SOUTHEAST TEXAS ARCHEOLOGY HOUSTON ARCHEOLOGICAL SOCIETY Report No. 12, 1996 SOUTHEAST TEXAS ARCHEOLOGY

1-l

SOUTHEASTSOUTHEAST TEXASTEXAS ARCHEOLOGY ARCHEOLOGY

LelandLeland W.W. PattersonPatterson

HOUSTONHOUSTON ARCHEOLOGICAL ARCHEOLOGICAL SOCIETYSOCIETY ReportRePort No. No. 12, 12, 1996 1996 TABLETABLE OFOF CONTENTSCONTENTS

CHAPTERCHAPTER 1: Introduction andand RegionalRegional DescriPtionDescription IIntroduction ntroduct i on 11 ' Hunter-GathererHunter-Gatherer TheorYTheory 22 HlstoryHistory ofof RegionalRegional ResearchResearch 2 GeographicGeographic and EnvironmentalEnvironmental settingSetting 3 Regional GeoIogYGeology 4 PaIeocIPaleoclimates imates 6 Regional Data Bases 7

CHAPTER 2: Chronology and Technological Traditions General chronologyChronology 9 Historic Indian Sites 10 Radiocarbon Dates 11 ProjectileProjectlle Point Chronologies General Comments 12L2 Early Paleo-Indian Projectile Points 13 Late Paleo-Indian Projectile Points 15 EarlyEar1y Archaic Projectile Points 16 Middlel,Iiddle Archaic Projectile Points 17L7 Late Archaic andand Early Ceramic Projectile Points 18 Late PrehistoricPrehistorlc Dart Points 1919 ArrowArrovr PointPoint Chronologies IntroductionIntroduction of thethe BowBo$, and Arrow 1919 General Comments onon Bifacial Arrow PointsPoints 2020 PerdizPerdiz PointPoint ChronologyChronology 212l ScallornScaIIorn Point Chronology 2222 CatahoulaCatahoula andand AlbaAlba PointPoint ChronologiesChronologies 2222 ArrowArrow PointsPoints inin thethe HistoricHistoric IndianIndian PeriodPeriod 2222 ArrowArrow PointPoint ChronologicalChronologlcal SummarySummary 2323 GeographicGeographic DlstributionsDistributions ofof ProjectileProjectile Point Point Types Types 2323 CeramicCeramlc ChronologiesChronologies 2424 Geographicceographic DistributionsDistributions ofof Ceramicceramic TypesTypes 2626 CHAPTERCHAPTER 3:3: RepresentativeRepresentative ArcheologicalArcheological SitesSites GeneralGeneral CommentsCorunents 2828 InlandIn1and Surveyssurveys andand Surfacesurface Collectionscollections 2828 InlandInland ExcavatedExcavated SitesSites 2929 CoastalCoastal MarginMargin SurveysSurveys andand SurfaceSurface CollectionsCollections 3131 CoastalCoastal MarginMargin ExcavatedExcavated SitesSites 3131 CHAPTER 434: Prehistoric Technology Lithic Technology Lithic Procurement 33 ManufacturingManufacturing Processes 34 Lithic Tool Types and Functions Tool FunctlonFunction 36 Formal TooITool Types 37 Prismatic BIadesBlades 38 ProjectlleProjectile Points 39 Bifacial Knives 39 Ceramic Technology MaManufacture nu facture 40 Pottery Function 41 FiredFlred ClaybaIIsClayballs 42 Ground Stone ArtiArtifacts facts 43 Bone and Ant1erAntler Too]sTools 43 ShellSheII Tools 44 Non-Utilitarian Artifacts at CampsitescamPsites 44 Technological Change and Continuitycontinuity 45rt5 Diffusion and Local InnovationInnovation 46 CHAPTER 5:53 LifewaysLi feways Subsistence Patterns 49 Mobility-SettlementMobi 11ty- Settlement Patterns 52 Site Structure and Formation ProcessesProcesses 56 InterpretationInterpretation of SiteSite Activities 5858 Population Dynamics 5858 BioarcheologyBi oarcheo I ogy 6161

CHAPTER 6:6: SocialSocial Organization GeneralGenera I 6363 MortuaryMortuary PracticesPractices 6464 SocialSocial ComplexityComplexity 6868 Inter-RegionalInter-Regional Trade 6969 Intra-RegionalIntra-RegionaI Trade 71?L

CHAPTERCHAPTER 7:7 ! SummarySunmary andand FutureFuture ResearchResearch SummarySurnmary 7373 FutureFuture ResearchResearch 7676

REFERENCESREFERENCES CITEDCITED 7878

HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological SocietySociety P.O.P. o. BoxBox 67516751 Houston,Houston, TexasTexas 77265-675177265-67 5l TABLETABLE LISTLIST 1.1. SitesSites inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas DataData BasesBases 2. RadiocarbonRadiocarbon DatesDates for Inland Sites in SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas 3.3. RadiocarbonRadiocarbon DatesDates forfor thethe CoastalCoastal MarglnMargin ofof SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas 4. ProjectileProjectile PointPoint chronologiesChronologies in Southeast TexasTexas 5. UniiacialUnifacial ArroltArrow Points in southeastSoutheast Texas 5.6. Inland ArrowArrow Point DlstributionDistribution 7. Inland Paleo-Indian andand EarlierEarlier ArchaicArchaic DartDart PolntsPoints 8. Inland Late ArchaicArchaic and Later Dart Points 9. Coastal Margin Arrow Point Distributions 10. coastalCoastal MaiginMargin Dart Point Distributions 11. Coastal UarginMargin Ceramic Type Distributions 12.L2. Inland CeramlcCeramic Type Distributions 13. Inland Subregion Lithics 14.L4. coastalCoastal Margin Subregion Lithics 15. ClaybatlsClayballs at InlandInIand Sites 16. SummarySumirary of Terrestrial Faunal Remains 17.t7. Summary of Aquatic Fuanal Remains 18.18. Bison Remains inin Southeast Texas 19.19. Summarysunrmary of Site OccupationoccuPation Sequencessequences Leve1s 20. SummaryS,r^ru.|-in of Site Componentscomponents and Population Levels 21.2L. Sites in Late Archaic Mortuart TraditionTraditlon 22.22, Late PrehistoricPrehistoric Coastal Margin Mortuary Sites

FIGUREFIGURE LISTLIST 1.1. SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas studystudy areaarea 2.2. VegetationVegetation zoneszones ofof SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas 3.3. EarlyEarly projectileprojectile pointPoint typestYPes 4.4. LaterLater projectileprojectile pointsPoints 5.5. UnifacialUnifacial arrowarrow points,Points, 41HR18441HR184 6.6. PolyhedralPolyhedral bladeblade cores,cores, 41HR18441HRl84 7.7. SmallSmaIl prismaticprismatic blades,blades, 41HR1844lHRl84 8.8, FlakeFIake sizesize distributiondistribution byby excavationexcavation level,level , 41WH194lwH19 9.9. BisonBison remainsremains inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas 10.10. RegionalRegional populationpopulation dynamicsdynamics CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION ANDAND REGIONAL.REGIONAL DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION

INTRODUCTION

This reportreoort Dresentspresents aa synthesis of thethe archeologyarcheology ofof Southeast Southeast Texas,Texas, covering.covering' all eeosraphicgeographic aieasareas andand prehistoric time time periodsperiods ofof human habitationhabitation in in thisthis region.region. .SomeSome Eoniidirationconsideration isis also given toto historichistoric Indians,ihdians, although details are limited in relation to oiehistoricprehistoric Indians. Indians. .{ A deUiled detailed synttresis synthesis of of thethe archeologyarcheology of of Southeast TexasTexas isis now irossiblepossible because of recentrecent rapidrapid aicumulationaccumulation of archeological survey and excavation data. Thei'he availability ofof significantsignificarit amounts of publishedpublished archeological datadata for.this for this regionregion is demonstrated 5yby t*o-"o.prt"rizedtwo computerized data basesbases (Patterson .19.89a,b) 1989a,b) and.and the.latestthe latest regional bibtiographybibliography (t'atterson(Patterson tigSa)1995a).-have ManyMany ofthe.of the pieces neededlgSg"q forfgl a regionalregional-archeological archeological , synthe"sis'oisynthesis of SoutheastSoutheast Texas have alreadyilready b6enbeen published. ThisThis reportreport follows follows aa less detailed summary of the archeology ofof SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas publishedpublished byby thethe authorauthor (Patterson iSgSU),1995b), where*h"r" sfracespace did not allo;-theallow the useuse ofof detaileddetailed datadata such asas.are are presentedpresented-here. here. All data given herehere'are are fromfrom mid-1995mid-1995 updatesupdates ofof the the computerized computerized datadata basesbases (Patterson (Patterson 1989a,b).

The use ofof specializedspecialized archeologicalarcheological termsterms andand jargon has been kepltokept to a minimum in this volume, in favorfavor ofof usingusing commoncommon EnglishEnglish asas muchmuch asas possible.possible. ThisThis. publicationpublication is notnot intendedin-t"r,aiif io.for rriuse only byby"archeologisb,-but archeologists, but also byby aa moremore generalgeneral publicpublic audienceaudience withwith interestinterest in regional archeologY.archeology.

The naturenature of aa synthesissynthesis shouldshould bebe understood. understood. AA regionalregional archeologicalarcheological synthesis is simplyiimotv aa setset ofof data,data'. interpretationsinlerpretations and models that anempSattempts toto givegive aa goodgood summary of-theof the current ,tatrsstatus ofaviilableof available knowledge. ThereThere areare no absolutely correctcorrect answers, Ssas new datadata and,na'n"*"rrre,it new interpretationsinteroretations remainremain pissible.possible. AA regionalregional archeologicalarctreological synthesis tlotnot onlyo,nly summarizes;;,2,j^'"ileni current inowledge,knowledge, but also serves asaia a basebase forfor furtherfurthir refinementsrefinements ofof models and explanations.

AbstractAbstract theorvtheory is avoided inin thisthis report,report, in favorfavor ofof interpretiveinterpretive models thatthat cancan bebe relatedrelated toto availableavailable data.dara. Archeological datadati is mainlymainly descriptive and historical (Hole(Hole 1973:303). SynthesesSyntheses areare interpretiveinterpretive organizationsoiganizations ofof thethd data.data. ThisThis reportreport seeks to presentpresent a balancedbalanced interpretationiriterpretation ofof vdriousvarious subJecSsubjects andand viewpoints.viewpoints. For example, both local innovationinnovation andand diffusiondiffuiion ofof technologicaltechnological traitstrais shouldshould bebe considered.considered.

TheThe partialpartial nature of archeologicalarcheological datadata limitslimits thethe detaildetail ofof interpretation interpretation ofof prehistoric prehistoric lifeways.lifeuiys. BecauseBecause organic organic materialsmatJrials areare poorlypoorly preserved,preserved, fewfew datadata areare availableavailable toto studystudy prehistoricprehisioric shelters, clothing,clothing, complete weapon systems, wood artifacts,artifacts, and floral foodfood resources.iesources. Even with thesethese limitationslimitations inin data,daa, thethe prehistoryprehistory of SoutheastSoutheast Texas can bebe presentedpresented in considerableconsiderable detail. Interpretationslnterpreations can can be be made based on existingexisting data,daa, withoutwithout needneed forfor unsupportedunsupported speculation. There is a popularpopular concept that archeology isis mainlymainly anan excavationexcavation activity.activity. ItIt maymay be be seen seen throughout throughout thisthis publication publication thatthat datadata fromfrom surfacesurface collectionscollections atat specificspecific sitessites are are atat least least asas important important asas datadata from excavated sites. AA majormajor point here is thatthat all typestypes ofof data data mustmust bebe considered considered toto developdevelop aa meaningful meaningful regionalregional synthesis.synthesis.

AsAs maymay bebe seenseen in in the the Table Table of of Contents, Contents, thisthis volumevolume isis organized organized alongalong the lineslines ofof commoncommon researchresearch topicstopics inin archeology,archeology, startingstarting withwith chronologychronology andand thenthen proceedingproceeding intointo thethe detailsdetails ofof prehistoric prehistoric technology,technology, lifestyles, Iifestyles, and and social social organization. organization- Technological Technological changechange isis viewed viewed within within the the basic basic continuity continuity of of a aconservative conservative nomadic nomadic hunting hunting-and and

1 eatherinqgathering lifewavlifeway thatthat characterizedcharacterized the the entireentire prehistoryprehistory of of thisthis region.region. TheThe developmentdevelopment 6iof iorpT"*complex cultrlralcultural traitstraits waswas limitedlimited andand sporldicsporadic inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas,Texas, as as reflected reflected inin thethe datadata anhand interpretationsinterpretations given given here. here. tt It is is hoiedhoped that that thisthis -report report willwill contributecontribute toto aa befterbetter understanding'ofunderstanding of thethe preh-istoryprehistory ofof SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas andand willwill serveserve asas aa catalystcatalyst toto encourageencourage futurefuture research.research.

HUNTER-GATHERERHUNTER-GATHERER THEORYTHEORY

PublishedPublished theories theories on on hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers are are refered refered to to onlyonly occasionally inin this report, becausebecause mostmost hunter-gathererhunter-gatherer theory theory is is not not usefuluseful oror significant. Tt,.tgThere are twotwo major oroblemsproblems inin thethe devel6pmentdevelopment ofof hunier-gathererhunter-gatherer theory.theory. OneOne problemproblem isis thethe".t" limitedlimited nature 6fof archeologicalircheological data,'whichdata, which does noiallownot allow thethe detaileddCtailed reconstructionreconstruction ofo_f- prehistoricprehistoric adaptions (Kelly 1995), lifeways. Th-eThe ottrerother problem is thethe diversitydiversity- ofof hunter-gathererhunter-gatherer adaptions (Kelly 1995). EvenEven 'simplesimple hunter-gathererfiunlgligalherer lifewayslifeways areare complex, non-linearnonJinear-. systems, where smallsmall chanseschanges in variables d'ncan cause differentdifferent outcomes.'Therefore,outcomes. Therefore, itit isis difficultdifficult toto formulateformulate anyany geneialgeneral rules for the behaviorbehavior of hunter-gathererhunter-gatherer groups,groups, becausebecause rulesrules ofof thisthis type will usually have many exceptions.

It is hoped that this reportreport causes discussiondiscussion andand debatedebate conceming-variousconcerning various topicstopics relatedrelated toto hunter-'gatherers.hunter-gatherers. DevLlopmentDevelopment oftheoryof theory on hunter-gatherers isstillis still aa v.eryvery dynamic subject (Bettinger(Bettin!-er 1991, Price and Brown 1985).1985). The leading edgeedge.of of scientificscientific researchresearch alwaysalways involvesinvolve"s contror"rsy.controversy. lfIf an archeologicaiarcheological theorytheory is cohpletelycompletely proven, therethere is.littleis little need for furtherfurthe researchesear"li o,on the subject, but this isii seldomseldom thethe case.case. ControversyControversy in itselfiSelf is seldomrildo, constructive,.orrtrr.tive, however. bebatesDebates shouldshould bebe accompanied byby the use of substantivesubstantive data, and flexibility toto accept new concepts asas new datadata become available.available. It It isis to be expected thatthat curr6ntcurrent modeismodels andand theorie'stheories willwill bebe refined inin the future,future, as moremore datadata becomes available.

HISTORY OF REGIONALREGIONAL RESEARCH

BeforeBefore 1950,1950, littlelittle waswas knownknown aboutabout the the prehistory prehislory of of Southeast Southeast Texas. Texas. Significant Significant archeologicalarcheologicaf research in this region covers a periodberiod of slightlyslightly_over over 4040 years,years,^with with a rapidrapid increasein"r*r" i"nin thethe raterate ofof publicationpublicatioi ofof archeologicalarcheological datadata afterafter 1970.1970. AsAs latelate asas 1979,1979, itit would notnoi havetiuu" beenbeen possiblepossibie to dodo aa very very detailed detailEd synthesissynthesis of thisthis regionregion_that that wouldwould- haveI-ave (Patterson 1979). covered*u"ria all prehistoricprLhistoric timetime periods periods and and geographic geiographic subregions subregions (Patterson. 1979). Significantiinnin."ni"li archeologicalurit eoloeical research in Southeast Teias'Texas started with work by WheatWheat (1953)( 1953) duringJ.?ing i.ii*6irreservoir constructionconitruction at somesome prehistoricprehistoric sitessites.west west ofof Houston.Houston. HeHe demonstrateddemonstrated thattfr"i therefi"r" were*.r" sitessites inin thisthis regionregion withwilh considerableconsiderable timetime depthdepth inin occupationoccupati.on sequences,sequences, andand presentedoresented thethe firstfirst relativerelative chronologychronology forfor artifactartifact typestypes inin preceramicpreceramtc-and and ceramicceramlc timetlme periods.peri6ds. Wheat'sWheat's (1953) reportreport stillstill remainsremains aa.good good referencereference sourcesource forfor thethe inlandinland portionportron ofii Southeastiiurf,*rt Texas.Texis. AnotherAnodjer earlyearly investigationinvestigati6n waswas atat thethe Caplet Caplen.) sitesite (41GV1),(4lGVl), aa Latelate PrehistoricPrehistoric burialburial sitesite onon BolivarBolivar PeninsulaPtninsula (Campbell(Campbell 1957).1957). Texas ResearchResearch in thisthis regionregion inin thethe 1960s 1960s waswas mainlymainly donedone. asas. various various projectsprojects ofof thethe Texas Archeologicalfih.;Gei;J-Saiuiee Salvage ProjectnoieCt (now TexasTexas Archeological Arcireological ResearchResearch Laboratory)laboratory). ofof thethe Universityiir'ir!iriti'#rl-'.r of Texas at.Te-r,tir. Austin. Shafersiafer (1968)(1968) conductedconducted-excavation excavation andand surveysurvey workwork inin thethe Lake;'i;'c;r;;;r*, Conroe area, and;d McClurkanMaaiurr

22 InIn thethe 1960s and early 1970s,19?Os, AtenAten diddid researchresearch at_at various silessites onon the.coastalthe coastal margin that culminatedculminated inin Aten'sAten's (1983) (1983) synthesissynthesis ofof the coastalcoastal margin subregion.subregion. Aten'sAten's bookbook onon shellshell middenmidden sitessites ofof the coastal hargin,margin, mainlymainly afterafter thethe IateLate ArchaicArchaic time time period,period, hashas becomebecome aa JUndardstandard reference, reference, and and shouldshould be be used used if if moremore details details on on thethe archeologyarcheology ofof the coastal margin areare desireddesired thanthan areare given given here.here.

FromFrom aboutabout 19751975 until present, TexasTexas A&M University has been the mainmain educationaleducational institutioninstitution withwith interestinterest inin thethe archeologyarcheology ofof Southeast Texas,Texas, resultingresulting inin numerous surveysurvey and Li."uationexcavation reporB,reports, including including excanated excavated siles sites inin Polk Polk (Ensor(Ensor andand Carlson-1988),Carlson 1988) and "ndHaoirHarris (Enror(Ensor andand CailsonCarlson l99l)1991) Counties. Several contract archeologicalarcheological firmsfirms have l""ar.tlaconducted investigations investigations in in thii this region,region, suchsuch asas_ Prewitt Prewitt andand Associates, Associates,. Coastal Coa.sal EEnvironments, Mo"ore Moore Archeological Archeological eonsulting, Consulting, and and Espy, Espy, Huston Huston and and AssociatesAssociates (see(see PauersonPatterson"ir*;"tr, 1995a forfor listing of reportsrepors byby tlresethese firms).firms). area Hall (1981) hashas publishedpublished resultsresults of excavationsexcavations atat prehistoricprehistoric sites in the AliensAllens CreekCreek area , in a,irtinAustin County.6ountv. These stratified sites include datadaia from the Middle Archaic through the LieLate Prehistoricnet irtoriciime time periods, including a detailed description of a LateLate ArchaicArchaic mortuarymortuary traditionradition thatthat occursoccurs inin thethe westernwestern portionportion ofof Sou$eastSoutheast Texas.

