts in space, launching another In October 1958, President Dwight satellite with a passenger, a dog called , Eisenhower and the Congress established as a first step toward launching into the National and Space space. The United States suddenly found itself Administration (NASA), a civilian space in a in which they were behind and organization formed to further America’s trying to catch up. exploration of space with both manned and This report traces events that were unmanned . In December 1958, set into motion in the U.S. by the Soviets’ the newly formed NASA announced the successful launch of the Sputnik satellite and Mercury program with the intent to send a As the 50th anniversary their subsequent launch of the first human into space. of approaches, in space, . Among the most November 1960 brought the election of notable of these events was President John NASA has pledged to a new president, John Fitzgerald Kennedy. again return to the F. Kennedy’s address to a joint session of One of the major talking points of his Congress on ,1961, when he challenged campaign was to imply that Eisenhower had moon. To be successful, the nation to land a man on the moon before allowed the U.S. to fall behind the Soviets in this endeavor will the end of the decade. Subsequently, the the production of intercontinental ballistic U.S. successfully completed the Mercury and require the necessary missiles, thereby creating a so-called and funds and Gemini programs and worked relentlessly and gap. Kennedy, inaugurated on January 20, tirelessly to enable Neil 1961, declared the U.S. could not afford to be resources, and a major to step on the lunar surface on , 1969, second to the Soviet Union in any area. redirection of NASA’s eight years after Kennedy’s speech. On April 12, 1961, less than three ongoing activities. As the 50th anniversary of that historic after Kennedy took office, cosmonaut Yuri achievement approaches, NASA has pledged Gagarin lifted off on a launched from to again return to the moon. If it is to be the Cosmodrome in to successful in this endeavor, it will require become the first human to orbit the . the commitment of the necessary funds and The adverse reaction in the U.S. to the Soviet resources and a major redirection of NASA’s Union’s spectacular achievement exceeded ’S BAKER INSTITUTE FOR PUBLIC POLICY // ISSUE BRIEF // 06.11.19

the negative response to the orbiting accomplishment would mean—the applause of Sputnik in 1957 and brought forth an grew. The was born and the admission by Kennedy at a press conference: “Great Adventure” began. “We are behind.” Only days after Gagarin’s flight, a group of Cuban exiles armed and trained by the INITIAL PLANS FOR A Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) attempted an invasion of Castro-led Cuba that was In , that goal seemed almost a dismal failure. It was another major unattainable to those at NASA responsible embarrassment for the young president’s for its achievement. , the first administration. American to orbit the Earth, did not fly until Kennedy felt he had to respond with almost nine months later, on , a bold step in response to Gagarin’s flight 1962. The Mercury program continued for and the failed CIA-backed assault on another year with three more orbital flights. Cuba. He asked Vice President Lyndon Mercury’s last flight, piloted by Gordon Johnson, of the newly formed Space Cooper, flew 22 of the Earth in almost Council, to recommend a challenge of one and a half days. As the Mercury program historic proportions, one whose successful proceeded, NASA struggled with various accomplishment would clearly demonstrate concepts for accomplishing the lunar landing. to the world the technological superiority of Three leading ideas were considered by the United States. NASA for the moon mission: , On May 5, 1961, approximately three (EOR), and lunar after Yuri Gagarin’s flight, astronaut orbit rendezvous (LOR). A direct ascent became the first American to configuration required an extremely large fly in space. His Mercury capsule, launched rocket to send a three-man spacecraft that on a rocket, did not orbit the would land directly on the lunar surface. EOR Earth but reached an altitude of 116.5 miles, would launch the direct-landing spacecraft landing 302.8 miles downrange from the in two smaller elements that would be launch site. assembled in Earth orbit. An LOR mission On May 25, not quite three weeks would involve a single rocket launching two after Shepard’s suborbital flight, Kennedy spacecraft: a mother and a smaller, two- addressed a special joint session of man landing module that would rendezvous Congress on the challenges facing the U.S. with the main spacecraft in . The around the world. He spoke of the need to would be left in orbit around the moon continue to build free market economies and the would return home. and to advance in as means of LOR was at first dismissed by NASA as promoting America’s future. too risky an approach, given that a space He closed his 46-minute speech rendezvous had yet to be performed in with a statement about space and a Earth orbit, much less in lunar orbit. Langley declaration of great significance. "I believe Research Center engineer that this nation should commit itself to would not, however, let the advantages of