Much of therhe data onon thethe archeologyarcheology ofof Southeast Texas,,Texas, especially the inland subregion, has been6""" producedoi"artJ byby field programsprogrami'of of thethe HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological Sgc.'."ty,Society, andand by.by work of individualindivi'dual HAS members.iremberi. ThisThis has resulted in a large number ofof publacatronspublications ot.dataof data fromtrom excavated sites and intensive surface collections. MostMost ofof thethe researchresearch on thethe Paleo-IndianPaleo-lndlan and;;d EarlyE";t ArchaicA;;haii timetime periods inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas hashas been done.bydone by thethe Houston Houston Archeologicalei-"r,*i"'glJ"i Society.S;;i.tt.-Td The HAS publishespublishes thetI9 onlyglly journaljoumal devoteddevoted toto the archeolo-g-yarcheology of this region,resio"n. as wellwell asas a a continuing conrinui;g seriesseries of of bibliographies bibli6lraphies (Patterson(Patterson 1995a),1-995a), andand hardhard copiescooies-of of computerizedcomputerized datadata basesbases forfor thisthis regionregion (Patterson(Panerson 1989a,b).l989a,b). Individuallndividual membersmembers of;i'fi; the HASHAS haveffi; discoveredairior*"a andand recordedrecorded aa-large large proportionproportion ofof tlethe archeological.sitesarcheological sites in Southeasta;rt|.";i T;"J.Texas. itreThe HoustonHouston Archeological-society Archeological Society is is a a goodgood example ofof how anan avocationala".catio"af soiietysociety *ncan successfullysuccessfully conductconluct a widewid6 range range-of of regional regional archeological archeological research activitiesactivities (Patterson(Patterson 1991f).19910.

TheThe U.S.U.S. ArmyArmy CorpsCorps ofof EngineersEngineers sponsoredsponspred a studystudy-of of the archeology ofof thethe GulfGulf CoastalCoasal Plainii;i;(Si",l (Story et;i al..t. 1990),[eSOy, which *lich coverscor"rs East East Texas Texas-from from thelhe coastal coastal. margin margin toto Arkansas,Arkansas, includingiriirai"i Sorif,..rtSoutheast Teias.Texas. While While thisthis publicationpublication is is .not not a.completea complete synthesis ofof thethe archeologyaict,eoto?y ofof suchsuch aa largelarge geographicgeographic area,arei, it doesdoes.constitute constitute a large.collectionlarge collection ofof datadata withwith interpretiveinterDreti-ie comments ono-n manymanV sJbiects.subjects. This publication accomplishesaccomplishes iSits intended goalgoal of beingbeing aa datadata sourcesource forfor thethe GulfGuif CoastalCoistal Plain,Plain,'and, and itit hashas becomebecome aa standardstandard reference. TheThe CorpsCorp-s of EngineersEngineers hashas sponsoredsponsored a number of.archeologicalof archeological sites studiesstudies forfor clearancesclearances onon constructionconitruction-projects projects in Southeast Texas, especially inin thethe coastalcoastal marginmargin subregion.subregion.

ThisThis sectionsection hashas givengiven only only some some highlights highlighS inin the the history history- of of archeological archeological researchresearch inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas. Extensive publicationpublication on the archeology of thisthis regionregion (Patterson(Patterson 1995a)1995a) hashas resultedresulted inin aa datadata base that is one of thethe bestbest forfor a region inin Texas.Texas.

GEOGRAPHICGEOGRAPHIC ANDAND ENVIRONMENTALENVIRONMENTAL SETTINGSETTING

SoutheastSoutheast Texas as defined here covers a 212l countycounty areaarea (Figure(Figure 1).l). ThisThis regionregion isis anan interfaceinterface betweenbetween thethe SouthernSouthern PlainsPlains andand thethe SoutheastSoutheast Woodlands.Woodlands. ThisThis interfaceinterface ofof environmentalenvironmental areas is reflectedreflected inin thethe distributionsdistributions of artifactartifact typestypes withinwithin thisthis region region (Patterson(Panerson 1990a,1990h),1990a,1990h), asas will will be be further further discussed.discussed. SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas isis essentially essentially anan areaarea boundedbounded byby thethe ColoradoColorado RiverRiver onon thethe west,west, the the Sabine Sabine RiverRiver onon the the east,east, andand includesincludes anan inlandinland areaarea toto aboutabout 120120 milesmiles fromfrom thethe GulfGulf CoastCoast shoreline.shoreline.

3 The inland portion ofof Southeast TexasTexas isis aa mixture of coastal prairie andand woodlands, with coniferous treestrees (piney(piney woods)woods) beingbeing mostmost numerousnumerous inin thethe northeas-ternnortheastern partpart ofthisof this region.region. AA dense band of'piniyof piney woodiwoods runiacrossruns across the northernnor$ern counties ofof this region, incJudingincluding Montgomery, Polk,Polk, SanSan Iacinto,Jacinto, Tyler,Tyler, andand Jasper.Jasper. ThisThis band,of.pineyband of piney woodswoods extendsextends overover -of most of the eastern'Gulfeastern Gulf coastalcoastal pliinplain (hrsen(Larsen 1980:35) asas aa distinctdistinct ecologicalecological zonezone wilhwith a lowlow productivity ofof naturalnatural foodfood resources.resources. MuchMuch ofof thethe woodlandswoodlands inin this-this r-egionregion are a mixture ofof coni-ferousconiferous andand deciduous treetree types.types. NutNut trees, suchsuch asas pecan andand hickory,hickory, are especially numerousnumerous inin thethe lower Colorado andand Brazos RiversRivers drainagedrainage systems,systems, inin the westemwestern partpart of Southeast Texas.Texas. TheThe Big Thicket-ecologicalThicket ecological areaarea isis foundfound inin the eastern part of this region. Numerous freshwaterfreshwater itreamsstreams ofof inlandinland Sou0reastSoutheast TexasTexas flowflow mainlymainly to the southeast, into the GulfGulf of Mexico.

The coastal margin ofof Southeast TexasTexas occupiesoccupies a a bandband alongalong $ethe Gulf-CoastGulf Coast from.from the shoreline to about 15 miles inland. This geographic areaarea isis aa mixture of coastalcoastal prairie,prairie, woodlands, wetlands,wetlands, brackish brackish water water lakes,lakes, andand riverriver deltas.deltas. Freshwater Freshwater streamsstreams discharging into the Gulf become brackish in the coastal mar-ginmargin due to saltwaterfromsaltwater from tidal flow. lTreThe lrackishbrackish water lakes are generally remnants ofof former river channels. A high proportion ofof the archeological sites on thetle coastalcoastal-margin margin are Rangi.aRangia cuneatacu.neata brackish waterwat'er shell middens. Some oyster shell middens are found on the coastline in a true marine saltwater environment. The general Galveston Bay area, including San Jacinto, Trinity and East Bays, is particularly well-known for Rangia shell middens.

Although periodic variations in average rainfall and temperature have occurredoccurred_ throughoutthrough_out the HoloceneHol-ocine period, after 11,000I1,000 years B.P.,8.P., there is littlelittle evidenceevidence available to definedefine changes in thethe'overall overall floral and faunallaunal communities during this time period in SoutheastSoutheast Texas.Texai. Subsistence patterns appearappear to havehave remainedremained similarsimilar throughoutthroughout thethe HoloceneHolocene period, which coverCcovers most of the human occupation sequence ofof this region. The r_angerange of faunaliaunal food resourcesresources utilized by prehistoric IndiansIndians inin thisthis region is discusseddiscussed in thethe section of thisthis publicationpublication onon subsistencesubsistence patterns.patterns. Vegetation zones in SoutheastSoutheast Texas are shownshown inin Figure 2.

REGIONALREGIONAL GEOLOGY

SoutheastSoutheast Texas can be divided into two geological areas (Oetking 1959).1959). From the Gulf coastlinecoastline to about 8080 milesmiles inlandinland thethe surfacesurFace geologygtology isis ofof QuaternaryQuaternary age,age, consistingconsisting of recentrecent deposits,deoosits. with BeaumontBeaumont and thenthen LissieLissie formationslormations inin stratifiedstratified deeperdeeper deposits.deposits. FromFrom about 8080 toio 120l20 milesmites inlandinland thethe surfacesurface geologicalgeological depositsdeposiS are of TertiaryTertiary age,age, withwith Pliocene,Pliocene, Miocene, and Oligocene deposits stratifiedsratified in order ofofdepth. depth.

MostMost ofof thethe archeologicalarcheological excavationsexcavations inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas are done in the first few feet from thethe soilsoil surfacesurface inin PleistocenePlfistocene materials that have beenbeen redepositedredeposited inin thethe HoloceneHolocene period,period, afterafter 11,000I1,000 yearsyears ago.ago. HoloceneHolocene periodperiod soilssoils overlieoverlie olderolder deposits,de-posits, suchsuch asas thethe BeaumontBeaumont Formation.Formati'on. WhileWhile thereth-ere seemsseems toto havehave beenbeen muchmuch changingchanging ofof riverriver channelschannels nearnear thethe coastcoast (Aten(Aten 1983:Chapter1983:Chaoter 8),8). channelschannels of smallersmaller inlandinland streamsstreams seem toto havehave beenbeen lessless subjectsubject toio change..t.ng". Manyft{any Indiannaiin sitessites alongalong inlandinland streamsstreams inin thisthis region_region have have long long occupation occupation sequences,iior.n"""r, fromfrom'about about thethe beginningbeginnin! ofof thetre HoloceneHolocene periodperiod throughthrough thethe Latehte PrehistoricPrehistoric period.peiiod. Thisfhis impliesimplies stabilitysubility ofof streamstream channelchannel locations.locations.

HoloceneHolocene periodperiod soilssoils inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas arear-e generallygenerally sandy,sandy, withwith varyingvarying amountsam.ounb ofof.clay clay andand organicorqanic materials.materials. BecauseBecause of thethe uniformityuniformity ofof soilsoil depositsdeposits atat manymany sitesite locations, loc-atlons, naturalnatural- soilsoil stratigraphystratigraphy isis onlyonly occasionallyoccasionally usefuluseful asas a relativerelative timetime markermarker atat archeologicalai.t Lofogi."t excavations..*caiatioris. OfOf course,course, naturalnatural stratigraphysratigraphy shouldshould bebe studiedstudied whenwhen presentpresent

4 inin a definite form,form, especiallyespecially asas an an indicator indicator thatthat undisturbedundisturbed stratigraphystratigraphy_exisF. exists. LocalLocal deoositionaldepositional historieshistories areare usuilyusualy difficultdifficult toto determinedetermine atat sitessites inin thisthis region.region. Therefore,Therefore, thisthis re;ortreport does does not not eivegive aa detaileitdetailed discussiondiscussion ofof the geology ofof thisthis region.region. PerhapsPerhaps future reiearchresearch will will resfltresult in in moremore useful useful geotogical geological analyticalanalytical methodsmethods for for archeological archeological use. use. AA numbernumber of of referencesreferences can can be be consufied consulted foi for details details of of thethe geology geology ofof Southeast Texas,Texas, suchsuch i'ras Aii,Aten i1983:Chapter(1983:Chapter 8), 8), Fisher Fisher et et al. al. (1972, (1972, 1973),1973), andand BernardBernard et et al. al. (1970). (1970). ItIt is iornrnoncommon toto see descriptionsdesiriptions ofof regional geology inin archeologicalarcheological site reportsreports thatlhat are not usedused inin anyany otherother portionportion ofof thethe text.text.

AtenAten (1983:Chaoter(1983:Chapter I11) t) hashas beenbeen ableable toto identifyidentify thethe depositionaldepositional historieshistories ofof somesome coastal .lirir-margin archeological sites,sites, suchsuch asas streamstream channelchannel leveelevee deposiSdeposits andand indications ofof marsh ;;fi;;;i;i;r."ftand floodplains."i"t."trlical Theseir" Wdotypes of datadata are useful in determining the site environment atat the ii111.time oi.i".rpition.of occupation. fiL'The placementplacement ofof shellshell middenmidden sitessites isis usually usually apparent.apparent withoutrvithout geological;;;i;i."I indicators,indi.uto15. howLver. however. This This type type of of sitesite waswas located atat thethe edges.edges of lakeslak_es andand il;;';il;;i;,stream channels, *t&.r"twherever RangiaRangia bedibeds bccuned.occurred. The.relationshipThe relationship of of depositional history ioto culturaliultural factorsfactors of of site formationforriation isis seldom considered inin sitesite reports,reports^, exc€pt.except asas a ;.;;;lfii;i;;qr.n"",chronological sequence, b"*ur"because cultural lactorsfactors forfor formationformation processesprocesses ofof shell midden sites are not well understood.

At somesome sitessites inin this this region, region, there there can can be be false false indications indications of of "A" "A" horizon horizon remnant remnant o"f"oiofpaleosols, r. iuchsuch as in StratumStralum 22 at site 41WH1941WHl9 (Patterson(Patterson etet al.al. 1987).1987). Inln thisthis- situation,situation, dark lines are observed thatrhat have beenbeen apparentlyapparently caused by leachingleaching ratherrather than being i;;i:ii;;i;;;'"b#A to actual;;Gi iN'"A" thorizons. orirons. The The verticalvertical distribuiibn distribution of of ioil soil particlCparticle size size isis occasionallyoccasionally used to study possible disturbancedisturbance ofofnatural natural stratigraphy (Ensor(Ensor 1987)'1987).

There is a major problemproblem inin interpretationinterpretation of of the the geology geology ofof inland SoutheastSoutheast Texas,'thatTexas;that of missing;i;;ir;;r6;i'r[.G. natural strata. ii-it It is iornnrbncommon toto find,find archeologicalarcheological sites in this region wherewhere artifactsa1tlf?cts datingJ;ii;;?ril from 11,000-10,000l t.O00-tO,0OO yearsy*rr ago areare found on theGe surface of Beaumontleaumont clay, which is not;;ili;;;;d supposed iiia"tillt",to date later franthan rolooo30,000"go yearsyears asoago (Aronow 1971:51).leTl:51)..Ar At manymany locations,rocations, about;#;tb;gog 20,000 yearsv-*"-"f of geologicale*l"sical depositsdepoiis see;seem tot; bebe missing,missing, possiblypossibly duedue toto aa major major erosional event caused byb"y extendedexGnded heavyhiavy rainfallrainfall after 25,000 B.P.B.P. andand no laterlater than 9,0009,000 ;;"ri;*l';;ri poor B.P. as notednoted bybv AtenAten (1983:133).(i983:133). Therefore,Therefore, SoutheastSoutheast Texas would generally be aa poor years ago, although a systematic study area t"to lookf for pre-Clovis materials,materials, before 12,000i2,000 years ago, although a systematic study of"r*ofremnant remnant ""'ii"7pii-Ctdrir PleistocenePleisiocene terracesterraces hashas not been conducted.

AfterAfter the PleistocenePteistocene period, seasea levellevel on the gulfGulf of.of MexicoMexico continuedcontinued to rise. B-y-By 4500 yearsvears ago,as.o. seasea levellevel was oas probably pt6bably withinwithin 1515 feetfeet ofof its is present present levellevel (Paine (Paine and and Morton Morton 1986:9).iS86.9; SeaS"" leveli.""1 stabilizedstabilized atat itsiti presentpresent level aboutabout 35003500 yearsyears agoago (Gagliano(Gagliano .1977:l).1977:1). Coastalcoasuf marginmargin archeological sites older than 3500 yearsyears B.P.B.P. wouldwould nownow be be underwater. under*ater. Therefore,ft a"fulla full chronologicalchronoiogical sequence for humanhuman occupation isis only availableavailable forfor thethe inlandinland"i.ior", portionportion of thisthis region.regioi. AnAn interestinginieresting situation can be observed at some sites onon thethe coastalcoastal'margin, margin, where risingr'ising sea levellevel changed changed the the site site environment environment from from freshwaterfreshwater toto brackishbrackish water,*aier, with,,"ift a correspondingcorre-sponding change in subsistencesubsistence. pattern. ExamplesExamples of-sitesof sites ofof thisthis typetype cancan bebe foundfound onon upperupp6r SanSan JacintoEcintoBay, Bay, where thetre sitessites_ werewere formerlyformerly onon thettrc bankbank ofof theth6'San San Jacinto Jacinto RiverNver (Patterson(Pitterson andand MarshallMarshall 1989).1989). ConditionsConditions favorablefavorable forfor RangiaRangia growthgrowth maymay havehave developeddeveloped atat differentdifferent timestimes atat different different locationslocations alongalong- the the coastal coastal margin.margin. ForFoi example,example, atat sitesite 4111R6184lHR6l8 therethere is aa radiocarbonradiocarbon date of 450 +1-80+180 yearsyears B.P.,B.P, A.D.A.D. 1500, l5OO, (1-15275) (l-1527 5) for for the the lowest lowest level level of of the the Rangia Rangia midden midden (Patterson (Panerson and and Marshall ivlarshall 1989:2).1989:2). AtAt this this site, site; Rangia Rangia utilization utilization diddid not not start start untiluntil thethe beginningbeginning ofof the the Historic Historic IndianIndian-period, period, eveneven thoughthough therethere werewere earlierearlier occupation occupation componentscomponents atat thisthis location. location. GaglianoGagliano (1977)(1977) has has discussed discussed tatelate HoloceneHolocene coastlinecoastline formationformation processes.processes.

ThereThere isis littlelittle doubt doubt thatthat prehistoricprehistoric sites existexist onon thethe submerged submerged continentalcontinental shelf.shelf. FindingFinding sitessites ofof this this typetype is is extremely extremely difficultdifficult becausebecause ofof probable probable lowlow sitesite density, density, highhigh cost,cost, and and

55 onlvonly Dartiallvpartially developeddeveloped methodology.methodology. CoastalCoastal EnvironmentsEnvironments conducted conducted a a search search forfor ,rd.ri"Giunderwater s'ites sites in in the the submergedsubmerged r-elict relict channel channel of of thethe SabineSabine River,River, offbh-or_eoffshore TexasTexas ii"rr.on(Pearson 1988).1988), usineusing core core samp-ies.samples. A A possiblepossible RangiaRangia shell shell middenmidden was was foundfound dating dating to to irgoo8800 B.p.B.P. Th.The iampiesample included'included charredcharred wood, wood, nut nut hulls, hulls, seeds, seeds, fish fish scales, scales, and and bone' bone. No No f,rr.r.nif*frhuman artifacts *.rL were found, found, but but this this is is not not surprising, surprising, because because core core samples samples test test very very small small ;r;ip.n;;*,areas (Patterson teat1. 1981). fnijThis projectproject made made a-significant a significant contribution contribution to to the the knowledge knowledge of of thethe n"Joi,geology of this underwater ai"alarea. B""aur" Because of of highhigh cost,cost, itit isis notnot likelylikely that muchmuch researchresearch of of itristhis tiri:type willwill be done in the future.future.

PALEOCLIMATESPALEOCLIMATES

ClimaticClimatic conditionsconditions are are often often discusseddiscussed as as affectingaffecting thethe adaptive successsuccess of hunter-hunter- ;;ii';;;;.gatherers. ii'i;;iirr"a It is assumed tn.tthat a a wetwet climateclimate without temiperaturetemperature extremes extremes encouragesencourages goodgood fi;;;i';;;-'i.-r;;1-'ioodfloral and faunal food resources.t"tort"o. As AtenAten (1983:131-137) (1983:i3l-137) notes,notes, reconstructionreconstruction ofof p"-f*.fi."t"rpaleoclimates *ncan onjy only bebe donedone inin aa general wayway for long time periods. HisHis summary ofof paleoclimatespaleoclimates which might applyapply toto TexasTexas is:is: l:teLate GlacialGlacial (before(before 10,000 B.P.): mildmild winters,winters, cool summers,summers, and high precipitation.precipitation'

Boreal (10,000-8500 B.P.):B.P.): moremore divergentdivergent temperatures,temperatures, and less rainfall than in the Latel:te Glacial period. Atlantic (8500-5000 B.P.):B.P.): GenerallyGenerally highhigh temperatures temperatures and drydry climate.climate' ExtremeExtreme intensificationintensifica'rion ofofthese these conditionsconditions hashas not been detected on the Texas coast.coast'

Sub-Boreal to Present (after(after 50005000 B.P.): Oscillating climatic conditions, butbut generally modernmodem conditions.

There are few datadata available to directlydirectly discuss paleoclimatespaleoclimates in SoutheastSoutheast Texas. PollenPollen pollen typest oo areuie used as an indicator ofof climatiiclimatic conditions, butbut there is little preservation of pollen inii'this this region. ContinuingConrinuing studies of species ofof snailsnail andan_d musselmussel atat inlandinland sites inin.this.region this region may,* yieldri"i8 importantirpJrtani inO;"cationsindications ofof paieoclimatespaleoclimates (Neck(Neck 1986, 1991).l99l). Datatlatg on paleoclimatespaleoclimates fromiioi,'ott other .. regionsi"Lioni cannot be directlydirecily applied toto SoutheastSoutheast Texas, as environmentalenvironmental.change change inin eacheach regionregioi cancan bebe differentdifferent (Bryant(Bryant and Shafer 1977:19).1977:19).-The The presencepr.esence otof calichecalrche atat pars. of ArchaicL;;i;;&i;a period sitessites-in in SoutheastSouttreasi TexasT6*as maymay indicateindicate drydry conditionsconditions duringduring -somesome parts of thisin-ii'i.riJa. period. Theit"ioimaiion formation of carbonate concretions (caliche) isis associatedassociated.with with semi-ariditysemi-aridity oror seasonalsiasonal droughtdrought conditions"arbonate (Aten 1983:134). 1983:134). AtenAten proposespronoses thatthat calichecallche formationtormatron inln thisIiiri.ei; region generallyg.n.r"ully occurredo..rrr"d- iiiii-Sooo-e.p.,'perhapiafter 9000 B.P., perhaps during anan interval ofof 7500-3500 B.P.B.P. of AtAt sitesite 41FB424l FB42 (Patterson (Patterson etet al. al. 1993c), 1993c),-a a thinrhin carbonate carbonale layerlayer occurred occurred.at at aboutabgut the$e start191 of pointand theif,L Earlyfuifu Archaicer.fluic period (7oooB.P.),(7000 B.P.), slightlyiiightly aboveabove the the locationloiation ofof an an Angostura Angostura. point and belowulif MiddleiiriflaiJ Archaica';i;i;-d; dart pointffit types.typ"rl CalicheCiliche was*as foundfound atat LateI:te ArchaicArchaic sitesite 41FB34lFB3 (Pattersonrprit"rion et al. 1993d).1993d). Atet,lte site 41AU36,ifl^fui0, carbonates carbonates werewere foundfound inin both both MiddleMiddle ArchaicArchaic sites in this and|ni.i31!.ilili;;;;diiiihtilecr:ao).'catiche-is Late Archaic"t context-ialiche'does (Hall 1981:40). Caliche is notnotfound found atat allail stratifiedstratified sites in this region,r"r-1.*'-.,iJ and when*f,Ln caliche does occurociur itii can can be be from from different different time time intervals intervals withinwithin thethe Archaicii"i^1t period. Thereirr;;;il;;*eral is no general agreementagreement amongamong geologistsgeologists onon the rhe exact exacr mechanism mectanism of#;#"fj,-[;]]i" the formation"*i"i. of caliche deposits in SoutheastSourr,east-r_iils. Texas. AtA1 some some inland inland sites, sites, leached leached calcium;;l;i;;;;;;;i.iio,,r,.uJ"-,Irrd carbonate "-r.iii"i,i'J!p*islnfrom shells could beu"ri. the-Si"w sourceior'"" ofof the rhe carbonate carbonate layerlaver thatrhat isis observedobserved inin thefi;i;;;li'liv"o lower soil layers (NeckfN.rr."rs-iiiii 1991:17). Story (1990:244)ttsgo'.uq.i;t has has assembled assenibled data data from from easteast- central Texas, north of this regionregion whichwhich indicatesind-icites.a a moistmoilt periodperiod from 2400 B.P.B'P' toto somesome ;;;;;ii;";;r;itiiidtr,it fo'.190ume' timeiime afterafter A.D.A.D. 100, 100, followed followed by by a ashift shift to to a adryer dryer climate climate up up to to modern modem time.

6 BothBoth StoryStory (1990:25)(1990:25) andand AtenAten (1983:136)(1983:136) havehave mentioned-4rtt"-Wmentioned Antevs (t?S-S) (1955) modelmodel ofof oateoclimatei.paleoclimates, whichwhich 6ostulatespostulates aa fhermalThermal lv{aximum Maximum interval interval (7000-5000 (7000-5000 B.P.)B.P.) during thethe TvchaicArchaic period.period. Bryson,Bryson, Baerreis,Baerreis, and and WendlandWendland (1970:55) (1970:55) notenote that *rerethere are majormajor difficulti&difficulties toto the c6nceptconcept of a Thermal Ivlaximum,Maximum, becausebecause this this concept concept isis tootoo generalgeneral toto applyapply toto specificspecific geographicgeographic regions'regions.

The ouestionquestion ofof climatic imDactimpact onon adaptive successsuccess wouldwould bebe difficultdifficult to assess fromfrom maierialmaterial rerains remains at at archeological archeological sites, sites, especially especially tooltool kits.kits. There isis nono_archeolo_gical archeological Casecase foifor causallycausally relatedrelated technologicaltechnol-ogicat oror behavioralb6havioral readjustmentsreadjustments toto climaticclimatic fluctuationfluctuation (Butzer 1982:301).

REGIONAL DATA BASES

In developinqdeveloping aa regionalregional synthesis,synthesis, it is essential to have a complete regional datadata base,base, inin a'a' -^"rnLftimanageable T-rI form. Otr"r.irire,Otherwise, conclusionsconclusions areare likelylikely to bebe impressionistic impressionistic ratherrather thanthan ;;b;A'rti;".substantive. ManyMany regionalregional studiesstudies are are based based on on the the ule use of.key of key typetype siles.sites. There is.nothingis nothing ;;;g;thwrong with ,efer'encireference toto specific sites asas,examples, examples, tutbut when lhethe bulk of regionalreg.ional data is lgnoiEa,ignored, conclusions are generallyginerally not well-supported. EvenEven worse,worse, importantimportant datada6 are often o-verlooked,overlooked,"on.i6ions leadinglead i ng to incorrecti ncorrect conclconclusions. usions.

As shownshown inin TableTable 1,I, severalseveral thousandthousand prehistoricprehistoric sites,havesites have beenbeen recordedrecorded-for for SoutheastSoutheast Texasie*as in thethe filesfiles ofof the the Texas Texas Archeological Archeological Research Research Laboratoryl:boratory (T4\t-)(TARL) *as o.f.."?tlYof early 1995,i,igi- buttut information onon only about 15%t S%o-of of theserhese sitessites hashas beenbeen published.published. Unpublished site recordsiecords seldom describe the nature ofof each site inin muchmuch detail.detail. Therefore,Therefore, the two computerized;;;;];i1|JA;Uuiii data bases forfor rhisthis region (Patterson l989a,b)1989a,b) havehave been lim-ited.tolimited to publishedpr-rblished site-",l6liif,.a-fpitr"iron16Sol,l.site reports.ieoorts. A summarysummary of thethe originaloriginal 19891989 datadata basebase forfor thethe inlandinland subregionsubreglon hashas beenbeen published (Patterson 1990h). The-analysisThe analysis ofof unpublished sitesite reportsreports wouldwould be.abe a good futureiuture research project.project. AA summary ofof sites in thethe inlandinland and coastal marginmargin data bases ists given,i""" ini" Tablei"Uf i 1.l'. AsAi of midmid 1995,1995, thetire inlandinland data basebase coverscovers 298298 sitessites ((110 I l0 excavated, 188I 88 surface;rrfu"" collections), and the coastalcoaital margin datadata basebase coverscovers 201201 sitessites (57 excavated, 144144 surfaceil;;;; collections).;;ii;ii;nii."oit"ctii"ri, Intensiveint.nrir. surfacesurface collectionscoJlections areare anan importantimportant partpart of eacheach datadata base.base. WhileWhile intensiveintensive surfacesurface collectionscollections forfor specificspecific sitessites are are important, important, somesome archeologists archeologlsts choose toto ignoreignore thisthis typetype ofof data. data. OneOne majormajor excavationexcav-ation reportreportin in this region dlddid not even referenceiefeien"e previouslypieviously pi.,'ttisn"Apublished surfacesurface collectionscollections forfor thethe site.site. As As may be seen in TableTable 1,I, coveragecoverage ofof variousvarioui countiescbunties isis far far fromfrom uniform.uniform. OnOn thethe coastalcoastal margin,margin, publishedpublished sites areare concentratedioni"niratea inin Chambers andand HarrisHarris Counties,Counties, so so thatthat thethe entire length of thethe. coastalcoastal marginrnurgin thas not been well-investigated. For the inland subregion,subregion, only only 66 ofof 2l21 countiescounties. havehave overor"r" 10lO published "ioublished archeologicalarcheoloeicai- sitesite reports.reporls. TheThe numbernumbei of sitesite reportsreports publishedpublished in aa countycountv doesdies notnot necessarilynecessarily-reflect reflect thethe recordedrecorded site densitydensity ofof thethe county, county, but but rather rather thethe relativerelatiie amountamount of archeologicalarcheological investigationinvestigation thattlrat hashas beenbeen done.done. ForFor example,example, therethere areare overover 200200 recordedrecorded prehistoricprehistorii sites inin FortFort BendBend County,County, but only 22 sitesite reportsreports havehave beenbeen published.published. A majormajoi goal shouldshould bebe toto obtainobtain aa moremore uniformuniform archeological survey of allall countiesiounties inin Southeast Soritheast Texas,Texas, toto obtain obtain a a more more representative representative published published samplesample ofof archeologicalarcheological resources.resources. ItIt shouldshould bebe notednoted that,that, fromfrom aa statisticalstatistical viewpoint,viewpoin! regionalregional datadata basesbases areare samplessamples wherewhere thethe totaltotal populationpopulation ofof datadata cannotcannot bebe accuratelyaccurately estimated.estimated._ ThereThere isis somesome assuranceassurance ofofa a representativerepresenadve sample,sample, however,however, ififa a largelarge datadata basebase isis obtained.obtained.

TheThe twotwo computerizedcomputerized datadata basesbases forfor thethe inlandinland andand coastal marginmargin subregions of SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas areare updatedupdated onon aa periodicperiodic basis,basis, withwith datadaa addedadded forfor newnew archeologicalarcheological sitesite reports. reports. EachEach datadata basebase containscontains several files forfor categoriescategories suchsuch asas basicbasic sitesite data, daa, projectileprojectile pointpoint types,types, ceramicceramic types,types, general general lithic lithic artifacts, artifacts, radiocarbon radiocarbon dates,dates, burialburial sites,sites, faunalfaunal remains,remains, etc.etc. TheThe Paradox Paradox relationalrelational datadata basebase programprogram for the IBM PCPC hashas beenbeen used.used. AA relationalrelational datadata basebase allowsallows complexcomplex queries queries to to be be made made by by linking linking tables. ables. ThereThere is is a a separate separate recordrecord inin

7 generating eacheach file file for for eacheach archeologicalarcheological site. site. These These two two data data bases bases are are valuablevaluable IOOIS tools f6rfor generating d#data i;-;;;to answer .ir*.rhresearch luestions.questions. The The data data basesbases cancan alsoalso bebe used asas sophisticatedsophisticated ;ibli;;ii;;*r;h-rools-'Sitesbibliographic search tools. Sites with with specific specific characteristics characteristics can, can be be found-by found by data.tase data base use. of an available queries.FJ6'iiiti"iii.i"r""."i Published references i"r for desireh desired sites sites can can tlren then be be found found -bY by use of an available "ir"ii6.cross-index of iit"site nr.U.onumbers and references.references. Persons doing archeological researchresearch inin il;;;;d;;;f are SoutheastSoutheast Texas Texas should should consider consider use use of of thethe two computerized datadata bases,bases, whlchwhich are can available t,rouifrthrough rhethe HoustonHouston ArcheotogicalArcheological .S.o.jgty Society. Us'eUse ofof computerizedcomputerized data,basesdata bases can ""uii"Uiiiaciliatefacilitate studi;studies thatthat mightmight otherwiseotherwise bebe avoidedavoided becausebecause manualmanual methodsmethods wouldwould requlrerequire tootoo muchmuch timetime forfor daadata collectioncollection andand analysis.analysis.

WhileWhile comouterizndcomputerized data basesbases cannotcannot containcontain all all ofof thethe finefine detailsdetails ofof each archeological Ji#';;;ft-i;r"*iUt"site report, it is possible t"i"rputirireto computerize allall ofof the basic daradata from each sire.site. ComputgrizedComputerized ;"i^';;]"];;;bffi;;data bases enable data f.n'from un'"niit"an entire resionregion toto bebe availableavailable forfor aa maximum numbernumber ofof investigators. Many ,lt"site iip"ts reports are notnot eisilveasily availableavailable to to manv.people,.Yhgmany people, who do not have i";riigrd'M";i -q?-lPl 1?Y:ls thethe tim"etime or resourcesresouries to visit the"te- few librarieslibraries where site reportsreports maymay be avallable..available. ltIt is senerallvgenerally notnot oossiblepossible forfor anan investigator 1oto obtainobtain copiescopies ofof many sitesite _repofts,.reports, whlch.which areare |ri-"r*,?iriout-of-print J-;i,l;hor which ;;;are CRMCnU reportsre'ports thatrhat havehave ah very very limited limited distribution. distribution. MuchMuch publish'edpublished archeologicalarcheological data is "lost" forfor practical purposes'purposes.

88 CHAPTERCHAPTER 22

CHRONOLOGYCHRONOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGICAL TRADITIONSTRADITIONS

GENERALGENERAL CHRONOLOGYCHRONOLOGY

DataData on human habitation of of Southeast TexasTexas coverscovers aa time intervalinterval of approximatelyapproximately 12,000 years. The prehistoric Indian periodperiod stlrtsstarts at at about about 10,000 10,000 B.C. B.C. andand ends ends aboutabout A.D.A.D. lsbo,;ifi1500, with first European conract.contact. Time Time p€riods.u!edperiods used here here are are the the same same as as used used inin somesome previous publications (Patterson (Patterson 1979, 1979, 1983,1983, 1995b),1995b), asas follows:follows:

years beforebefore period present B.C./A.D. oer i od -T-;OIO=E;TTT-E.tI E=?IyEarly Paleo-IndianP-al,ro-Tndfan 12,000-10,000 10,000-8,000 B.C. Late Paleo-IndianPaleo- Indian 10,000-7,000 8,000-5,000 B,c.B.C. Early Archaic 7,000-5,0007, 000-5,000 5,000-3,000 B.c.B.C. Middle Archaic 5,000-3,5005, 000-3, 500 3,000-1,5003,ooo-1,500 B.c.B.C. Late Archaic 3,500-1,9003,s00-1,900 1,500 B.C.-A.D. 100 Early Ceramicceramic 1,900-1,4001, 900- 1,4 00 A.D. 100-600 Late Prehistoric 1,400-5001,400-500 A.D,600-1,500A.D. 600-1,500 Prot-Historic 500-300500-300 A.D. 1500-17001500-1700 Historic IndianIndian 300-200 A.A.D. D. 1700-1800+1700-1800+ Several details should be noted for the above chronological sequence.sequence. Th-eThe na.mesnames ofof the timei;;p;ri"dr;;traaiionul periods are traditional inin rhethe literatureliterature of of thethe U.S. U.S. Hlwever,.theHowever, the date divisionsdivisions are for SoutheastSildi;;iT;;;; Texas alone, based more on artifact type time ranges tlanthan onon any.differencesany differences in lifestyles.iii".irlo. Ae nomadicnomaai| hunting hunring andand gathering garherin!' lifewaylifeway was uras practiced practiced throughout througlout. allall prehistoricorehiitoric time time periodsperiods in in thisthis region.region. EvenEven whenwhen thethe same names areare used lorfor timetlme periods,;;i;;-'rh" the timeii;; intervalsini".uals may be differentdlfferent forfor SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas thanthan for adjacent regions. ForF;;;;;;ri":'ihe example, the timeiiri intervalsinre*ati generally usedused forfor thethe ArchaicArchaic andand Latel:te PrehistoricPrehistoric periods are,.-" different;lfr;;;;i inin-cinttat Central and SoutheastSo-utheast-Texas, Texas, andand lherethere isis nono EarlyEarly CeramicCeramic periodperiod inin CentralCentral Texas.

TheThe EarlyEarlv Paleo-Indian periodperiod isis basedbased onon thethe chronologieschronologies ofof Clovis and Folsom points inin other.tt"iourir parts ofTexas.of Texas. It iiis now known thatthat several other point types also occur in SoutheastSoutheast Texasiexis'auring during rtrethe same time period asas Folsom (l1,000-10,000(11,000-10,000 B.P.).B.P.). TheThe LateIate Paleo-IndianPaleoJndian periodperiod representsrepre-sents thethe presenbepresence ofof Plains types of lanceolatelanceolate projectileprojectile pointspoints inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas,te*as, eveneien thoughthough severalsiveral typestypes ofof non-lanceolate non-linceolate pointspoints werewere alsoalso present present duringduring thisthis timetime period.period. TheThe LateIlte Paleo-IndianPaleo-Iidian periodperiod inin TexasTexas correspondscorresponds toto thethe EarlyEarly Archaic periodperiod inin thethe easterneastern states.states.

TheThe ArchaicArchaic timetime periodperiod inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas startsstarts at thethe endend ofof the the Late Iate Paleo-Indian Paleo-lndian periodperiod and ends withwiih thefre start of pottery at about AA.D. D. 100l0O (Aten(Aten 1983:297).1983:297), AnA1.arb{ra1V arbitrary divisiondivision ofof the the Early, Early, Middle Middle and and Late late Archaic Archaic subperiods subperiods hashas beenbeen made.made. TheThe EarlyEarly CeramicCeramic period begins with thethe startstart ofof potterypottery andand endsends withwith thethe approximate approximate startstart of bifacialbifacial arrowarrow pointpoini types (Aten 1983:306).1983:306). TheThe Latelate PrehistoricPrehistoric period follows untiluntil thethe timetime ofof EuropeanEuropean contact at aboutabout A.D.A.D. I1500. 500. The Proto-Historic periodperiod of of A.D.A.D. 1500-1500-1700 1700 isis aa period period without without much much European European contact. contact. MajorMajor EuropeanEuropean contactcontact inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas startedstarted about A.D. 1700,1700, andand thethe Historic Historic IndianIndian periodperiod thenthen lastedlasted somewhatsomewhat over 100100 years.years.

AA chronological chronological sequencesequence providesprovides aa basic basic framework framework forfor otherother typestypes ofof archeological archeological studies.studies. TheThe exactexact timetime intervalsintervals chosen for each periodperiod should not be usedused inin aa rigid rigid

9 manner.manner. Time Time ranges ranges for for specific specific artifactartifact types types do do not_necessarilynot necessarily fitfit into-singleinto single arbitraryarbitrary chronologicalchronological perilods, periods, espicially especially because because of of slowslow technological changechange byby conservative hunter-gihereis.hunter-gatherers. In In many many typei -thantypes of of studies,studies, relativ-erelative chronologicalchronological sequencessequences forfor artifact tvoestypes a-reare moremore importantimportant than absolute chronologies. Another considerationconsideration is is thatdrat cbhpletecomplete timetime rangisranges forfor artifactartifact types, types, such such as as projectileprojectile points points are are not not alwaysalways well-well- determineddetermined (Panerson (Patterson I 1989c).989c).

HISTORICHISTORIC INDIANINDIAN SITESSITES ItIt isis often notnot possiblepossible toto distinguishdistinguish betweenbetween LateLate PrehistoricPrehistoric and Historic lndianIndian sites,sites, becausebecause no historic artifactartifact typesiretypes are presentpresent at at some some Historic_Indian Historic Indian site_s..For sites. For example, example, sitesite 4tWHl941WH19 (Patterson etet al.al. 1987)1i87) has ia protohistoric radiocarbonradiocarbon date date of of A.D. A.D. 1585,1585, but nono hisrorichistoric airifactartifact types types areare preient.present. AtAt site 41WH84lWH8_ (Hudgins(Hudgins 1984),198^4), historic historic artifacts artifacts includedincluded glassglass scripers,ascrapers,a SpinishSpanish coin, coin, andand aa projectileprojectile pointpoint mademade fromfrom an.iron.an iron keyhole'keyhole' plate. JudiedJudged bvby rhLthe higelarge iuantityquantity ofof RockportRockport pbttery,pottery, this this sitesite maymay bebe a historic inland karankawiKarankawa site, site, similarlosimilar to iirlandinland i(arankawiKarankawa sites sites noted noted by by Gatslhet Gatschet ( (1891).1891). LoopLoop hand_leshandles on potteryDonerv indicateindicate the HistoricHistoric IndianIndian period in SoutheastSoutheast Texas. PerttulaPerttula (!99J:2!)(1992:24) illrdtr"t"rihutillustrates that thethe historichistoric Alabama/CoushittaAlabama/Coushatta IndiansIndians used used potterypottery with with looploop handleshandles inin the northemnorthern partpart of of SoutheastSoutheast Texas.Texas. LoopLoop handleshandles fromfrom potspots werewere foundfound at Historic Indian site 4lWH841WH8 (Hudgins 1984:Figure1984:Figure 16).l6). Looptoop handleshandles at site 41CH1614lC.Hl6l (Kindall(finallt andand PattersonPa.tterson 1993) on thethe coastalioastal marginmarAJn maymay'repreient represent the Historic Indian period. Glass beads have been ioundfound at a few Indianlndiaisites sites inii both the coastal margin and inland subregions,subregions, including 41PK694lPK69 (Ensor and CarlsonCarlson 1988),41CH201988), 41CH20 (Ambler(Ambler 1970:29),4lClr-5-31970:29), 41Ch53 (AmbJel)e.!l:l9),(Ambler 1970:29), 41CH1034lCHl0i (Ambler 1970:29),197O.29\,4lCHl6l 41CH161 (Kindall(Kindall and PattersonPatlerson 1993)'1993), 4lGV6641GV66 (Ricklis(tu3klis 1993),1993). 41CH11041cH I l0 (Aten(Aren 1983:268),1983:268). andand 41LB44 I LB4 (Aten(Aten 1983:268).1983:268). The The largest largest amountamount ofof datadata on glassefass beadsbeads isis'from from thethe GalvestonGalv6ston BayBay Area. Area. GunflintsGunflints andand earlyearly AngloAnglo potsherdspotsherds areare also occasionally foundfound onon HistoricHistoric IndianIndian sites.