achieving the goal, before this decade is LOR be ignored. As a member of the Lunar out, of landing a man on the moon and Mission Steering Group, Houbolt had been returning him safely to Earth. No single studying various technical aspects of space space in this period will be more rendezvous since 1959, and he and several impressive to mankind, or more important others at Langley were convinced that LOR for the long-range exploration of space; was not only the most feasible way to make and none will be so difficult or expensive to it to the moon before the end of the decade, accomplish." The room was silent. As the but it was also the only way. audience realized the significance of the In November 1961, Houbolt, feeling the technological and scientific challenge and concept had not been fairly considered, the near impossibility of accomplishing it wrote a letter directly to Robert C. Seamans, before the end of the decade—and what its the associate administrator of NASA. 2 50TH ANNIVERSARY OF APOLLO 11: AMERICA’S RACE TO THE MOON

Seamans forwarded Houbolt’s letter to A large rocket was needed for D. Brainerd Holmes, recently hired by NASA the Apollo program and a number of booster as the director of the Office of Manned Space configurations were being considered by Flight. Holmes in turn forwarded the letter von Braun and his team at the Marshall to , NASA’s chief of Manned Space Flight Center. During 1961, various Space Flight. After carefully considering configurations were considered. Two rocket Houbolt’s recommended approach, Low felt engines, the F-1 and J-2 engines, were it deserved further study. believed to be the optimum choice, and the In January 1962, Holmes hired a new three-stage known as the deputy director for , V, utilizing these two engines, promised to Joe Shea. Although Shea had a lengthy be the optimum booster. Von Braun and his history in , he came to his new engineers made a firm commitment to the with little knowledge about the by late 1961, and approval was given great ongoing debate on concepts for for its development on January 25, 1962. The accomplishing the lunar mission. Holmes approved three-stage vehicle would have sent Houbolt’s letter to his new deputy. five F-1 engines in the first stage, five J-2 Holmes felt Shea would bring a fresh liquid- engines in the second stage, approach to the problem and help resolve and one J-2 in the third stage. The Saturn V In a May 1961 speech the critical issue. Shea, as he took on his could lift a of 310,00 pounds to low new position, found that NASA had not Earth orbit and a payload of 107,100 pounds to Congress, President agreed on a concept to reach the moon, to a trans-lunar injection burn (a propulsive Kennedy challenged but thought that the final concept would maneuver used to set a spacecraft on a the nation to put a probably require a rendezvous. Shea trajectory to the moon). man on the moon by clearly gathered from Seamans that, based With the LOR decision made in July 1962, the end of the decade. largely on the letter from Houbolt, the two spacecraft were needed: The command deserved renewed and (CSM) to provide The room was silent as consideration. transportation to and from the Earth to the the near-impossibility Over the next few months Shea worked moon and the lunar module (LM) to land accomplishing this— with Houbolt and the leadership of the on the moon and carry the from and the implications of two major NASA centers involved in the the lunar surface to rendezvous with the decision to understand the advantages orbiting CSM. Development was initiated on success—sank in. Then and disadvantages of the three concepts both spacecraft. the applause grew. The under consideration—LOR, EOR, and direct In addition to the rocket booster and the Apollo program was ascent. He was to gain a consensus spacecraft, manufacturing, test, and launch born and the “Great of all participants and the agreement of facilities had to be designed and built. Two the two major center directors involved, new NASA centers were created and built— Adventure” began. Robert Gilruth of the Manned Spacecraft the Manned Spacecraft Center in Center (MSC) and Werner von Braun of the and the at Cape Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), on the Canaveral—to test and launch the spacecraft primary mode to be utilized for Apollo. On and the new Saturn V rocket. All of these , 1962, a formal announcement was were begun as NASA continued to made that NASA would base its planning fly the Mercury spacecraft. program on the use of the advanced Saturn It also had become apparent that there rocket (C-5 configuration) to accomplish was a need to develop systems beyond the initial manned lunar landing and those flown in the Mercury spacecraft and recovery using the lunar orbit rendezvous to demonstrate capabilities well beyond procedure as the prime mission mode. those being achieved in Mercury’s six-flight Shea would go on to become the Apollo program in order to successfully accomplish spacecraft program manager working for Apollo. It was a “bridge too far” to proceed Robert Gilruth at the Manned Spacecraft without a significant demonstration of Center in Houston (later to become the the systems, techniques, and capabilities Lyndon B. ). required for successful Apollo missions.