RicklisNcklis (1993,1994)(1993,1994) hashas foundfound historichistoric IndianIndian burialburial groups atat sitesite 4lcv6641GV66 onon GalvestonGalveston Island, identified by European trade goods,goods, including glassglass beads, a.a brassbrass.bell, bell, ironiron tool Island, identified by European trade including -tool fragments,fragmens, andand flat-glass.flat glass. blassGlass tradetradJbead bead types are aisignableassignable to the earlyearly toto mid-18thmid-l8th century.century.

Carecare must be taken in analysis when a site hashas hadhad occupations by _Indians.Indians andand-early.Anglo early Anglo settlers,settlers, such as sitesite 41WH404lwH4o (Patterson(Patterson andand HudginsHudgins 1989).1989)- InIn thisthis situation,situation, historichistoric typetype- artifactsartifacts maymav notnot representreDresent useuse bybY-of Indians.Indians. AsAs anotheranoiher consideration,consideration, inin thethe northernnorthern partpart of SoutheastSorrhest 'T.*"s, Texas, 'a a varietyvariety of Euro-AmericanEuro-American trade trade goods goods can can bebe foundfound atat Alabama/CoushattaAlabama/Coushatta historic Indian sites (Perttula 1992:23). Tunnel!Tunnell and-S;;'Adiin' AmblerAmbler (1967)(1967) havehave published published anan archeologicalarcheological investigationinvestiPation atat thethe Spanish Spanish Presidiop;;;l;i; San Agustin dede Ahumada{trumaal in thethe GalvestonGalvestor BayBiy area,area, withwjtf,. evidenceevidence ofof Indian Indian contacts.contacts. FullenFullen1l978) (1978) hashas describeddescribed the0re ElEl OrcoquisacOrcoquisa_c-.Archeological Archeological DistrictDistrict as follows:lbllows: Siteail;7rcfitii;;iraesior.pt 41CH57 includes Joseph Blancpain'sBtancpain'stradingpbst,VillagedeA-takapas(1754),thefirst trading post, Village de Atakapas (1754), the first locationi"iiti.i, of thetti Spanishipuni.t PresidioPresidio SanSan AgustinAgustin dede-4-tyff-af Ahumada (1756-1766),\!759:tl:9: andand thethe first first locationiilii; ofof"i Missionrvlirslcin NuestraNuestra SenoraSenora dedelGLuz La Luz (1756-1759). SiteSjte 41CH544tCHJ4 isis the the secondsecond locationiilii; ofof MissionMission dede La ta Luz Luz (1759-1771), (1759-1771), andarid site site 41CH22 4lcl122 is is the the Orcoquiza Orcoquizq Indian lndian Rancheriaitiriliiii.-.ir*iaied associated withwith thithe m'ission.mission. Site'4lCH53Site 410-153 isis thethe second second location location ofof Presidio kesidio Ahumada.Ah;;il. ManyM;;t;rh;, other historichistorii Indian,tndian, Spanish,Spanish, and FrenchFrench sitessites mentionedmentioned inin thethe historichistoric record;;;; forf* thisthi5i,geion region havenuu" notnotyet yet beenbeen located,l6cated, inin spitespite ofof somesome intensiveintensive searchsearch effortsefforts byby various,"rio* members,.rUrrc"of of thethe HoustonHoust6n ArcheologicalArcheologicai Society.Soiiety. AlthoughAlthough thethe presencepresence ofof Indians Indians ini;'ihi;;;;i;;-in this region in the rire Historic Hisroric Indian Indian period perilod is is well-attested well-ittested in in the tlre historic historic record, record, the the ( Aten archeology,i"fr.ofoni ofoi the tfre Historic Historic Indianlndian periodperiod is not well-developed. Newcomb.Newcomb (1961)1961) and and Aten (1983)ti;i3;;?y may be il."ririiia consulted forf"r more ,,orl details aerails on on historic historic Indians Indi'ans inin this this region. region. TheThe diarydiary ofof

1010 CabezaCabeza dede VacaVaca (Covey(Covey 1961, HedrickHedrick and RileyRiley 1974)1974) providesprovides thethe mainmain ethnographicethnographic descriptiondescription ofof thethe lifestylelifestyle oflndiansof Indians in this region.region.

KarankawaKarankawa Indians Indians of of the the Coco Coco tribetribe are are thought thought to to have have occupied occupied the the coashl coastal marginmargin ofof rhisthis reeionregion asas far west asas thefre westernwestern halfhalf ofof Galveston Galveston IslandIsland andand thethe corresponding corresponding mainlaidmainland area area (Aten (Aten 1983:Figure1983:Figure 3.1).3.1). JudgedJudged byby thethe scarcityscarcity ofof Rockport potterypottery atat sitessites easteast ofof the Brazos River, theOre presence of KarankawaKarankawa Indians asas farfar easteast asas GalvestonGalveston Island mavmay be a rather latelate movementmovement ofof this ethnic group in the I2teLate Prehistoric period.period. GilmoreGilmore (1974:59) states that asphalt coated ponerypottery of_theof the RockportRo9lport type startedsta_rted during the OIdOld (ti74t'g\ srares rhat asphalt lype ^during.Ote iurerRiver p"iiod,period, afterafter A.D.A.D. 1350 (Aten(Alen 1983:Table1983:Table 14.2), at sitesite 41CH1104lCHl l0 inin Chambers Chambers County on the Southeast Texas coastal Margin.

With aa few exceptions, historic Indian sitessites inin Southeast TexasTexas areare notnot wellwell connectedconnected with the ethnographicethnographi'c record record (Story (Story 1990:258). 1990:258). It It is is eveneven more difficultdifficult toto relaterelate thethe ' erhnograph"icethnographic record record to to prihist6ricprehistoric Indians Indians groups groups !1-1h1s in this region,region, becausebecause ofof historichistoric ,ou"il.irtrmovements and restructuiingrestructuring of of social social groups.groups. AtenAten (1983:figure,3.1)(1983:figure 3.1) shows__r_econstructedshows reconstructed territories of native groups i-nin the earlyearlylighreenth eighteenth century, including Coco (Karankawa?),(Karankawa?), terrilories of -These i;;k;;-Tonkawa, Bidai,Siaii. Akokisa,Ak"otirh. andand Atakapa.Atakapa. These reconstructedreconstructed territories cannotcannot bebe used, il;rd'*irhhowever, with anyiriy certaintyceruinty for the studysruiy of groupgroup territoriesterritories_in in prehistoricprehistoric timetime periods.periods. As an example, the 'presence'presence of the Tonkawa in Southeast Texaspqy may be due to aa rapidrapid un .iu--pf ., the of the Tonliawa- in -Texas ^!e- !.ue expansionexpansioir fromfiom CentralClntral TexasTexas inin thethe seventeenthseventeenth centurycentury (Newcomb (Newcomb 1993:27)'1993:27).

EurooeanEuropean settlementsettlement of of Southeast TexasTexas diddid notnot seriously disrupt thethe lifewaylifeway of IndiansIndians untiluni;i'"ii"r after n.bA.D 1700.f ZOO. TheThe firstfirst halfhalf ofof thethe eighteentheighteenth centurycentury was thet}e period in which the fur trade and mission system, as well as thethc firstfirst effectseffects ofof epidemic epidemic diseases,disea^ses, began toto rride ana mission system, as well ^been seriously**iouiiu6it-oiand'stresi disrupt and stress thethe nativenative culturalcultural and and social social systems systems (Aten (Aten 1983:322).1983:322). By the timeiime thatttrat heavyheavv settlementsenlement of TexasTexas beganbegan inin thethe earlyearly 1800's,1800's, thethe Indianlndian populationpopulation was already,treadv greatlye.earli diminished.diminished. The Alabama-CoushattaAlabama-coushatta IndiansIndians in in Southeast Texas areare migrants,1nierii15i airpiuceddisplaced from the east,east, withoutwithout relationsrelations toto indigenous indigenous prehistoric prehistoric groupsgroups (Newcomb(Newcomb 1961:25).l96l:25).

CharacteristicsCharacterisrics of of skeletalskeletal remainsremains ofof site 41GV664lGV66 onon GalvestonGalveston IslandIsland indicateindicate thatthat thethe remnants,.rrin6 oiof someior" HistoricHistoric Indianlndian groups may havehave consolidatedconsolidated after the impactimpact of European diseasesdiseases (Ricklis(Ricklis 1994:501).I 994:501).

InIn summary,summarv. Indian sitessites fromfrom A.D.A.D. 15001500 to 18001800 areare difficultdifficult toto distinguish distinguish fromfrom Latel:te Prehistoricpi"t i*ioiii'St"s, sites, unlessunless radiocarbonradiocarbon dates or EuropeanEuropean trade goodsgoods werewere, obtained.obtained. AfterAfter A.D.A.D. 1700,1700, historic historic IndianIndian sitessites areare scarce because ofofa a low populationpopulation level.

RADIOCARBONRADIOCARBON DATESDATES

RadiocarbonRadiocarbon dates for the inlandinland portionportion of SoutheastSoutheast Texas areare summarizedsummarized in Table 2,2, andand radiocarbonradiocarbon dates for thethe coastal marginmargin areare summarized inin TableTable 3.3. TheThe largerlarger numbernumber ofof radiocarbonradiocarbon dates for thethe coastalcoastal marginmargin subregionsubregion reflects thethe availabilityavailability ofof RangiaRangia shellshelt forfor dating. dating. The The smaller smaller number number ofof radiocarbon radiocarbon dates for thethe inlandinland subregionsubregion isis aa resultresult ofof lessless datable datable materialsmaterials beingbeing found.found. AtAt inlandinland sites,sites, charcoalcharcoal samplessamples largelarge enoughenough forfor conventionalconventional radiocarbonradiocarbon dating methods are notnot common.common. FreshwaterFreshwater musselmussel shellshell samplessamples suitablesuitable forfor radiocarbonradiocarbon datingdating areare available atat aa limitedlimited numbernumber of inlandinland sites.sites.

AllAll radiocarbonradiocarbon dates in TableTable 2 areare yearsyears B.P.,8.P., withwith aa standardstandard zero years B.P. of A.D.A.D. 1950.1950. SeveralSeveral calibrations calibrations havehave beenbeen published published toto refine refine radiocarbon radiocarbon datesdates toto absolute absolute dates,dates, basedbased onon treetree ringring growthgrowth dates,dates, suchsuch asas givengiven byby Stuiver Stuiver andand KraKra (1986).(1986). Calibrated Calibrated

1111 radiocarbonradiocarbon dalesdates havehave notnot beenbeen usedused here,here, however,however, becausebecause useuse ofof calibratedcalibrated datesdates isis notnot consistentconsistent throughoutthroughout ttrethe literature.literature.

ManvMany moremore radiocarbonradiocarbon dates dates fromfrom stratifiedstratified inlandinland sites sites will will bebe requiredrequired toto definedefine thethe com6letecomplete timetime rangesranges forfor each artifact type, especially projectile points.points. ThereThere areare some radi6carbonradiocarbon datesdates fJomfrom inlandinland sitessites forfor eacheach broadbroad timetime period, however.however. TheseThese datesdates tendtend toto support the placement ofof manymany arti&ctartifact typestypes intointo thethe timetime p€riodsperiods usedused here.here. AvailableAvailable radiotirbonradiocarbon daiesdates alsoalso supportsupport th6the findingfinding thatthat therethere areare manymany sitessites inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas withwith lonqlong occupationoccupation sequences.sequences. AllAll ofof thethe radiocarbon datesdates givengiven herehere have been integrated into-theinto the interpreUti6ninterpretation ofof individual sites.sites. Some ofof these dates willwill be discussed funherfurther in relationrelation to chronologieschronologies ofvariousof various artifactartifact types.types.

PROJECTILE POINT CHRONOLOGIES

GENERAL COMMENTS

Chronologies ofof projectile poinspoints in Southeast Texas areare summarized inin TableTable 4.4. It should be realize-drealized that pioj6ctileprojectile point chronologies areare continuously refined,refined, asas nervnew datqdata become available. ttIt wouldwoirld be idealideal toto havehave sufficientsufffcient radiocarbonradiocarbon dates to establishestablish a definitivedefinitive time range for each projectile point type, but this is generally not possible. Instead, the time projeciile point generally with varying^ degrees- of range forfo-r eacheach projectile point typetype isis generally estimated,-estimrted, with varying degrees of accuracy,acciracy, by use ofof somesome radiocarboniadiocaibon dates,dates, data fromfrom excavations,excavations, data from surfacesurface collections, indand published chronologies from adjacent regions. projectile point chronologies. There are genericgeneric problems'chronologiesproblems inin establishingestablishing estimatesestimates forfor projectile point chronologies. These include:inclulde: ((1) I ) chronologies fromfrom adjatentadjacent regionsregions dodo not always apply, (2)(2)-.some some investigators attiniptattempt to forcelndividualforce individual types into artificially narrow time ranges, (3) data on chronologicalchro"nological sequencessiquences from single stratifiedsiritified sites are seidomseldom conclusive on total time ranges of pointpoi-nt typestyped in a region, andl4)and (4) many investigators fail to consider the entire body of datad-ata forfoi a region. Also, ititls is not unusual for investigatorsinvestigato-rs to disagree onon_the the classification of projectileprojectile pointpolnt types. Chronologies previously given for arrow pointspoinls (Patterson 1991c)l99lc) andand dartOirt pointspoins (Patterson(pait|rson 1991b)l99lb) inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas are usedused here with some refinements,refinements, based onon'new new data.dia. Suhm and JelksJeiks (1962) and TurnerTurner andand HesterHester (1985,1993)(1985,1993) havehave givengiven detaileddetailed descriptionsdescriptions ofof mostmost typestypes of projectileprojectile pointspoints foundfound inin Texas.Texas.

UnlessUnless designateddesigrrated as arrow points,points, projectileprojectile pointpoint typestypes discusseddiscussed here are spearspear points.poinS. SpearSpear pointspointiare are calledcalled dartdart pointspbinS whenwhenthe the spearspear isis usedused withwith_ the spearthrower (atlatl). ItIt isis was widely used, althouel remains. of presumedpiesumed that thethe spearthrower spearihro*er was -widely used, although remains of wooden.wooden spearthrowersipearthrOwers areare notnot preserved.preserved. A spearthrowerspearthrowei acts as an extension to thethe throwingttrrowing arm,arm, with*ith au largel.rgr mechanicalmechanical advantageadvantage resultingiesulting in greatergreater energyenergy delivered by the spearspear atat impact.impact.

Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian andand Early Archaic sites are relativelyrelatively less numerousnumerous than sites inin laterlater perhistoricperhistoric timetime periods,periods-, becausebecause ofof lowlow populationpopulation levelslevels inin earlyearly timetime periods.periods. ManyMany sitessites ' withwith substantialsubsUntial numbersnumbers of Paleo-IndianPaleo-lndian and EarlyEarly ArchaicArchaic projectileprojectile points areare nownow known,known- however,however. in the contextcontext of specificspecific sitessites ratherradier thanthan asas isolatedisolated finds.finds. OneOne ofof thethe bestL.rt.i'.nrpt.i examples foundiolra soro farf"r isis sitesite 41HR3434lHR343 inin HarrisFlarris CountyCounty (Patterson(Patterson etet al.al. 1992a),1992a), withwith 106I 06 Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian points.points.

12t2 EARLYEARLY PALEO-INDlAN PALEO-INDIAN PROJECTILE PROJECTILE POINTS POINTS ( 12,00G (12,000-10,000 10,000 B.P.) B.P.)

AlrhoushAlthough therethere areare no no aDplicableapplicable radiocarbonradiocarbon dates dates for for fie the Clovis Clovis point point in in Sou0reastSoutheast Texas,Texas, iii.it is o."irmedpresumed thatthat this this ii'the is the earliest earliest projectile projectile point point type type found found in in this this region.region. FlaynesHaynes etet alal. irss'(1984) t ,naand WillieWillig (1991)(1991) placeplace the Clovis point in a time range ofof about 12,000-l1,00012,000-11,000 ii.P.B.P. iiin rh"the *"rt.riwestern i,l.S.,6xtendingU.S., extending toto asas lalelate asas 10,50010,500 B.P.B.P. atat somesome sitessites in trethe easterneastern U.S.U.S. ftriThe CiorirClovis cuttureculture is is noinot yetyet well--definedwell-defined inin thisthis region, region, especially especially sincesince mostmost ClovisClovis point *!"i.inrspecimens ur"are rrrfacesurface finis.finds. InIn olher other words, words, the the initial initial occupation occupation of of this this region region is is not not wellwell- u'nderstood.understood. The The presence presence of of ClovisClovis points simply indicatesindicates that Southeast TexasTexas was occupied about .s'earlyas early asas other partsparts irf of NorthNorth Aherica,America, with with few few detailsdetails yetyet availableavailable on """r"l"J"U"rttfr"the i,Iiti"tl.*iinitial local ,daoUr'ionadaptation ofof thethe itrstfirst inhabitanu.inhabitants. No No Clovis Clovis pointspoints havehave yetyet beenbeen foundfound in !.riii*iiSoutheast f"*rTexas inin ia stratifiedstratified excavated excavated sequence, sequence, except except for for 4lHR5 41HR5 (Wheat (Wheat 1953),1953), wherewhere the Clovis specimen is not in the expected position in the sequence'sequence.

There areare somesome sitessites in Sout}eastSoutheast TexasTexas wherewhere clovisClovis seemsseems toto be part ofof Ia muchTug!_lgn_g91 longer occupationiio" i"orence. sequence. TheseThese siressites includeinclude 4lHR34341HR343 (Patterson et et al.al. 1992a),1992a), 41HR7314lHR73l (Pattersonip;,[;r*'"i"".rn et ;l-al. 1992b),isgzul, 41HR571qtrm.szt (Patterson(Patlerson 1986), and perhaps 4lHR5.(Doering41HR5 (Doering site, \i/i;i-l%ii.Wheat 1953). SingleSinele ClovisCt'ovis pointspoints inin HarrisHanis CountyCounty have also beenbeen reportedreported by SuhmSuhm and p.oinls_Iave tound on JelksJelks (1962:i771(1962:177) inaand ningRing ((1994). i994). A largelarge number ofof C_lovisClovis points have been found on .aa longiong shorelineihoreline itat McFaddinMcFadlin Beach near Beaumont.Beaumont' tnngLong (l)]T,(1977) reportedreported. 14 Clovisclovrs specimens,io"Eir.nt. and aa recent meetingmeeting withwith collectorscollectors revealedrevealed overover 6060 Clovis pointsooints from this i5;i.;location 1g;;kr-tS9i.(Banks 1992, Hester itet al.al. 1992).1992). HuebnerHuebner (1988) hashas reportedreported a ClovisClovis.point point foundi;;";;ifigffi"h on the beach ofoi'sotiuur Bolivar PenninsulaPenninsula ini; Galvestoncalveston County.County. This appearsappears_to to be a similarpimilar situation.it rtion to the Clovis pointspoins foundfound atat McFaddinMcFaddin BeachBeach fartherfarther east.east. Itl! wouldwould appeara.ppear thatthal inrn theIf," SoutheastS"rrt *it W"odlands,Woodlands, the Clovis cultureculture forms part ofof the overall occupation sequence at;i-r-.;;;i6. many sites, ratherrarher rhanthan being a more isolated manifestationmanifestation found at western sites. ForFor example,;;;l'.. ClovisCi;ii;ooi"rs points inin Alabamaet.Uira are usually surface collected from sites having multiple components;ffi;;;iE;Jor (Ensor 1992:3).rssi::). There is still aa debated;bate on whetherwhether thethe ClovisClovis pointpoint-origillted originated inil theih;S;;rd;iern Southeastern United'statesUnited States oror inin the western United States (Bonnichs"!(Bonnichsen 1991:325).!:9_l !?5) Earlyilil';J;;;6;; radiocarbon a.i"' dates or of :r:66012660 +^s7oB.P. +/-970 B.P. (!x-6eee)(TX-6999) and I11950 le50 +/:l+1-110 l0 B'P'B.P. (rx-74.s4)(TX-7454) at aa'Cloris Clovis sitesite inin TennesseeTennessee suggestsuggest that that thethe Clovisblovis point point originatedoriginated- inin thethe easterneastern UnitedUnited StatesStates (Wisner 1993).1993). ThereThere isis alsoalso aa bodybody ofof evidenceevidence thatthat supportssupports thelhe concept that UlovlsClovis was*ui notnoi theO. firstn"t stone projectile point tyietype in the-the NewNew World (Bonnichsen(Bonnichsen 1991).l99l)..Because Because of;iih;;;ilphic the geographic positionpositiori ofof Southeast Sourheasi'Texas, Texas, futurefuture researchresearch may.may showshow thatthat thisthis regionregion hast as au mixturem"i*tire'of of thethl westernwestern andand easterneastern adaptationadaptation patterns of Clovis groups.groups. MeltzerMeltzer andand BeverBiver (1995)(1995) havehave presentedpresented aa surveysurvey ofof thethe distributiondistribution of Clovis pointspoints inin Texas.Texas.

AfterAfter thethe ClovisClovis period,period, occupationoccupation of SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexa^s becomes more visible inin thethe timetime intervalinterval of 11,000-10,000I l,O0O-lO,OOO B.P.,B.P., with wifi thelhe occurrence occurrence ofof several several projectileProjectile pointpoint types.types. TheThe PlainsPliins traditiontradition is representedrepresented- inin this region by FolsomFolsom andand MidlandMidland points.poinF-. FolsomFolsom isis generallysenerally dated toto 11,000-10,000li,ooo-lo,Ooo B.P. (Largent(Grgenf etet al.al. 1991, llaynesHaynes et al. 1984).1984). BothBoth ofof theseihese pointpoint typestypes areare rarerare inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas,Texas; andand areare bestbest regardedregarded asas outliersoutliers fromfrom CentralCentral Texas.Texas. TheThe rarityraiity of FolsomFolsom andand MidlandMidland pointspoins in SoutheastSoutheast Texas maymay bebe duedue toto limitedlimited availabilityavailability ofof bisonbison inin thisthis regionregion duringduring thisthis timetime period.period. TheThe lacklack ofof bisonbison inin Southeast Southeast TexasTexas inin thethe latelate Pleistocene-earlyPleistocene-early Holocene given byby MunsonMunson (1990:Figure(1990:Figure 3) fitsfits wellwell withwith thethe scarcityscarcity ofofFolsom Folsom pointspoins inin thisthis region discussed by Story (1990:189).

SingleSingle FolsomFolsom pointspoints havehave beenbeen foundfound atat sitessites 41WH194lWHl9 (Patterson(Patterson eter al. 1987),1987), 41HR624 4lHR624 (Patterson,(Patterson, MarriottN,Iarriott and Marriott 1990),1990), 4lHR34341HR343 (Patterson(Patterson et atal 1993a)1993a) andand McFaddin McFaddin BeachBeach (Banks(Banks 1992).1992). TheThe presencepresence ofof Midland Midland pointspoints inin Southeast Southeast TexasTexas isis a a recent recent discovery.discovery. ThreeThree MidlandMidland pointspoinb werewere foundfound atat sitesite 41HR571 4lHR57l (Patterson(Patterson 1986:Figure1986:Figure 2),2), butbut werewere classifiedclassified asas Plainview-like Plainview-like since since no no Midland Midland points points had had been been previously previously reported reported

1313 inin this region. Midland point specimens atat sitess.ites 411-IR34341HR3.43 (Patterson (Patterson et et al. al. 1993a)1993a) andand I4111R732 trn zrz"lratterron (Patterson et et ai. al. 19935) 1993b) now now leave leave linle little doubt doubt that that \fid.laqd Midland pgints points are are present present inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas Texas as as aa rarerare type.type. ThereThere isis a a possible possible technological technological relationshipr-elation-ship..between between foirornFolsom undand MidlandMidland pointspoints (Amick(Amick etet al.-1989).al. 1989). MidlandMidland pointspoints are are often often calledcalled "unfluted"unfluted Foiiorn,.Folsom". Clovis,Clovis, FolsbmFolsom andand MidlandMidland pointspoints foundfound inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas Texas are are generally.madegenerally made oiof gd*arasEdwards PtateauPlateau flint.flint. ThisThis impliesimplies wide-rangingwide-ranging settlementsettlement pattemspatterns for for thesethese cultures.cultures. AllAll Folro1nFolsom andand MidlandMidland pointpoint spdcimensspecimens foundfound inin thisthis regionregion areare fromfrom surfacesurface collectionscollections aisoecificat specific sites.sites, exceptexcept foifor aa FoliomFolsom pointpoint fromfrom thethe samesame excavationexcavation levellevel as as a a FrrlyEarly Side-Side- Nottt,"ANotched pointpoint itat sire'4lWH19site 41WH19 (Patterson(Patterson etet al.al. 1987). ThereThere isis anan associated radiocarbon date of 9920gi2o +l-530+1-530 B.P.B.P. (AA-298) (AA-298) forfor thisthis excavationexcavation level.level.

Several otherother proiectileprojectile pointpoint typestypes werewere alsoalso presentpresent inin Southeast TexasTexas dulingduring lhethe samesame ti-"time oirioaperiod as'Fo'lsom.as Folsom, i'ncludineincluding Dalton,Dalton, BigBig Sandy, SanSan PatricePatrice andand EarlyEarly Side-Notched. Aii;fAll of rh;these point typeitypes continuelntocontinue into thethe earlyearly portion.ofportion of thethe lateLate Paleo-lndianPaleo-Indian timetime period.period. Dalton andand bigBig SiriaySandy points areare not common hin this region, and__probablyand probably arqare outliers. OaltonDalton ooinspoints a-reare comhbnlycommonly foundfound toto thethe northnorth ofof Southeast TexasTexas (Story(Story 1990:Figure 27), and hav'ehave been dated to asas early asas 10,500 B.P.B.P. (Goodyear(Goodyear 1982). BigBig SandySandy poinspoints areare moremore common in areas to the north indand east of tlisthis region. The Big Sandy point hashas beenbeen dateddated as earlvearly as 10,500lO.5OO B.P. (8500 B.C.) in northernnorthern Alabama (Boyd 1992). Dalton points have beeibeen found'infound in SoutheastSourheast Texas itat McFaddin Beach (Long 1977), andand at sites 41HR3434lHR343 (PattersoniFin.rron et al.al. 1993a)1993a) andand 411-1R7314lHR73l (Patterson (Patterson et et al. al. 1993b).1993b). Dalton Dalton poinspoints foundfound atat site itfnfef41HR343 in Harris County cover the iangerange of DaltonDalton subtypes illustrated tyby MorseMorse_ and Morse (1983:Figure(1983:Fi gure 4.2) fbrfor therhe CentralCentral MississippiMississippi Vall-ey..BigValley. Big SandySan-d y- points have been found iniir thistlis regionrelgion atat sitessites 41HR194 I fil.19 (Patterson(Patterson et al.aL 1987),1987), 41HR3434.1 FIR343 (Panerson(Patterson etet al. 1993a)tb93a) and 4111R3544ll*354 (Paflerson (Patterson et et al. al. 1993b).1993b). No No DaltonDalton pointspoints havehave been found inin excavatedexcavited context in Southeast Texas. Morse andand Morse (1983:71) place the Dalton point inin a timetime range of 85008500 to 7500 B.C.B.C. Big Sandy pointspoinS in the Southeast Woodlands start as early as 10,500tO,S[O B.P.B.p. (8500 B.C.) but continuecoitinue until about 8000 B.P. (6000 B.C.) according to Justice (1987:61).( 1987:61).

San PatricePatrice andand EarlyEarly Side-NotchedSide-Notched point type_qtypes are bothboth commoncommon inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas (Pattersonii"ttoio" 1989a).1989a). StoryStirry (1990:202)(1990:202) provisionallyirovisionally-dates dates thethe SanSan-Patrice.point_between Patrice point between 10,300iO.IOO and 9,3009.300'B.p. B.P. AsAi noted above,abovi,'there there isis aa radiocarbonradiocarbon datedate ofof 99209920 +1-530+/-530 B.P. for a Early Side-Notched point at sitesite 41WH194 I WHl g (Patterson(Patterson et al.al. 1987,1987, PattersonPatlerson andand HudginsHudgins f"itv SiA"-f(ot.hed 'point 1985),tiS51, butUut this same point type has been found in earlier context at a site in Bee County at anin excavationeiiarition levellevel belowbblow FolsomFdbom (Sellards(Sellards 1940).1940). ThereThere remainsremains a question as toto whetherwhether oroi notnot thethe EarlyEarlv Side-NotchedSide-Notched pointpoini overlapsoverlaps the timetime periodperiod of thettre ClovisClovis pointpoint (Patterson(Patterson 1989d).ibi'Sil. SanS; Patriceiirice and EarlyEarly'Side-Notch'ed Side-Notched points found in SoutheastSoutheast Texas are usuallyusually made,.0.-6f of localio""i lithictirt iC materials,materials, as would be expected for pointpoint typestypes commoncommon to thisthis region.region. BothboO ofof these these point point types types represent iepresent technological technological traditionstraditions of thethe Greater Greater Southeast Soufteast 'iee (Webb et al. WoodlandsW*af""a. (iri.rson(Patterson 1991a),t andand fiesethese point types often occur -togeth-ertogether (Webb et al. 1971).ibiii. Earlyf"ii"'Slae-Norched Side-Notched pointspo'ints";, illustratedillusrated bybV WebbWibb et al. (1971:Figure 6)6) areare sometimessometimes classifiedclassified asai KeithvilleKeitt rille (Turner(Turirer andand HesterHester 1993:134),1993: 1 34), butbut this classificationclassification doesdoes notnot covercover theli;ilii;"ft;;iraiiy'sioe-Not"hed full range of Early Side-Notched pointpoint varieties.varietiei. In-!, fact,rlg,.9. the Keithvillex:iql'.I1". classificationclassification onlyonlv appliesaoolies-to to variety,ariety BB side-notchedside-notched pointsioints illustratedillustraled byby WebbWebb etet al.al. (1971),(1971)' andand doesdoes notnot even apply to all Early Side-NotchedSiO"-Notched pointpbint typestypes atat thisthis singlesingle sitesite inin Louisiana.l,ouisiana. SanSan PatricePatrice andana"r"ii'[lriJ-.ti-E2il', Earlyfariv Side-NotchedSide-Notch;d pointspoints areare clearlyclearly establishedestablished inin thethe earliestearliest partpart ofot thethe occupationoccupatron thls regron sequenceseouenc6 ofof SoutheastSoutheast Texas,Texas, andand representrepresent thethe mainmain occupationoccupation componentcomponent ofol this region duringil'ffi;ihr:;;iir" the same time periodpaoJl, as Folsom.Fols6m. In[n Centralcentral Texas,Texas,'Early Early Side-NotchedSide-Notched pointspoints havehave been;;;;?;;d found atat the the Wilson-Leonard wilson-teonuia sitei;i. (Weir(weir 1985)1985) andanil HornHorn ShelterShelter No.No- 22.(Forrester (Forrester 1985,iSii. RedderR.JJ"i'f9e5), 1985), inin bothborh casesiases earlierearlier thanthan PlainviewPlainview pointspoints inin thethe Paleo-IndianP.ale-o-Indian period.p-eriod' Thisifir-'.i;;;; situation was*", also'i[" foundioura atit sitesite 41WH19 41wHl9 (Patterson(patterson etet al.al. 1987) 1987) in in. Southeast Southeast Texas, Texas, whereil;;;;i several EarlyE";iV Side-NotchedSia"-Noi"n"Apoints points werewere earliereirlier thanthan aa PlainviewPlainview pointpoint specimen.specimen.

1414 TheThe AlbanyAlbany side-notchedside-notched haftedhafted scraperscraper (Turner (Turner and and Hester Hester 1993'.277) 1993:277) is is commonly commonly foundfound *irhwith S;;San iatricePatrice and and EarlyEarly Side-N6rchid Side-Notched point point types types (Webb,et (Webb et al.-197-l). al. 1971). The AlbanyAlbany- ."oo",scraper i. is iound found from from Sou0r-eastSoutheast Texas Texas toto thethe AtlanticAtlantic coast,coast, andand isis anolheranother demonstration demonstration of of SoritSoutheast *rt iexas Texas sharingsharing inin technologicaltechnological traditions ofof the Greater SoudreastSoutheast Woodlands. ff,iThe etUun"Albany (Edeefieldf(Edgefield) scraper hasihas a continuous geographic distribution fromfrom Southeast TexasTexas toto S6uGSouth Carolina (Patterson(Patterson l99ld).1991d).

LATELATE PALEO-INDlANPALEO-INDIAN PROJECTILE PROJECTILE POINTSPOINTS (1O,OOO-7,OOO(10,000-7,000 B.P.)B.P.)

TheThe endend of the Latekte Paleo-Indian periodperiod hashas beenbeen chosenchosen asas 70007000 B.P. toto matchmatch Prewitt'skewitt's iib8i)(1981) chronology forfor therhe endend ofof thethe latestlatest PlainsPlains traditiontradition Paleo-IndianPaleo-lndian poins,points, which are innoituraAngostura"ft*loev andand S-iotsbluff.Scottsbluff. The Plains Tradition isis represented inin Southeast Texas during tlri;ii,".this time periodperiod by Plainview,Plainview, Meserve,Meserve-, ScottsbluffScotsbluff and AngosturaAngosturir. point types.types ManyMany Meserve specimens, however, maymay bebe resharpenedresharpened PlainviewPlainview points. P|ain_viewPlainview pointspoinls have .' been fountfound in Southeast TexaiTexas in the Latel:te Paleo-Indian strata at at sites sites 4lWHl941WH19 (Patterson etet ,t.al. 1987)iS87i andand 411-R31541HR3l5 (Patterson(Patterson 1980a).l98Oa). Most ScottsbluffScotsbluff specimens in SoutheastSoulheast Texas are fronifrom surfacesurlace collections, and the collections areare generallygenerally multicomponent,multicomponent, such as L;ii;Location "A",lq.;; of of sitesite 4l41WH19 WH l0 (Patterson etet al.al. 1987). ScottsbluffSiotsbluil pointspoints.are_not are not commoncommon in Giithis r.nion.region. This pointooint typetvoe may representrepresent an influenceinfluence from farthirfarther northnorth where where ScotsbluffScottsbluff point is commonlv made. of exotic ;;i"64-;;;;npoints are common f (Storystiri-v t99o:Figure1990:Figure 29). 29). ThisThis point tvpetype is commonly made of exotic lithiciithic materials from-lhefrom the EdwardsEdwards Plateau Plateau (story (Story 1990:210),1990:210), whichwhich impliesimplies a-a wide-rangingwide-ranSrng settlement;"nil;i oatrernpattern similar similar to to Clovis Clovis andand Folsom.Folsom. AnAn excavatedexcavated exampleexample ofof a ScottsbluffScotSbluff (Wheat 38a). Paleo-Indian po-int ;;i;ipoint ;;;'iornawas found at sitesite 41HR5 411fi.5 (Wheat 1953:Plate1953:Plate 38a). Paleo-Indian point types^tvpes representing;;;;.;6gb;fi both ttrethe"t SouthernSorrf,ern PlainiPlains and Southeast Woodlands traditions are oflenoften found at the same sites.

Most AngosturaArgostura specimens from this regionregion,are are from multi-component surface collections.collections. point in the Theri stratigraphyitr.iigipt'i uiat iii" site a41FB42 r fgaz tPaners6n(Patterson 1993c) seems to placep-lace thethlAngostura Angostura point in the lateril;;il1[i'rt;" part of the LateLii Paleo-Indianialeo-tndiin period, consiitertconsistent with Central TexasTexas chronology. ThisThis sameirri'i|,io"oiogical chronological placement haihas beenbeen found for AngosturaAngostura pointspoints atat site 41FB2234lFB223 (Patterson(Patterson et al]tggai.al. 1994). MostMost Plainview,Plainview, Meserve,Meserve, andand AngosturaAngosnrra points foundfound inin SoutheastSoutheast Texasi-.;;;;;';;;;;f are made of localioiit cherts,ct erts, whichwhich impliesimplies aa moremore localizedlocalized settlementsetilement patterns patterns thanlhan thatthat ofofearlier earlier Paleo-IndiansPaleo-Indians ofof thethe PlainsPlains tradition.tradition.

TheThe SoutheastSoutheast WoodlandsWoodlands technologicaltechnological traditiontradition isis representedrepresented in SoutheastSoutheast Texas duringduring thethtL1" Late Paleo-IndianPileo-Indian period by Dalton,Dalton, BigBig Sandy, Sandy, Early Early Side-Notched, Sid-e-Mtched, Early Early-Corner- Corner- NotchedNotched andand Sansan PatricePatriie pointpoint iypes.types. AsAs notednoied above,above, exceptexcept for tor_Farly Early Corner-Notched, corner-No^tched, these pointpoint typestypes also occuroccur inin somesome portionportion ofof thethe EarlyEarly Paleo-IndianPaleo-lndian period.period- AllAll of thesethese these 'tvoes.-ixceDt pointooint types, except Dalton,Dalton, werewere foundfound inin Latehte Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian excavation levels at sitesite 41WH19AtWHiS (Patterson(Paners6n eter al. 1987).1987). EarlyEarly StemmedStemmed pointspoinB areare also foundfound inin thisthis timetime periodperiod thatthat seemseem' to to be be a anon-standardized non-standaidized' regional regional innovation. innovation. EarlyEarly StemmedStemmed pointspoints werewere identifiedidentified for thisthis timetime periodperiod atat sitessites 41WH19 4lWHl9 (Patterson (Patterson et al.al. 1987:Figure 1987:Figure 8)8)- and and 41HR3154lHR3l5 (Patterson(Patterson 1980a:Figure1980a:Figure 5).5). SimilarSimilar EarlyEarly StemmedStemmed pointpoint specimensspecimens havehave beenbeen illustratedillustrated by ShaferShafer (1977:Figure(197?:Figure 4). EarlyEarly StemmedStemmed pointspoints areare lessless commoncommon thanthan earlyearly- notchednotched points.points. EarlyEarly Side-NotchedSide-Notihed andand SanSan PatricePatrice pointspoints werewere foundfound inin thethe earliestearliest partpart of thethe LateI-ate'Paleo-lndian Paleo-Indian period at site 41WH194lWHl9 (Patterson(Patterson etet al. 1987:Table1987:Table 4). AtAt thisthis site,site, thethe EarlyEarly Side-NotchedSide-Notched pointpoint typetype apparentlyapparently evolvedevolved intointo thethe Early Early Corner-NotchedComer-Notched typetype duringduring thisthis timetime period.period. ThisThis isis consistent consistent withwith thethe change change fromfrom side-notched side-notched toto corner corner notchednotched pointspoints duringduring thisthis time time period period throughout throughout thethe Southeast Southeast Woodlands Woodlands (Fagan (Fagan 1991:310).l99l:310). AllAll Early Early andand Late l:te Paleo-Indian Paleo-Indian pointspoints commonlycommonly havehave ground ground basalbasal edges. edges. ExcavationsExcavations at sitesite 41PK69 4lPK69 support support thethe placement placement ofof Early Early Side-Notched Side-Notched and and Early Early Corner-NotchedCorner-Notched point point typ€stypes in thethe Late late Paleo-Indian Paleo-Indian period period (Ensor (Ensor and and Carlson Carlson

1515 1988:Tables1988:Tables 18,19). 18,19). It It should should be be noted noted that that classification classification of of a.specimen.as a specimen as side-notched side-notched or or ."-"r*"ittcorner-notched canbe be somewhat somewhat arbitrary, arbitrary, as as one one type type grades grades into into the the other' other. "a'*ri point AsAs orevioustypreviously noted noted (Patrerson(Patterson l99la:Table1991a:Table 2), 2), various various Early Early Notched Notched .proje.lile projectile point l;"""H;];ilspecimens "f;;dfound .iiii'. at site tiWHtS41WH19 inin WhartonWharton CountyCounty havehave morphologicalmorphological correlatescorrelates withwith ffi;ffi;;,point types found il'i[.in the br*reiGreater SoutheastSorOeust Woodlairds.Woodlands. SomeSome EarlySide-NotchedEarly Side-Notched pointpoint specimens from 41WI-119 areflt like J Greenbriar, Greenbriar, Hardln, Hardin, pig Big Sltt!.V,tnd Sandy, and }lardaway Hardaway Side-Side- Io"lirih, fron, 4lWHtg gardawav Notched point types of ,n;the"r" S.utheastSoutheast woodlandsWoodlands (Juitice(Justice le87).1987). rheThe Hardaway Side-Side- ii;';;;';;i;'t";;-;-f point 5oms Ff rly idi;iffiNotched ri"i',ii,vi,'"point type iiis rf,"the ,orptrot"gi*lmorphological correlatecorrelate of of the the San San Patric6 Patrice pointtype. type. Some Early ?t",-.i-r..i"Lfr",iCorner-Notched 'ooint point soecinieni specimens fTom from 4lWHl9 41WH19 are are likelike Decatur,Decatur, KirkKirk Corner-Notched, .ri'ittrn"iand Palmer p"lrtiypespoint types o?of ttrethe SoutheastSoutheast WoodlandsWoodlands (Justice(Justice 1987)'1987). site 4lHR343 (Patterson- al- AA fewfew EarlvEarly Stemmed I:nceolateLanceolate points points were were found found at at site 41HR343 (Patterson-etet al. isei"\1993a) il|i';;that can 6;';ilJilbe placed in 11'"the LieLate Paleo-Indianpareo-rndian periodperiod (rurner(Turner andand Hesrer.Hester (198s:88).(1985:88). Miscellaneous lanceolatelanceolate points points with with ground ground basal basal edges. edges are are generally.generally placedplaced rn.lilsin this tmetime Uiriiituniou, to ;;;e;period in Texas.T;"4. In SoutheastSorirheast Texas,Texai, miscellaneousmiscellaneous lanceolatglanceolate points points are are simrlarsimilar to [iii"rl#Plainview b;i;;but are r;;.1iles-,tsometimes wider ii"r ttthan an 3030 mm,mm, whichwhich isis greater-thangreater than the-maximum.the maximum widthwidth (1s62:plare 120). A variery of i.ii'ivpr.irfor typical pri"iril;;E;;;ilii.,o*.Plainview specimens shown uvby SuhmSuhm andand Jelk-sJelks (1962:Plate 120). A varietyjs of ,niri'.,[lun"orrmiscellaneous lanceolaie lanceolate poinG points f,.i has bien'shown been shown by by Shafer'(Shafer (1977:Figure1977:Figure 4)' 4). ThereThere is no ;;;-exact i;;-;;i-pt.*."nttemporal placement roin,,ir.Jiun.ousfor miscellaneous tanc6olare lanceolate poins.in points in this this region,region, andand thisrhis ;;;l;;'fitj;"lT;ii;tu;"remains a subject for future ;rearch.research. ManvMany specimens.inspecimens in thisthis point-tvpepoint type categorvcategory m12rmay be type is often us* as a ca.tch-all ituinuie*Plainview oror balronDalton typ"type ,urianG.variants. In Texai,.Texas, thethe Plainview type is often used'l-he as a catch-all ilassificationclassification for for sterilessstemless tanceolatelanceolate pointspoints other thanthan Angostura.Angostura. The PlainviewPlalnvrew ;i;;;iii;;ii;classification covers lanceolatetanceolat. poinGpoints Outthat aodo not have-muchhave much oror any contracqioncontraction of the basal edges, as doesdoes Angostura.Angostura. NbNo analyticalanalytical criteriacriteria havehave yet beenbeen developeddeveloped to_moreto more ;J;;; ;, justified. rigorouslyiil?i.irrfV subdivide,rtairia""tt,. the ratherrutt .i broadtnoujp'tuinview Plainview category, if this would really be justified.