3 RICE UNIVERSITY’S BAKER INSTITUTE FOR PUBLIC POLICY // ISSUE BRIEF // 06.11.19

THE GEMINI PROGRAM THE APOLLO PROGRAM

Extensive new design work began after the As the Gemini missions were being flown, president stated that a spacecraft beyond preparations were underway for the first Mercury would be necessary to demonstrate Apollo mission. The first manned Apollo the systems and capabilities that would flight was to be launched in , enable Apollo. The new program, Gemini, approximately three months after the last was announced in early January 1962. The Gemini flight. The crew assigned to the Gemini was a two-man spacecraft and first flight included Virgil "Gus" Grissom, was essentially an enlarged version of the commander; Edward “Ed” , command Mercury capsule. It was the first manned module pilot; and Roger Chafee, lunar spacecraft to include an onboard module pilot. to facilitate the management and control A dress rehearsal of the launch of mission maneuvers. Unlike Mercury, the countdown was scheduled approximately , electrical power, propulsion one before the planned launch During this period, systems, , and water were located date. On , 1967, a countdown NASA was in a detachable adapter module behind the demonstration test was held with the crew simultaneously crew’s reentry module. in the spacecraft with the hatch closed. developing, Gemini's objective was the development Nylon Velcro had been placed throughout manufacturing, of space travel techniques to support the the interior of the spacecraft to assist in Apollo mission to land astronauts on the securing items in position during zero managing, and moon. It performed missions long enough for gravity. Other flammable material was evaluating three a trip to the moon and back, perfected the also present in the spacecraft. There was major human space process of working outside the spacecraft a , probably caused by frayed wiring, flight programs: (standup sessions and spacewalks), and resulting in a fire in the spacecraft. The crew pioneered the orbital maneuvers necessary frantically tried to open the inward-opening Mercury, Apollo, and to achieve and docking hatch but it proved to be too difficult and all the rapidly evolving in Earth orbit. Other objectives included three crewmen subsequently lost their lives Gemini program. training both flight and ground crews; through asphyxiation. conducting experiments in space; active The tragic loss during the launch test control of reentry to achieve a precise was a major setback for the Apollo program landing; and onboard orbital navigation. and Kennedy’s goal of a successful landing With these new fundamental exploratory on the moon; that objective now seemed operations proven by Gemini, Apollo could even more unattainable. In order to proceed, pursue its prime mission. During this period, the cause of the fire had to be determined NASA was simultaneously developing, and corrective actions implemented. With manufacturing, managing, and evaluating an of 100% oxygen inside the three major human space flight programs: cabin, new fireproof material had to be Mercury, Apollo, and the rapidly evolving developed, tested, and fabricated. A new Gemini program. The last Mercury flight outward, quick-opening hatch had to be occurred in May 1963. designed and tested. The accident also led to The 10 manned Gemini flights in 1965 a further evaluation of the spacecraft’s basic and 1966 provided the essential preparation design and systems, which led to additional and experience needed to accomplish the design and reliability improvements. These subsequent Apollo missions. The first manned efforts took place over a period of one and flight, , was flown on March 1965 a half years. , the first manned flight and the last flight flew in November 1966. of the redesigned spacecraft, was scheduled with a crew consisting of Wally Shirra as commander, Don Eisele as command module pilot, and Walt Cunningham as the lunar module pilot.