EARLY ARCHAIC PROJECTILE POINTS (7000-5000(7000-5000 B.P.)B.P.)

TheThe EarlyEarly ArchaicArchaic timetime periodperiod inin Southeast Southeast TexasTexas isis represented represented. byby. Bell, Bell, Carrollton, canollton, Morrill,i,iilrriji. Trinity,T'i'"lirl Wellsw"ii;;j and EarlyE ;iy Stemmed point type.s..Th'etypes. The Bell poinfpoint is the onlyonlv one ofof theseii,;;','ir* types that,#i isisiiosetv closely associated*i"'.irt.a with*iU lithiciithic traditionslthdition. ofof thethi Southern Southern Plains.Plains. BellBell pointsl"i"l.'il"-f"-rii are found occasionally."*i;-if fr lnin thethe westernwestern andand centralcenral portionsportions ofof SoutheastSoutheast Texas,Texas, andand are#J}ffiilyfii;;iii;i'iip*G.i*,i-ui generally made of flint types that can be foundr*na intn BellBeil County,counry, whichwhich isis therhe heartlandheartland forfor thisthis projectileoroiectile pointpoint type.tvpe] Bell[!lf pointsp.inrt foundlor"a inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexai'that that areare mademade ofof exoticexotic materialsiil,liiirl'i*"'ir"ir implies al"*iii'-i-ei,;e wide-ranging settlementlettlement or trade patternpattern for Indianslndians.using using thisthis pointpoint type.i,iil.'sli'iliiffirir"a Bell points found ini, Southeastdo"rti,L't Texasrexas.were were probablyprobiblv manufacturedm-y[1:Ye9 inil"9:']j'^11]*' Central Texas rather;[,;, thanth;;i;llv. locally. Therhe Brazossrar;i RiverRirii would*ould havehave been aa naturalnatural "highway""highway" forfor BellBell pointspoins coming;;;'i;; fromft; CentralCeiral toto SoutheastSoutheast Texas.Texas. BellBell pointspoints withwith deepdeeo basalbasal slotsslots areare sometimessometrmes called;i[j'A;;i;.";, Andice or Calfc"ri-i,.."r.frii; Creek. This nomenclature;;;i;i,;; iiis somewhatsome*hlt artificial, as._a_studyas a study ofof attributes shows that variationsnuri.iionr'i"rr-." form a single ii"et..manufacturing. manufacturing continuumcontinuum (Weber and #tbr6;'i;;-mi variations,!Y1b-.1_,rd in the Pattersonili;r-,ji 1985).r-Sdji. MuchMr.t ofof thetn"i"iiutio" variation inin BellSeiipoints points appearsappears toto-be be duedue toto variations in the skill of individual craftsmeniiiran,.n'in in their," ability iuiiiii toto make ,ir.^a""$ deep notches.i,otches. Therhe bestbest examples examples ofof BellBell ;[iii;?;;iifiGi (Panerson et al' pointsooins inin Southeast Soutleast Texasf.*as"ui"- are 6O-'if6.ir.n. specimens fromfroni site site 41HR354 4lHR354 (Patterson et al. 1993b:Figure 2). Prewittil*i-tr (1981) placespr*"i'rr* the BellBeil pointpoint inin aa time time interval interval of of 6000-5000 6000-s000 B.P.B.P. ffii;,iLd;i. i68ii were imported from. Central inin Central Central Texas. Texas. SinceSince Bell B.f points;;;;i;;;-in found in SoutheastSo,itt.asr TexasTexas were imported from Central for this point type' rather than Texas,Texas, itit is is appropriate appropriate tot" use r]!i" Central C*i'"t'ftias Texas chronologychronology for this point type, rather than lookingtooiitigfo, for a. separate i,ipui"t. chronology chronology in in Southeast Southeast Texas.Texas' In the Early Archaic period, notched point forms were replaced by stemmed point forms, which corresponds to the point type sequence of the Southeast Woodlands (Fagan 1991:310). Stemmed point styles of the Early Archaic may have evolved from Early Stemmed$*i,st*.fri*g;-iltim'u,x,,l-tflffi points of the Late Paleo-Indian period. Carrollton, Morrill, #'#;1,ffi Trinity and Wells

1616 stemmedstemmed pointspoints areare foundfound throughoutthroughout EastEast Texas,Texas, andand extended.extended inlointo semgsome parf.parts ofof CentralCentral TexasTexas (Turner(Turner andand HesterHester 1985).1985). AllAll ofof thesethese pointpoint types.types occuroccur in.thein the Early_Ar.chaic.Early Archaic periodperiod andand mavmay continuecontinue intointo somesome portionportion ofof thethe MiddleMiddle Archaic.Archaic. CarrolltonCarrollton andand WellsWells pointspoints areare fairlvfairly c'ommoncommon inin SoutheasiSoutheast Texas.Texas. Trinity Trinity and and Morrill Morrill poinbpoints are are notnot commoncommon inin this resi6n,region, withwith largerlarger numbersnumbers ofof oresethese poinipoint types found in Northeast Texas. The Morrill ooTntpoint iiis olacedplaced in=in rhethe EarlyEarly andand MiddleMiddle ArchaicArchaic byby TurnerTurner andand HesterHester (1985:129).(1985:129). TheThe onlyonly lxcavatidexcavated exampteexample ofof TriirityTrinity pointspoints inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas arcare !9mfrom thethe Ea-rl_VEarly ArchaicArchaic atat sitesite 41Hrc15411-1R315 (Panirson (Patterson I g80afible1980a:Table 3), 3), although although Tumer Turner and and HesterHester (1985:154)(1985:154) place'thisplace 'this pointpoint typetype inin thethe MiddleMiddle fuchaic.Archaic. carrolltonCarrollton andand wellsWells point types seemseem toto bebe most common in_thein the EarlyEarly Archaic,Archaic period,period, tutbut extend into some portion of lliethe Middle Archaic. ThereThere isis aa radiocarbonradiocarbon date ofof 6490 +l'l2O+/-120 B.f.B.P. (I-15333)(1-15333) foifor aa CarrolltonCarrollton oror Cano.llton-li\_e_Carrollton-like pointpoint atat sitesite 4lFB3741FB37 (Patterson_I988),(Patterson 1988), in thethe eirlvearly partpart'of of the Early Archaic period. AA Wells point isis also present atat 4lFB3741FB37 atat a sliehtly'higherslightly higher excavatioiexcavation levellevel inin thethe EarlyEarly Archaic.Archaic. ExcavationsExcavations at sitesite 41HR315'4lHR3l5' ipitt.,-'son(Patterson 1980a)i9S0r) indi".t.indicate continuationcontinuation ofof thethe CanolltonCarrollton pointpoint fromfrom thethe Early Archaic into ionl"some portionoo.tion of theihe MiddleMiddle Archaic.Archaic. ExcavationsExcavations at site 41HR3154lHR3l5 (Patterson 1980a)1980a) and 4lAU1741AU37 (Hall 1981) indicate continuationcontinuation ofof thethe wellsWells pointpoint fromfrom thethe Early Archaic into some portion of the Middle Archaic.

A variety of Early Stemmed poinSpoints with groundground basal edges ruaswas foundfound in tlrethe Early Archaic ;;;i"dperiod ;iat siteiit" 41WH19qf WH1S (Patterson(pauerson etet al. 1987.t987. SomeSome ofoT thesethese specimensspecimens are very largelarge Bulverde-likebulverde-like poinSpoints (Paiterson(Patterson et al. 1987:Figure1987:Figure. 7A,C).7A,C). MiscellaneousMiscellaneous stemmed pointspotnts fromnorn thertif"rtn'etchaic Early Archaic are probably not recognized for their temporal significance in many collections.iotii.tioni. Earlyfi1y StemmedStemmed'points points iravehave also Seenbeen found in Early Archaic excavation levels at site 41FB2234lFB223 (Patterson et al. 1994).1994).

The practiceoractice of grindingelinding (smoothing)(smoothing) basal edges of projectileprojectile points has,ahas a veryve1y. generalgeneral time-diagnostictimejdiagnostic iatue.value. At iitesite atWfttg41WH19 in Wharton County-County (Panersqn.et(Patterson et a_1.al. 1987),l9E7), it.wasit was foundi[|;d thatrh;i;;t most projectilepiojJctite pointspoints had ground basalbasal edgesedges.irom from thethe Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian until thethe MiddleiutJA. Archaicer"ti"i" periods.poii,as. During the MiddleMi-ddle Archaic periodpeir_4 theth9 practice of grindingqinding of basal edgesedges becamebecame uncommon. The reason for smoothing of.basalof basal edges ofOf projectilepfojectlle_polnts points isls not clear, butbui isis relatedrelated toto haftinghafting techniques.techniques. ThisThis-might might be related to hafting fit or lessless wear*..r""7i1*r, onon'Uinaing binding materials.materials. SmoothingSmo-othing of basalbasal edgesedges maymay havehave beenbeen consideredconsidercd moremore importanti. p"rr""i f"ifor largela"rge projectileprojectile points,points, indand thethe practicepractice waswai droppeddropped asas projectile projectile pointspoins becamebecame smallersmaller inin laterlater time.time.

MIDDLEMTDDLE ARCHAICARCHAIC PROJECTILE PROJECTILE POINTS POINTS (5000-3s00 (5000-3500 B.P.)

AsAs notednoted above;above; Wells,Wells, Carrollton,Canollton, Morrill and perhapsperhaps TrinityTrinity pointpoint typestypes appearapp-ear toto continuecontinue fromfrom thethe EarlyEarly'Archaic Archaic intointo thethe MiddleMiddle ArchaicArchaic inin thisthis region,region, basedbased onon limitedlimited data.data. OtherOther projectileprojectile pointpoint typestypes foundfound duringduring thethe MiddleMiddle ArchaicArchaic inin Southeast Southeast TexasTexas includeinclude Bulverde,Bulverde, Lange,Lange, Pedernales,Pedlmales, Williams, Travis and thethe Gary-KentGary-Kent series.series. TheThe temporaltemporal placementsplacements ofofVonill Morrill andand WilliamsWilliams pointpoint typestypes areare basedbased onon referencesreferences byby TurnerTurner andand' HesterHest6r (1985).( 1985). LangeLange and TravisTravis pointspoints were foundfound inin thethe MiddleMiddle ArchaicArchaic at sitesite 41AU374lAU37 (Hall(rlall 1981).1981). Travis-likeTravis-like pointspoints werewere foundfound inin bothboth thethe MiddleMiddle andand Late[:te ArchaicArchaic periodsperiods atat sitesite 41WH194lWHl9 (Patterson(Patterson et al.al. 1987:Table1987:Table 3). ItIt isis sometimes sometimes difficultdifficult toto distinguishdistinguish betweenbetween TravisTravis andand KentKent pointpoint types.types.

BulverdeBulverde pointspoints havehave beenbeen foundfound inin thethe MiddleMiddle ArchaicArchaic periodperiod atat sitessites 41HR3154lHR3l5 (Patterson(Patterson 1980a)1980a) andand 41FB42 4lFB42 (Patterson(Patterson etet al.al. 1993c). 1993c). Specimens Specimens fairlyfairly closeclose toto thethe BulverdeBulverde typetype werewere foundfound inin thethe MiddleMiddle ArchaicArchaic atat sitesite 41WH194lWHl9 (Patterson(Patterson etet al.al. 1987). 1987). PrewittPrewitt placesplaces thethe

17L7 BulverdeBulverde point point in in aa time interval ofof 4000-3400 B.P.B.P. inin Central Central Texas,Texas, andand TurnerTurner and HesterHester (19'85:73) (1985:73) givegive aa timetime rangerange of of 5000-45005000-4500 B.P. for this point type.type.

Middle and Late Arc!9ic-p9riods. This TheThe PedemalesPedernales pointpoint isis foundfound inin borhboth thethe Middle and Late Archaic periods. This-poirlt_lYne point type wiswas foundfound inin tliethe Middle ArchaicArchaic periodperiod at at sites sites 4lAU37 41AU37 (Ilall(Hall 1981),1981), 4lAUl-41AU1 (Duke iSSZ,Figrr"il1982:Figure 2) andand 4lFB34, 41FB34, wirhwith aa iadiocarbonradiocarbon date date of of 5210 5210 +/-l +1-110 l0 B.P. B.P. (I-1551g)atsite (1-15510) at site AifBJa?putd.ron41FB34 (Patterson 1989e). iheThe PedemalesPedernales pointpoint occursoccurs inin thethe LateLate Archaic Archaic at at sites sites 41FB42 41FB42 (Prn";d(Patterson etui. al. tgglc)'and1993c) and 41AU14lAUl (Duke(Dui

The Gary-Kent series of straight and contracting_stemcontracting stem points startsstarts inin thethe MiddleMiddle Archaic at sitesrii"r 41AU37AiAUSZ (Hall(I{all 1981),1981), 41PK694i-PK69 (Ensor(Ensor andand Carlson 1988),lf88} 41HR3l541HR315 (Patterson 1980a) and 4lHR541HR5 (Doering sit6,site, Wheat 1953). A large body of data exists for thesetlr.ese pointpgint types then continuing thro"ughthrough Gethe LateLate Archaic,Archaic, _Early Early Ceramic.andCeramic and somesome lortionportion ofof thethe. Latellte Prehistoric. ConcurrentCoicurrenf useuse ofof the spear and bow and arrow in the Late Prehistoric period is discussedaiscuss"a below. GaryGary and KentKenr pointspbins tendrend toto bebe,smaller smaller inin- the$" EarlyE4.V CeramicCeramic anda1d^_!1te Late Prehistoricn"t iiiori" periodsperiods (Ensor(Ensor andand CirlsonCarlson 1991,1991, Ketler.andKeller and Weir 1979),1979), PattersonPatterson 1980a).1980a). BecauseSe;use of the'the longlong timetime spanspan ofof GaryGary andand KentKent points, thesethese^point point typestyp-e-s are not goodgood temporaltemporal markers, biutbut dodo demonstrate_technologicaldemonstrate technological continuity. Gary and Kent pointpoint^types types are consideredionsidered hereheie asas aa morphological series bJcausebecause these two point typestypes. are often found togethertosether atat thethe samesame excavationexcivatio-n levels atat archeologicalarcheological sites,sites, and becausebecause of thethe classifying a morphologicalm6rphological overlapsoverlaps thatthat frequently occur. It is often an arbitraryarbitr_ary -choicqin choice in classifying a specimenrfi.'irrn asir GaryGary or Kent.i(ent. SomeSomi earlyearly projectileprojectile point types of SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas areare shown inin FigureFigure 3.3.

LATELATE ARCHATCARCHAIC AND AND EARLY EARLY CERAMIC CERAMIC PROJECTILE PROJECTILE POINTS POINTS (3500-1400 (3500-1400 B.P.)

MostMost projectileoroiectile pointDoint tyDestypes of the Late Archaic (3500-1900 B.P.)B.P.) alsoalso occuroccur inin thethe EarlyEarly CeramicCeraniic (1900-1400(tSOO-ieOO B.P.)B.P.) in in Southeast Southeast TexasTexas (Patterson(Pqttgrsg-qt 1989f).1989f). TheseThese typestypes includeilclud€ Gary,Gary, Kent,f"nr- Dad,Oait. Yarbrough, yarbrouqh, Ensor,Ensor, Ellis,Ellis, Fairland, Fairland, PalmillasPalmillas and and Marcos. Marcos. The The Ponchartrain Ponchartrain point;;il is[;'ri*r a minor dartJif,ioint point typetype inin'this this region region from from Louisiana lnuisiana thatthat occursoccurs inin thethe Late late Archaicl;;;i; period,;.;i"d:'aia at a fewfti* sitesiitei'such such asas 41HR315 4lm3l5 (Patterson(Patterson 1980a).1980a). TheThe- chronologychronolo_gy ofof Fairland and Marcos points used here is basedbased onon referencesreferences-_by. by Turner andqnd Hester (1985). i"iili"it ;il M;;; useO here gall Tyqgl Bothb;ih MarcosirA;; and Fairlandiairtand are Central TexasTexas point types.types, Hall (1981)(198t) hashas datadata fromfrom thethe AliensAllens CreekCreek sites sites";d for for Fairland Fairland pointspoints inin thethe Late[:te Archaic.Archaic'

Gary,Garv. Kent,Kent. Darl,Darl, Yarbrough,Yarbrough, Ensor,Ensor, EllisEllis andand PalmillasPalmillas dartdart pointspoins occuroccur inin bothboth thethe Latetate Iypes are Archaicercfiiic andand EarlyEariy CeramicCeramii periodsperiods (Patterson 1989f), andand these variousvarrous pointPol.nr types are ^these oI Inese oftenohen foundfound atat the the same same archeological archeological sitessites (Patterson (Pa-nerson 1990b).1990b). TheThe.covaflatron covariation of these and a point."liii-aZ&i. typesirri, is ir possibly oossibly some so." combination co-rb'inution ofof hafting irafting methods, methods, stylisticstylistic preferences, preferences,. and a high[i"t degree ofof contact contait between between bandsbands inin aa period period of of high high population. population. BecauseBecause dart.9u1 point Rotnt stylesl;fl[, are;Z;i;;;i;;i;i'i;ailii""l often mixed at individual sitessiies duringdu'ing thesethese timetiri'e periods,periods, itit wouldwould bebe difficultdifficult toto

1818 identifvidentify individualindividual socialsocial proupsgroups byby use use of of point point types types (Patterson (Patterson 1990b).1990b). It It maymay be be seenseen inin TableTable 68 thatthat GaryGary andand KentKent dahdart poinSpoints werewere thethe dominantdominant typestypes inin thisthis regionregion duringduring thesethese timetime periods,periods, asas previouslypreviously notednoted byby ShaferShafer ((1975). 1975)

OneOne ofof thethe reasonsreasons forfor covariationcovariation ofof stemmedstemmed dartdart pointpoint typestypes atat archeologicalarcheological sitessites inin thisthis r."ion-region, includineincluding KenL Kent, Garv, Gary, Darl,Darl, Yarbrough,Yarbrough, and and PalimillasPalimillas types, types, is is thatthat some ioEciniensspecimens ofof ttreiethese poinipoint typdtypes maymay bebe manufacturingmanufacturing variantsvariants ofof thethe samesame pointpoint type.type. ForFor e'xample.example, thethe removilremoval ofof o'niyonly aa fewfew flakesflakes willwill changechange aa KentKent typ€type toto aa GaryGary lype.type. DueDue toto ttthe nianifacturingmanufacturing variables-variables involvedinvolved inin thethe flintknappingflintknapping process,process, such such asas rawraw material be some morphological variation in a ;;iit,quality" ;dand shaoelshape,'bv andand flinrknapperflintknapper skill,skill, therethere willwill be some morphological variation in a i.rintpoint ilroe type mad'emade by an individualindividJal craftsman.craftsman. The manufacturing variationvariation willwill bebe even L-*t".'.if,engreater when manv'craftsmenmany craftsmen areare involvedinvolved inin aa region. Thus,Thus, therethere areare inherent limitations ioto thethe diagnosticdiagnostic viluevalue ofof typologytypology ofof GaryGary andand Kent points.

The use of bone dart pointspoints isis fairlyfairly commoncommon during-during rhe.the Early Ceramicce.ramic periodperiod onon the coastal margin (Aten 1983:262). This reflecSreflects thethe lack ofof lithic materlalsmaterials rnin lhlsthis subregron.subregion.

LATE PREHISTORICPREHISTORIC DART DART PoINTS POINTS (1400-500 (1400-500 B.P.)B.P.)

On the coastal margin of SoutheastSoutheast Texas, the use of the spearspPI wasu9s mostlymostly discontinueddiscontinued during thettre Latelate PrehistoricPrefistoric (Aten 1983:306),1983:306), in favor of use of the bow and arrow. Cabeza de;; Vacat"1; (Covey(Covev 1961:61)l96l :61) statedstared that the bow and arrow was the only weaponweapor system used ;;by IndiansIrdi;;; in thetli. iourtLcoastal margini".rein area of Galveston Bay. The spear andand spearthrower (atlatl) continuedc6ntinued to be used togethertogethei with the bow and arrow in the inlandinland subregion, a-sas shown at many;;il';;;;.i;J-.ii"J"(et.n excavated sites (Aten 1967,le6J, Keller and-weir^le7e,and Weir 1979, Ensor!n9o1--pd and CarlsonC^arlson 1991,le9l, McClurkaniriiifrit., 1968,t968, Pattersonpunerion 1980,1980, PattersonPatterson et al. 1987,1987, Shafer 1968,l968,.Wheat Wheat 1953).1953). There is ample,.ot"1riO.n"e evidence to show that concurrentconirttent use of the spear and bow and arrow occurred in the Latei;i'.'i*ilir:di; Prehistoric period.p"iioa. Thisrnis conclusion is not likelylikely.to to tavehave been affectedlffected by stratigraphic mixing;;ilC;;ii;f'the at all of the excavatedexcavated sitessites involved.involved. SmallSmall Gary andand.I(ent Kent dartdart.points points are thethe principalnrinciial typestvDes found in the Latet ate Prehistoric in this region, as well as a fewt-ew EllisEllls and Ensor specimens.#;il;;;1'S;;;l;;[", Some Indians in the central and eastern pirtpart of the Gulf coastal plain are also systems knownt ;,o*r, to havehave usedused bothboth the the spear-spearthrower spear-spearthrower andand bowbow andand arrowarrow weaponweapo1 systems (HudsonlilJ;;" 1976:76),D76:76\. withwith ethnographicethnos,raphil examples available. In A.D.A'D' 1543, 1543, Spaniards Spaniards recorded);;il; useui" ofoi theO,j spear-throwerrp."i-thro*ei*ittr with six-foot spearsipears on thethe Gulf coast at the mouth of thethe Mississippiit{i;iraippi RiverRirer (Hudson(Fiudson 1976:116).1976:l l6). UseUse of two weaponweapon systemssystems may have given somesome adaptiveadaptive advantage.idvanUgd. For example, the bow and arrowarrow isis notnot aa good good wet-weather w€t-w-eather weaponweapon system.ivri"',. BowstringsSo*.triils aodo not workwori< well whenwhen wet,we! especiallyespecially if mademade ofof sinewsinew (Pope (Pope 1974:36).1974:36\.

SomeSome latelate projectileprojectile pointpoint typestypes ofof SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas areare shownshown inin FigureFigure 4.4.

ARROWARROW POINTPOINT CHRONOLOGIESCHRONOLOGIES

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION OFOF THETHE BOWBOWAND AND ARROWARROW

ThereThere seemsseems toto bebe some some agreementagreement thatthat thethe bow bow and and arrow arrow was was introduced introduced intointo southern southern NorthNorth AmericaAmerica fromfrom thethe Old Old World World (Ford (Ford 1974:402, 197 4:4Q2, Feidel Feidel 1987:146). 1987:146). ThereThere isis little little interest,interest, however,however, concerningconceming thethe diffusiondiffusion andand locallocal adaptationadaptation processesprocesses forfor thisthis weapon weapon system.system. ThisThis isis surprising surprising since since many many archeologists archeologists statestate interest interest in in processual processual studies.studies. ThereThere seemsseems toto bebe an an accepted accepted dogmadogma thatthat the the bow bow and and arrow arrow started started at at A.D. A.D. 500-700 500-700 throughoutthroughout mostmost ofof the the U.S. U.S. (Patterson (Patterson 1982,1992a). 1982,1992a). There There is is increasing increasing evidence, evidence, however,however, thatthat thethe bow bow andand arrowarrow startedstarted earlierearlier inin southernsouthem NorthNorlh America,America, nearnear thethe startstart ofof

1919 thethe LateLate Archaic Archaic period period (Aikens (Aikens 1970, 1970, Odell Odell 1988,1988, PattersonPatterson 1982,1992a)..T11e 1982,1992a). The im-pactimpact ofof thethe possiblepossible earlyearly useuse ofof the bow andand arrow seems to havehave beenbeen generallygenerally overlooked. WerikeWenke lt9SO:SO5)(1990:565) has noted a sharp increase in population inin easterneastern NorthNorth AmericaAmerica fromfrom aboutabout 8do 800 B.CB.0 toto'A.D. A.D. 800.800. BasedBased on Odell'sOdell's (1988)(1988) study o[of early useuse ofof the bow and arrowarrow withwith unifacialunifacial points,points, Wenke Wenke (1990:568) (1990:568) then notes fr-atthat "The.use"The use ofof suchsuch projectile oointspoints seemsseems to have increasedincreaied dramiticallydramatically afterafter aboutabout fourfour thousandthousand years years ago, ago, andand byby thethe hrstfirst fewfew centuries A.D.A.D. thetie bow and arrow may have been adding enough ext.aextra produclionproduction toto some economies thatthat significantly higher population densitiesdensities were possible." The bow andand arrowarrow isis notnot onlyonly aa mo-remore elTicientefficient hunting weapon thanthan,a a spear, butbut the.bow_and_arrowthe bow and arrow alsoalso allows huntinghunting-of of a wider range of animals,aniinals, es_peciallyespecially smaller species.species. AsAs HaydenHayden (1993:Figure(1993:Figure 6.12)-has6.12) has noted for the EurasianEurasian Mesolithic, Mesolithic, technologicaltechnological innovation,innovation, suchsuch asas ihethe bow indand arrow,arrow, allowedallowed hunter-gatherers to to exploit exploit aa widerwider range range of of foodfood resources.resources.

There isis an open question for proponents ofof late introduction ofof thethe bowbow and arrow. IfIf the bow and arr6warrow startedstarted at at about'A.D. about A.D. 600600 in Southeast Texas,Texas, atat thethe start ofof the Late'kte' Prehistoric period, period, why why was was therethere a a significantsignificant declinedecline inin population.atpopulation at th€.the same time (Figure 10),1g),'when when thethe bowbbw and arrow, aa moremore efficientefficient hunting weapon,weapon, shouldshould havehave helped to sustain the population level?level?

I have orooosedproposed that diffusiondiffusion ofof the bow and arrow initiallyinitially included small prismatic blade i..f,no[ogitechnology unaand rhethe use of unifacial arrow points (Pattersori(Patterson 1973,.1982,1973, 1982, 1992a).l9_92a).. IndustriesIndustries to manufacturemanufi-cture smallsmall prismatic bladesblades occuroccur in increasinglyincreasingly later timetime as a diffusion patternpattem from thethe Arctic Arctic southward southward intointo southern southern NorthNorth AmericaAmerica (Patterson(Patterson 1973,1973, HesterHester 1976:Figure1g76:Figure l3-5).13-5). Unifacial arrowarrow pointspoints areare generally generally marginallyma_rginally. retouchedretouched.flakes. flakes. ExcavationExcavati-on sfatigiaphystratigraphy at at sitesite 4llfl3l541HR315 (Patterson 1980a) _indicaresindicates thatthat-u-nifacial unifacial arrowarrow pointsooints started so-me' some tiir:etime nearnear thethe startstart of of the Latel:te Archaic periodperiod ((1500 1500 B.C.). Some examplesLxamoles of unifacialunifacial arrowarrow points are shownshown in Figure 5. These specimens are similar to specimens published by otherotirer investigatorsinvestigators in SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas (Ensor(Ensor andand Carlson Carlson 1991:Figure1991:Fieure 42 S,T, McClurkan 1968:Figure 48). The start ofof bifacial arrow point styles at about A:D.A.D. 600,600, suchsuch asas ScallornScallorn inin CentralCential TexasTexas and Perdiz in Southeast Texas,_sug-gestsTexas, suggests thethe standardizationstandardiza[ion ofof types rather thanthan thethe introductionintroduction of of thethe bow and arrow. Unifacial arrowarrow points are fairlyfairly commoncommon in Southeast TexasTexas asas shown in TableTable 5.5. OneOne indicationindication thatthat unifacial poinspoints wlrewere used as arrow poinspoints isis that singlesingle specispecimens men_s from sites 4111R21041HR2l0 (Patterson(Patterson 1975b)l9i5b) and 41WH734lwH73 (Patterson(Patreison and Hudgins 1993) hadhad asphaltasphalt on thethe basalbasal portionsiortions ofof thethe points,points. whichwhich wouldwould indicateindicate hafting. ThisThis type of artifactartifact is oftenoften overlooked6verlooked in lithiclid\ic flakeflike collectionscollections (Patterson(Patterson 1994a).1994a). ManyMany archeologistsarcheologists inin. North North AmericaAmerica associate arrow points only with bifacialbifacial forms.forms. This isis surprising, surprising,..consideting considering thatthit unifacial arrow points were th;the main typetype usedused in.in the the Eurasian Eurasian Mesolithic,Mesolithic, which.which wouldwould havehave beenbeen partpart of thethe bowbow andand arrow telhnologytechnology introducedintroduced into the New World.world.

GENERALGENERAL COMMENTSCOMMENTS ONON BIFACIALBIFACIAL ARROW POINTS

TheThe timetime rangesranges ofof majormajor arrowarrow point types in SoutheastSoutheast Texas are not well-defined withwith radiocarbon*Oo..iUo, al"Gfdates, coniparedcompared toto dhethe Scallorn-PerdizScaliorn-Perdjz sequencesequence in CentralCentral Te-xas.Texas. OnlyOnly thethe Perdizp"iaiiooint point onon thetiie SoutheastSoritheast TexasTexas coastalcoastal marginmargin hashai aa seriesseries of of radiocarbon radiocarbon datesdates thatthat cover;;;;; therli;ffi;l.t. complete timetir" rangei.ng. forfor useuse ofof thisthis pointpoinl type.type. ForFor thethe inlandinland portionportion of SoutheastSoutheast Texas,i.*.i, excavation.i.""uiion sequencesseqrencis andand a fewfew radiocarbonrabiocarSirn datesdates mustmust bebe used toto studystudy thethe chronologieschronologies ofof arrow arrow pointpoint types.types.

ThereThere areare two commoncommon errorserrors made by investigators in developing arrowarrow pointp.oint.chonologies chonologies S'callorn-Perdiz chronological inir'-Courf,.iri Southeast Texas.fixas. TheThe firstfirst- isis the thi tendency tendenfr to to use use the lhe Scallorn-Perdiz chronological sequence."or.n* ofof Central Central Texasfe*as forioi SoutheastSoutheast Texas.fexas. ThereThere are nono data data to to support support this this assumption,,.J,lijiri"i. butUrt muchrnr"f, dataa"t" ioto refuter.fut" it. The secondsecond commoncommon errorerror is toto. attemptattempt toto forceforce aa chronological sequence of arrowarrow pointpoint typestypes withwith little little temporal temporal overlapoverlap betweenberween types,types, ;il;;;l;;i&i;qri".. "i

2020 whenwhen lhere there are are nono supportin8supporting data. data. It It appears appears to_ to bebe wishfulwishful thinking thinking that that all all arr-owarrow pointpoint iu*itypes i.tifall inrointo aa seriaiserial thronilogicalchronological sequence. sequence. No No serial serial sequence sequence has has yet yet been been found found forfor riijormajor ano* arrow pointpoint typestypes inin thisthis region. region.

Li0ricLithic traditionstraditions inin SoutlreastSoutheast Texas Texas can can only only be be understood understood ifconsideration if consideration isis given given toto thisthis -;';; traditions the Souttrern Plains and 'S;111ga;t;"i";region as an interfacelni"rfi"" betweenbetween technological traditionsof of the Southern Plains and Southeastw*Jt.rai. Woodlands. This This is is shown shown in in Table Table 6 6 for for thethe geographicgeographic distributionsdistributions of of arrowarrow ;;iri'1"fu;irhinpoint types within inlandinland SourheastSoutheast Texas. Texas. The The Perdiz Perdiz poinl point appears appears to to be be thethe onlyonly reallyreally i;i;;ffi1ii61rindigenous arrow pointpoint rvp.type inin tlristhis region,region, withwith aa fairlyfairly uniformuniform geographicgeographic distributiondistribution inin in ;ii;;:Th;all zones. The S."ifo-Scallorn 6.ilntpoint isis esseniialtyessentially a a CentralCentral fexasTexas type,type, withwith a.sharpa sharp decreasedecrease in ir"ouencvfrequency ofof occurrenceoccurrence inin thethe eastemeastern partpart ofof Southeast Texas.Texas. CatahoulaCatahoula andand AlbaAlba potntspoints i.i'.riirii"ffvare essentially r"ririanuLouisiana tvp".,types, withwith shhrpsharp decreasesdecreases inin oc-currencesoccurrences inin thethe westernwestern portionportion ;'isdilr;'i'T";.-fn.of Southeast Texas. The ,ii'-mix oi"of urro*arrow pointpoint traditions inin Southeast TexasTexas hashas likely givengiven tf,irthis r.gio,region a ,.parateseparate arrowarrow pointpoint chronology,chronology, comparedcompared toto adjacentadjacent regions'regions. " PERDIZPERDIZ POINT CHRONOLOGYCHRONOLOGY

Aten (1983:306) statesstates thatthat fhethe bowbow andand arrowarrow startedstarted atat aboutabout A.D.A.D. 600600 onon the Southeast i;;;;iial;tei",Texas coastal margin, u.tiabased onon bifacial arrowarrow pointpoint tvpes'.Thetypes. The qmetime r.1ng9range l9rfor Igdiocarbonradiocarbon i.todates .rr*irt"aassociated fiitfrwith ttthe Perdiz point atat this locationlocaiion is A.D.A.D. 640-1560640-1560. (Aten(Aten .1983'1983, i,i'*1^"',i-is-8dbl.Patterson 1989b). la".tMost of" rt.the radiocarbonradi6carbon dating is.fromis from RangiaRansia shell samples.samoles. Although stratigraphicstratisraDhic location of therhe;ii;'i";;;"f earliest arrow pointp"i"t specimensif,"ciment at inl-andinland site 41HR2734lI*273 has been ;i#r*u';'-d*;dismissed as due toto ioiisoil disturbancea;rtrruance (Ensor(Ensor andand Carlson carlson 1991:219), 1 991 :219),_. thesethese. specimensspecimens (Catahoularc-rl-iiuf" unaand perdiz)Perdiz) mavmay ainottyactually gir"give support to Aten's (1983:306) starting date of about;ffii;D A.D. 600;iio forf;bii;"iliir.o* bifacial arrow pointspolnfi in thisthii region. The deepest excavated_arr.owexcavated arrow point at;i!i,;'i'trR site 4111R273 rilMuetter-Witte, (Mueller-Wille, Ensor,Ensor, and.Drol-linger and Drollinger l99l.Table.1991:Table 16)16) is.,qis a Perdiz point.point. point,.a-t-this.sile. i:about Theft latesti.t.J timetlr" forfoi the start of arrow points,poinS, including the _PerdizPerdiz point, at this site is about A.D.;5.-8do'dr;;;" 800 (Ensor anJand CarlsonCartson 1991:215).tisl:215). AtAisite site 41WH124lwHl2(Patterson (Patterson and Hudgins 1989a),1989a), a peiail 900 in the Westem radiocarbonliai"J"rLd"'il"t-southeast date ito*s shows tt'atthat ttrethe Perdiz pointpoinl started earlierearliir than A.D. 900 in the Western ZoneZo";-;i of Southeast Texas,Texas, againapin demonstratingdemohsrating thatthat thethe Perdiz pointpoint-started started earlierearlier inin SoutheastS"Jtf,*it i"i.s-itranTexas than isits startiuft inin CentralCentral TexasTexai atat aboutabout A.D.A.D..-1200 1200 (Turner(Turner andand.Hester Hester 1993:227).i6;;22?j.;;ite At site 41PK8lipXA in Polkiotk County,County, radiocarbonradiocarbon dates indicate that the PerdizPerdiz pointpoint could;id' haveh;; startedil;.a as.. early*ttv as A.D. 540, oior shortlvshortly thereafter (McClurkan 1968:11).1968:l l)' point WhileWhile therethere areare notnot enoughenough radiocarbonradiocarbon dates to define tlrethe timetime- range for the PerdizPerdiz point inl, all areas of inlandirf.rid SoutheastSoultheast Texas,Texas, therelhere areare severalseveral excavationexcavation. sequencessequelges totq showsh-ow thatthat thethe"iiii*" Perdizperdiz point point"f waswas usedused throughoutthroughout thethe entireentire Late[-ate PrehistoricPrehistoric periodperiod and intointo thethe Historictlrstonc Indianilil;;ffi. period. Theih" dataa.t" also.li" showsh6w thatrhat thethe PerdizPerdiz arrowarrow pointpoint startedsiarted asas earlyearly asas anyany otherother arrow;;;;"iriiyp" point type inin thisrtis region.region. WheatWheat (1953:Table(1953:Table.5) 5) demonstratesd.emonstrates thatthat thethe PerdizPerdiz pointpoint was;; being6.G usedili throughouttt roughouith" the LateI:te PrehistoricPrehistoric portionsportions ofof thethe excavatedexca-vated sequencessequences atat thethe KobsKobs andandDoering Doering sitessite-s inin Harrisfhrris County.County. TheThe PerdizPerdiz pointpoint waswas alsoalso,found found throughoutthrou-ghout most_most oroi"tt all ofof the tt. LatetatiPrehistoric Prehistoric periodperiod atatiites sites 41HR3154lHrul5 (Patterson(Patterson 1980a:Table1980a:Table 6)6) inin Harristlarris County,Countv. 41WH194lWHl9 (Patterson(Patterson'et et al.al. 1987)198?) inin WhartonWharton County,County, 41PK694tPK69 inin Polk Polk County, County, 41HR2734lHR2i3 (Mueller-Wille,(MuellerlWille, Ensor and DrollingerDiollinger 1991:Table1991:Table 16) inin HarrisFlarris County,County, andand 41FB4241F842 (Patterson(Patterson etet al.al. 1993a)1993a) inin FortFort BendBend County.County.

AA radiocarbonradiocarbon date date of of A.D. A.D. 1585 1585 +1-80 +/-80 (SI-6455) (5I-6455) forfor site site 41WI-119 4lWHl9 (Patterson etet al.al' 1987)1987) inin inland inland SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas indicatesindicates thatthat thethe PerdizPerdiz pointpoint waswas stillstill beingbeing usedused duringduring thethe HistoricHistoric IndianIndian period.period. InIn thelhe computerizedcomputerized datadaa bases,bases, all CliftonCliffton arrowarrow points point! have have been been classifiedclassified asas Perdiz,Peidia asas CliftonCliffton points points appear appear toto be be simply simply crude crude examples examples ofof thethe Perdiz Perdiz pointpoint typetype (Turner(Turner andand HesterHester 1985:169). 1985: 169).