4 50TH ANNIVERSARY OF APOLLO 11: AMERICA’S RACE TO THE MOON

In late summer 1968, George Low, the trajectory to the moon, would not restart. In Apollo spacecraft program manager, took a addition, the spacecraft lunar module adapter few days of a well-earned vacation, having (SLA) that surrounded the lunar module came worked almost seven days a around- apart during the launch. All of these problems the-clock after becoming the program had to be understood and design changes manager following the fire. The made and tested before the next Saturn V lunar module was experiencing delays and flight scheduled for December, almost nine he was quite concerned that if the current months later; this flight, , would be planned sequence of flights were followed, the new booster’s first manned launch. 1967 a successful lunar landing could not be and 1968 were periods of intense activity for achieved before the end of the decade— both NASA’s engineers and contractor teams. which, of course, was a primary goal. He All of the Apollo missions to the moon came back to work with a new daring and were flown from the courageous approach. If the planned October at the Manned Spacecraft Center (later orbital flight of Apollo 7 was a complete to become the Johnson Space Center) in success, he proposed taking the next flight Houston, . The newly built Houston two months later to the moon with just the mission control center was first used in June Apollo command and service module. The 1965 for the flight of . The control Apollo 8 crew would only have to learn to center had two primary rooms known as fly one spacecraft and it would allow NASA mission operation control rooms. These to prove many of the systems, procedures, two rooms controlled all the Gemini and and much of the technology and equipment Apollo flights. The two control rooms were for a lunar landing without having to be identical in configuration. One could be used concerned about a second spacecraft. for simulated training for one mission while Valuable deep space operational experience a flight was being flown utilizing the other could be acquired while waiting for the room. The on the second floor delayed lunar module. of the control center was used for the first After reviewing his plan with Chris Apollo manned mission, Apollo 7. The control Kraft, the director of flight operations, and room on the third floor was used for all other , the director of flight crew the other Apollo flights. operations, to obtain their assessment as Apollo 7’s flight of nearly to its feasibility, Low reviewed his proposal 11 days was the first flight of the new Apollo with center director Bob Gilruth and with command and service module. As noted his approval, successfully convinced NASA earlier, its success was critical to ensuring management on the merits of his plan. The a landing on the moon before the end of NASA administrator, James Webb, agreed that the decade. The fully successful pathfinding if Apollo 7 was a success in October, he would mission subsequently enabled Thomas Paine, consider approving Low’s proposal to take the new NASA administrator, to announce Apollo 8 to the moon two months later in on November 12, 1968, that Apollo 8 would . However, there was another be launched to the moon in December, one substantial obstacle that had to be overcome. month later. The Apollo 8 flight to the moon required At 7:51 a.m. on Saturday, , a Saturn V. The Saturn V had flown two 1968, Apollo 8 lifted off from the Kennedy unmanned flights. Its first launch, , Space Center for its mission to the moon. on , 1967, was very successful. After a successful launch, the crew of The second Saturn, , launched on Apollo 8 and the third stage of the Saturn V , 1968. Two minutes into the flight, the completed almost two orbits of the Earth first stage experienced about 30 seconds of before restarting the third stage engine to very violent vertical oscillations. During the perform the trans-lunar insertion (TLI) burn, second stage burn, two of the five engines sending humans for the first time beyond shut down prematurely. When commanded ; three days later they were to restart, the third stage engine, which was orbiting the moon. A black-and-white required to send the Apollo spacecraft on a television camera was carried on board the 5 RICE UNIVERSITY’S BAKER INSTITUTE FOR PUBLIC POLICY // ISSUE BRIEF // 06.11.19

Apollo 8 spacecraft and as the astronauts The next mission, , launched orbited the moon on Eve 1968, the on a Saturn V, would take both the CSM and world saw a close-up view of the moon as the LM to the moon, and while not landing, the three astronauts read from the Bible—a would be a dress rehearsal for the first lunar very emotional event to all who viewed it on landing mission, Apollo 11. The flight was Earth. As they orbited the moon, they saw scheduled for , two months after their first Earth-rise. Bill took the the successful flight. photograph that has become quite famous The Apollo 10 crew were all veterans and heightened the world’s awareness of the of . Thomas P. Stafford, the significance of the Earth’s environment. The commander, had flown on Gemini 6 and beauty of the Earth with its rich colors can be Gemini 9; John W. Young, the command seen against the black void of space, with the module pilot, had flown on Gemini 3 and As Apollo 8 orbited the stark lunar landscape in the foreground. On ; and Eugene A. Cernan, the lunar moon, the crew saw , Apollo 8 returned to Earth and module pilot, had flown with Stafford on landed successfully in the Pacific Ocean, and Gemini 9. The mission included an eight- its first Earth-rise. The the crew and the spacecraft were recovered hour lunar orbit of the separated LM, flown beauty of the Earth with by the carrier USS Yorktown. by Stafford and Cernan, with a descent to its rich colors were seen The Apollo command and service about nine miles off the moon's surface against the black void module (CSM) had now proven itself on two before a rendezvous and docking with Young of space, with the stark successive flights. However, landing on the and the CSM in about a 70-mile circular lunar moon required a proven lunar module (LM) orbit. Data would be obtained in the landing lunar landscape in the as well. The next Apollo mission, Apollo 9, rehearsal on the moon’s gravitational effect foreground. two months later would be on a Saturn V. to improve network-tracking techniques The crew consisted of Commander James and to check out LM-programmed McDivitt, Command Module Pilot , trajectories, , and lunar flight control and Lunar Module Pilot . systems. The mission launched on May 18, McDivitt and Schweickart had to learn to fly 1969, and landed in the Pacific Ocean on May two spacecraft—the LM and the CSM. Apollo 26, successfully achieving all the planned 9 was launched on , 1969, for a mission objectives. 10-day mission in Earth orbit with a primary Two months later, on , Apollo 11 objective of an Earth-orbital engineering lifted off from the Kennedy Space Center test of the first crewed lunar module. with a crew consisting of Commander Neil Flying in the LM, McDivitt and Armstrong, Command Module Pilot Michael Schweickart separated from Scott in the , and Lunar Module Pilot Edwin "Buzz" CSM and practiced separation and docking . Four days later, on , 1969, maneuvers. They flew the LM up to 111 Armstrong and Aldrin successfully landed on miles from the CSM, using the engine on the moon—and the rest is history. The United the descent stage; they then jettisoned the States had achieved Kennedy’s goal of landing descent stage, and used the ascent stage a man on the moon and returning him safely to return and dock once again with the to Earth before the end of the decade. CSM. The flight was the first of a manned The goal having been achieved, the spacecraft that was not designed to reenter hectic schedule would be relaxed and the the Earth's atmosphere. Schweickart and mission to the moon, instead of Scott also performed an abbreviated EVA being two months later, would not be flown ( performed outside until with a crew consisting the spacecraft). Schweickart checked of Commander Charles (Pete) Conrad, Jr., out the new Apollo spacesuit, the first to Command Module Pilot Richard F. Gordon, and have its own life support system rather Lunar Module Pilot Alan L. Bean. The mission than being dependent on an umbilical was planned to prove the ability to perform connection to the spacecraft, while Scott precision landings on the surface of the filmed him from the command module moon. The landing site selected was located hatch. The mission was a great success. in the southeastern portion of the Ocean of Storms and was within walking distance of 6 50TH ANNIVERSARY OF APOLLO 11: AMERICA’S RACE TO THE MOON

the III spacecraft, which had landed The young ’s quick on the moon in April 1967. In addition to analysis and response and the redundancy deploying surface experiments and gathering provided by the lunar samples, the astronauts planned to allowed the mission to continue and achieve remove and return instruments from the a precision landing on the moon. Apollo 12, Surveyor so that they might be examined successfully completing its planned mission, to determine the effects of their long-term returned safely to Earth in the South Pacific exposure to the lunar environment. on November 24. Not one but two successful missions to the moon were achieved before the decade AFTER APOLLO 11 ended. During a chaotic decade of turmoil and dissension, Apollo demonstrated the Apollo 12 launched on , 1969, nation’s technological capabilities and from the Kennedy Space Center, shortly brought hope and promise for the future—a after the passage of a cold front with bright and shining accomplishment amid a some showers. Thirty-six and a half tumultuous time, and an achievement that seconds after lift-off, the vehicle triggered could be the foundation for bettering life for a lightning discharge to the Earth through all. In ’s words as he stepped the Saturn's ionized plume. Protective upon the moon, “That’s one small step for circuits on the fuel cells in the service man, one giant leap for mankind." module detected overloads and all three fuel The following year, 1970, brought Apollo cells were taken offline, along with much 13, and the dramatic yet safe return of its of the instrumentation. A second strike three astronauts after an explosion in their at 52 seconds after launch took out the service module 200,000 miles from Earth on spacecraft’s attitude indicator. The vehicle the way to the moon. Four more successful continued to fly on its planned trajectory, as See more issue briefs at: lunar landings would be made during the www.bakerinstitute.org/issue-briefs the strikes had not affected the separate and next two years with the last mission, Apollo independent instrument unit in the Saturn V. 17, returning safely to a landing in the Pacific This publication was written by a The loss of all three fuel cells put the in December 1972. researcher (or researchers) who participated in a Baker Institute project. CSM entirely on batteries, which were In December 2019 it will be 47 years, unable to maintain the normal 75-ampere Wherever feasible, this research is almost half a century, since a human last reviewed by outside experts before it is launch loads on the 28-volt DC bus, and one stepped on the lunar surface. It will be released. However, the views expressed of the AC inverters dropped offline. Nearly eight years this July since the herein are those of the individual every warning light on the spacecraft’s program was brought to a close and the author(s), and do not necessarily represent the views of Rice University’s control panel appeared to be lit. United States last carried its astronauts to Baker Institute for Public Policy. At Mission Control Center in Houston, orbit. We have yet to again fly a spacecraft the flight controller responsible for successfully carrying Americans to orbit, let © 2019 Rice University’s Baker Institute monitoring the spacecraft’s electrical alone back to the moon. for Public Policy system remembered the failure pattern from an earlier test when a power This material may be quoted or supply in the CSM signal conditioning AUTHOR reproduced without prior permission, had failed. He made an provided appropriate credit is given to the author and Rice University’s Baker immediate call to position a switch to a George W.S. Abbey is the senior fellow in Institute for Public Policy. backup power supply. The fuel cells were at the Baker Institute. He served put back online, and with telemetry restored, as the director of NASA Johnson Space Cover image courtesy of NASA the launch continued successfully. Once in Center from 1996 to 2001. orbit, the spacecraft systems were carefully Cite as: checked, and it was determined that the Abbey, George W.S. 2019. 50th Anniversary of Apollo 11: America’s lightning strikes had caused no serious or Race to the Moon. Baker Institute Issue permanent damage and a go was finally Brief no. 06.11.19. Rice University’s given for re-igniting the third stage engine Baker Institute for Public Policy, for the trans-lunar injection burn. Houston, Texas.

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