212L SCALLORNSCALLORN POINT POINT CHRONOLOGYCHRONOLOGY ThereThere are are notnot enoughenough radiocarbonradiocarbon dates dates available available to to concllsively conclusively show show the the slarting_ starting {lte date of of itthe i;i.-Scallorn ooint-inpoint in SoutheastSoutreast Texas.Texas. TheThe ScallornScallorn pointpoint startsstarts aboutabout A.D.A.D. 600600 andand t"r-.inut"iterminates" uU,Jut about A.D. A.D. l3OO1300 in in CentralCentral Texas, Texas, shortly shortly after after the the introductionintroduction of of thethe PerdizPerdiz point at rb.rrabout A.D.A.D. l2OO1200 (prewitt(Prewitt 1983:Table l).1). Thi The timetime rangerange forfor thethe ScallornScallorn pointpoint isis iiff;;iil""i.idifferent ^i in Southeast TeiasTexas thanthan inin Central Texas. As HallFlall (1981:103)(1981:103).has has observed, S."Uo-Scallorn .ir*arrow pointspoints commonlycommonly date date betweenbetween A.D.A.D. 900900 and and A.D.A.D. 16001600 alongalong thethe TexasTexas C*rii'ei"r-fCoast (Aten 1971, Sfl. CorbinCorbin 1974i.1974). DaraData indicateindicate thatthat thethe ScallornScallorn pointpoint waswas introducedintroduced intointo i.riiJiiii"*i.Southeast Texas fiomfrom CentralCentral TexasTexas somewhatsomewhat laterlater than than thethe A.D.A.D. 600600 startingstarting datedate forfor thethe F"ia,Perdiz roint.point, butbut oerhapsperhaps notnot much later. I+llHall (1981:103) showsshows ScallornScallorn pointspoints occuringoccuring i"itiiiearlier h"iithan plia;'zPerdiz poii,spoints atat sitesite 4lAU3741AU37 inin AustinAustin County,County, butbut thethe earliestearliest datefordate for the S;iI,"-Scallorn oointpoint isis A.b.A.D. 920,920, whichwhich isis tootoo latelate forfor thethe ScallornScallorn pointpoint toto startstart earlierearlier lhanthan the (Patterson and F"iai,Perdiz p[i"tpoint-iS89j in SoutheastSoutheasf Texas. A radiocarbonradiocarbon datedate at sitesite 41WH124lWHl2 (Patterson and if,jJii"JHudgins 1989) dimonstratesdemonstrates that that the the Perdiz Perdiz point point was was presentpresent in in thethe westemwestern partpart ofof Southeast Texas before A.D. 900.

Data from excavations indicateindicate thatthat thethe ScallornScallorn pointpoint waswas inin useuse throughout -most most of.theof the Gr.Late ir"6irioii"Prehistoric peiiodperiod anaand continued intointo some'some portion of the Proto-HistoricProto-Historic period in S;;d,;iSoutheast i";"rTexas (wheat(Wheat 1953:Table 5, HallHall 19811981:103, :103, sitesite 4lrB42.(Patterson.et41FB42 (Patterson et al.al. 1993c) faieLate use of thetf,e ScallornScallorn pointpoint inin SoutheastSouiheast Texas is shown by radiocarbonradiocarbon dates of A.D.D. ,ie 9a1". -o-14 +/- 1480r agb;7-80 +1-80 (iX(TX-2126) -2126) atat iitesite 4l41AU37 AU37 (Hall 1981:103)lgsl:l 03) in Austin County and A.D. 15851585 +1- 80 (SI-6455)(5I-6455) at site 41WH194iWHl9 (Patterson et al. 1987)1987) in Wharton County.

CATAHOULA AND ALBA POINTPOINT CHRONOLOGIESCHRONOLOGIES

There are no radiocarbon dates to define the start of CatahoulaCatahoula and Alba arrow point types ini"'iti,tt Southeast Liif"i"i. Texas. Thesefn"." point types start about A.D. 600600.in.louisia.na in Louisiana (Jeter an-dand Williams 1989:148),iS89,f rA), inin the TroyvilleTroyviile CultureCuirure of thethe lower lower MississippiMississippi rralley.valley. Data fromfrom somesome excavatedexiavated'sites sites in MontgomeryMoritgomery County show that,that the CatahoulaCatahoula point starts beforebefore thethe Perdizp"iai, pointooint (Shafer(shafer 1988).198-8). However, daudata from other excavated sites do not supportsupport thethe conclusion thatitrii therfre CatahoulaCarrtrdula point s-tartsstarts before the Perdiz point. At site 41PK84lPK8-in in PolkPolk County".r.irrlo"bouni, (McClurkanflr,l"Ctrrkan 1968:Table1968:Tabli 6), Alba, Catahoula and Perdiz points all start at aboutabout-the the sameil;i1;;;"d;ll time and all ofof thesetlrese pointpoint typesty'pes continue through mostmost ofof thethe LateLate PrehistoricPrehistoric period.period. At'C;;i;;ril;;l;LAi';'ite-iIi*8siMrciurr.in site 41PK88 (McClurkan 1968:Tablele6b:Table 32), Perdizperdiz andard AlbaAtF.points.sra.rt points start earliest,ealr]g1t*with with Catahoula points foundiouna onlyontv inin laterlater excavationexcavation levels.levels. AtAt thethe KobsKobs sitesite (Wheat(Wheat 1953:Table1953:Table 5)5) inin Harristlarrii County,Countv, CatahoulaCatah6ula andand PerdizPerdiz pointspoints startstart atat aboutabout thethe samesame timetime andand continuecontlnue throughouttfi,r.ii,in,iritr,iL"i6'pi"ttirrori.. the Late Prehistoric. AtAt thethe DoeringDoeiing sitesite (Wheat(Wheat 1953:Table1953:Table.5), 5), thethe PerdizPerdizpoint point startsilrrrZi;; at the beginning6;ci"ning.f of thet" Latelate PrehistoricPrehistoricind and continuescdntinues.thrgqqh through thist]is period,period, whilewhile thethe CatahoulaLli"f,"rf" pointi"ii,i isir foundioira onlyonly inin upperupper laterlater excavationexcavation levelslevels ofof thisthis timetime period.period. ItIt.tould should be#;;tA'i#i'Wh-Li-rii"riJ noted that Wheat refered tot'o thethe Catahoulatauhoula pointpoint typetype asas "Alba"Alba Barbed."Barbed." AtAt sitesite 41HR2734lHR273 (Ensor6;il-C";iion and Carlson 1991:Tablesl-SSr,r.br; 15-17)l5-17) inin HarrisIianis County,e6unty, AlbaAlba andand CatahoulaCatahoula pointspoints areare foundi;;].d;cil;t;osi throughout most ofof thethe excavationexcavatio; sequencesequence forfor thethe-late Late Prehistoric.Prehistoric'

ARROWARROW POINTSPOINTS ININ THETHE HISTORICHISTORIC INDIANINDIAN PERIODPERIOD used in the Proto-Historic DataData aboveabove suggestsuggest thatthat thetlre PerdizPerdiz andand Scallornscallorn pointpoint typestypes werewere used in the Proto-Historic Indian period. There areur" dataa.ru fromiion, WhartonWt.rtolCo,i_nty County totoihoo, show useuse ofof otherother arrowarrow point point typestypes fr?fi;;i.,,e'fir;i. Guerrero inin the if,. Historic ifirtori" IndianIndian period. period.'Aiiit" At site 41WH8,ef WHS, (Hudgins 1Hldgins 1984), 1984), Cuney, Cuney,-Fresno, Fresno, Guerrero and;;#rli;;; Bulbar Stemsril';;;;; arrow pointsili,ri occur;;cui-in in aa large ra'ge surface surfac-e collection collection that that definitely d,efinitely. representsrepresents thei;;Hiilft Historic Indianffii"" period.pirioh. NoneNorJ;}ih;;;;o; of these arrow pointpoint types types from from 41WH8 4lwH8 areare majormajor typestypes inin

2222 SoutheastSoutheast Texas. Texas. OfOf tlresethese fourfour arrow arrow point point types, types, only only GuerreroGuerrero occurs occurs exclusively exclusively in.thein the ffi.r*iiHistoric fnai"nIndian oeriodperiod (Turner (Turner and and Hister Hester 1993:216), 1993:216), with with thethe otherother threethree types types foundfound inin bothboth L:teLate PrehisioricPrehistoric andand HistoricHistoric IndianIndian periodperiod contexts.contexts.

ARROWARROW POINTPOINT CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARYSUMMARY point ItIt isis DroDosedproposed herehere thatthat tlre the Perdiz Perdiz point point is is probablyprobably the the only only indigenousindigenous arrowarrow point typetype inin SoutheaitSoutheast Texas,Texas, andand thatthat thisthis pointpoint typetype starts,starts alat least_asleast as early as any otherolher major arrow nointpoint tvoetype inin this region.reeion. It is alsoalso concludedconcluded thatthat all fourfour majormajor arrow pointpoint typestypes lnin Siiiii,,iiiri*.JSoutheast Texas ielfi,Carahouta,(Alba, Catahoula, Perdiz, Perdiz, Scallom) Scallorn) w.ere were in in conturrentconcurrent use use ovgf over most most ofof th;-;;-the Late PrehistoriciiefrisriirlC fieriod.period. ThisThis is probablypiobably.a a disappointing disappointing conclusionconclusion. for manymany serial sequence.gf archeologists whowho weriwere hopinghoping forfor aa well.-definedwell-defined serial sequence of Troyarrow Pot*tpoint IYP3s-,tltypes in SoutheaslSoutheast TexasTexas for use as a chronological guideguide to10 subperiodssubperiods withinwttlttn the Latel-ate Prehistoric.ttehlstorlc' Th;;;;;There is a goodnooa scenariori"*rio for therhe gene-ralgeneral lack of a chronologicalchronological sequencesequenc€ of majormajor arrow r.i"itr""Ji"point types in itisthis region.ieeion. The siltuationsituation isis due to there being only one indigenousindigenous arrowanow ioinrpoint tv6etype (Perdiz),(Perdiz). with other arrow point types introduced from adjacent regions.andregions and then ;11"6;i;;all being usedg}gJ;o-,iirnentty. concurrently. There are a number ofof excavated sites where the majorm^ajor arrow point types occur iontinuouslycontinuously oror almost randomly_inrandomly in various Portionsportions _of..the--late of the Late i"iri t,i.i- (Mueller-Wille, i,ietisr6iic.Prehistoric. ExamplesExamples"."* are are sirei sites itrns,o41HR5,6 (yhea!(Wheat 125_3iT.able1953:Table 5),41HR2.735), 41HR273 (Mueller-Wille, Ensor and Drollinger 1991:Tables l5,l'6,i7),15,16,17), alMQ641MQ6 (Shafer 1968:Tables 3,4,s,6),3,4,5,6), 4lPK841PK8 il".ii'",ii-oi.ltinElirssr,r.Utes -(SErfer (McClurkanfftA"tfrit"" iS6SIfuUt"1968:Table O;,6), 4lI{R31541HR315 (Patterson(FattCrson 1980a:Table198oa:Table 6), and 41WH194.1WH19.(Patterson (Patterson et!i al.i'i'isil,r;Uti 1987:Table ii.2). ThernJboav body of datadaia is nownow tootoo large larse toto simplysimply dismissdismiss becausebecause of possible stratigraphicstrati graPhic mixing.

Another indication of the concurrent useuse of the four majormajor arrow point.typespoint types in.Southeastin Southeast Texasi;;;;; can beb;;i;-*.r shown byty therhe frequenciesfreqrencies of pointpoint typetype occurrencesociurrences at individual sites, either with;if;; more ii.;than on"one pointp.iint type iogethertogether or'withor with one type alone (Patterson(Patterson 1991c:Table 2). Fori-;d,;;;fi;'irl'rrdponi6ti the entire inland portion ofof SoutheastS-outheast Texas,Texas, the Perdiz point.ispoint is found alone atat,only only 32%32Yo of thethe sitessites havinghaving thisthis pointpoint type.type. TheTh9 proportionproportion of sites thatthat have onlyonly ScallornScauorn points.Ii,is isir 27%,27"2". theti,L proportionoropJnion dfof sites wirhwith onlyonly'Caiahoula Catahoula points is 9%, and thosethose with only Albaifiii*r"-inti points isi.'S"/".'ft 8%. Thus, [i, therettr.r. isis aa muchmuch higherhighdr proportionproportion'of of sites wherewhere majormajor arrow point typesi;;;; occur togetheri"""rhir thanrhan alone.alone. ThereThere appearsafpear! tot6 havehave beenbeen much much interactioninteraction betweenbetween cultural;'ri;"i;r;r%itf,lr-r.eion groups of this region andand adjacentadjacenf regionsiegions duringduring thethe LateL:te PrehistoricPrehistoric time period.period. AsideArid.tfi from thefi; fouriour major*.1-or arrowarrow point typesrypes inin thisthis region,reglon, aa numbernumber of minorminor typestypes areare summarizedsummarized inin Table 6.6.

GEOGRAPHICGEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTIONSDISTRIBUTIONS OFOF PROJECTILEPROJECTILE POINTPOINT TYPESTYPES

TheThe geographicgeographic distributionsdistributions of manymany projectileprojectile pointpoint typestypes areare notnot uniform uniform throughout throughout SoutheastSourhleasi iexas.Texas. ItIt has beenbeen notednoted aboveiboue thatthat SoutheastSoutheast Texas is anan interface interface forfor technologicaltechnological traditionstraditions of thet}e SouthernSouthern PlainsPlains andand SoutheastSoutheast Woodlands,W-oodlands, andand thatthat somesome projectileprojectilJpoint point typestypes inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas demonstratedemonstrate influencesinfluences fromfrom thethe north. north. ThereThere areare alsoils6 somesomi projectile projeciile pointpoint typestypes foundfound inin thisthis regionregion thatthat belongbelong to!o more_m.or:e localized localized technologicaltechnologicil traditions.iraditions. TheiCThere are both majormajor andand minorminor technologicaltgchnological influencesinfluences onon SoutheastSoutheas-[ Texas.Texas. MajorMajor technological influencesinfluences areare probablyprobably thelhe result of contacts of locallocal bandsbands withwith externalextemal-social social groupsgroufs andand byby socialsocial groups groups fromfrom adjacentadjacent regionsregions becomingbecoming establishedesablished inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas.Texas. JusticeJustice (1987)(1987) has has shown shown that thal projectile projectile pointpoint traditionstraditions cancan diffusediffuse overover widewide geographicgeographic areas. Some projectileprojectile point stylesstyles inin the the Southeast Southeast WoodlandsWoodlands cancan bebe foundfounii withwith continuouscontinuous distributionsdistributions from EastEast TexasTexas toto thethe Atlantic Atlantic coastcoasl (Patterson(Patterson 1991a).l99la). TechnologicalTechnological traditionsraditions cancan have have much much broader broader geographic geographic distributionsdistributions thanthan ethnic traditions. ThisThis is also truetrue of thethe AlbanyAlbany scraper,scraper, thatthat isis usuallyusually foundfound withwith SanSan PatricePatrice andand EarlyEarly Side-NotchedSide-Notched pointpoint typestypes (Patterson(Patterson 1991a,l99la, 1991d).l99ld). AsAs

2233 have same notednoted above,above, somesome majormajor-as projectileprojectile point point stylesstyles inin Southeast TexasTexas have thethe same chronolosicaichronological seouence sequence as foundfouid in thethe GreaterGreater SoutheastSoutheast Woodlands, proceeding fromfrom ride-notcfiedside-notched to to iomer-notchedcorner-notched to to stemmedstemmed typestypes (Patterson l99la,1991a, FapnFagan 1991:310).l99l:310). Sorn"Some Ininorminor projectileprojectile point point types types in in Southeait Southeast Texas Texas may may be be the the result result of of trade,trade, ofof inJirid*lrindividuals frdm from idjacent adjacent regioiri regions joining joining bands bands in in tlis this region, region, or or simply simply due due to to thethe wide-wide- rangingranging settlementsettlement pattemspatterns ofof somesome cultures.cultures.

ProiectileProjectile oointpoint tvpetype eeoaraphicgeographic disributionsdistributions inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas are are summarizedsummarized inin TablesTables e,6, Tina7 and S8 iorfor tlliihta-nathe inland irbiegion,subregion, andand inin TablesTables 99 andand l010 forfor thethe coastal coastal marginmargin subregion.subregion. Figure I . It may be seen in c"o*uot,i"Geographic -neszones ofof SoutheasrSoutheast TexasTexas usedused herehere areare illusratedillustrated inin Figure 1. It may be seen in a quantitativeq,rintit"ti". manner thatthat many projectile-pointprojectile point types have definite east-west frequencyfrequency 'the point "ildi;6gradients i;in SoutheastSortt ..rt Texas.Texas. Tra'ditionsTraditions of of the SouthernSouthern PlainsPlains are.representedare represented .by by point ivoestypes withwith maximum concentrationsconcentrations inin thethe WesternWestern ZnneZone and decreasingdecreasing frequenciesfrequencies toto thethe eiit.east. fneThe direction ofof frequency gradientsgradients areare thethe oppositeopposite forfor traditionstraditions ofof the Southeast Wooafunai.Woodlands. TraditionsTraditions of'theof the Sou-thernSouthern PlainsPlains andand Southeast WoodlandsWoodlands areare foundfound duringduring all prehistoric time periods in Southeast Texas.Texas.

Projectile point traditions ofof the Southern Plains include: Paleo-Indian (Folsom,I{idland,(Folsom, Midland, ii"ir"i"*,'Plainview, Meserve,Meserve, Angosrura),Angostura), EarlyEarly Archaic (Bell),(Bell),- MiddleMiddle ArchaicArchaic (Bulverde,(Bulverde, p"d"*ulii,Pedernales, Travis),Travis), i-ateLate .Lrchaic--EarlyArchaic-Early CeramicCeramic (Marcos,(Marcos, Fairland),Fairland), andand l-ateLate Prehistoric (Scallorn).iS*tt"-i'noiecriie Projectile oointpoint traditionstradirions of6f thethe SoutheastSoutheast WoodlandsWoodlands include:include: Paleo-IndianPaleo-lndian (Earlyiaitv Side-Notched,-x-t,Si6.-Noiched, Early Corner-Notched, SqnSan Patricc,Patrice, Dalton,.ligDalton, Big Sandv),Sandy), andand Archaic (Gary,tC"ii, Kent, Yarbrough).iarbiough). TraditionsTraditions specificallyspecifically. from Louisianal,ouisiana include:include: ArchaicArchaic (Ponchartrain,i pon'.i,"rtr"in- Motlev.'Evans).Motley, Evans), andand Latelale PrehistoricPrehist6ric (Alba,(Alba, Catahoula).Catahoula). AlbaAlba (Justice(Justice 1987:Mapiggi,M.D-iOll 103) and'Catatrouiaand Catahoula (Patterson 1976b)1976b) a1'owarrow points have widewide geographicgeographic distributionsdistributibns to the east and northeast of SoutheastSoutlreast Texas.

Johnson (1989) has noted the occurrence of PlainsPlains_types types ofPaleo-Indianof Paleo-Indian projectileprojectile.points points inin thett eastern*rt"in woodlands in easterneastem Texas, easterneastem Oklahoma, western Arkansas, and westernwestern there is no sharp.-boundary Louisiana.Iouisiana." Johnson'sJohnson's surveysurvey supportssupports'of the the conclusion.conclusion that that there is no sharp boundary betweenU"t*i"" technological6it tr.ditionitraditions of the SouthernSouthern PlainsPtains andand SoutheastSoutheast Woodlands,Woodlands, butbut ratheriutf,"i a geographicg"og.phii""togi."l zonezone that represents an interface between thesethese- technologicaltechn-ological traditions. Ae major.".ior-r*To,i" reason forior a mixmi* ofof technologicaltethnological traditions in a zone of interfaceinterface isis thatthat hunter-hunter- gathererAth;i;; settlement,.ttlir"nt patterns are not static,s[tic, asas shownshown byby ethnographicethnographic examplesexamples givengiven byby BinfordBinford (1983).(1983).

SomeSome projectileoroiectile pointDoint typestvDes found in SoutheastSoutheast Texas can be regardedregrded as outliers or fringefringe influences.irnr"ri..j. PointPoini typestypes'ih in thisrhis categorycategory include:include: Folsom,Folsom, Midland and Bell from thethe west;west; Ponchartrain,ii"n"trr.trrir- MotleyMotiev andand EvansEvans fromfrim theihe east;east; andand Dalton,Dalton, ScottsbluffSconsbluffand and possiblypossibly{rinity Trinity fromfrom thethe north.north. AA numbernimber ofof minorminor arrowarrow pointpoint typestypes inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas,Texas, includingincluding Bassett,Bassett, Bonham,bornam- Colbert,Colberl Friley,Frilev. Maud,Maud, andand Washita,Washita, representr6irresent fringefringe influencesinfluences onon thethe.northern northern edge of this region. Thisrf,iJl. is another-otti., indicationindication thatGat CaddoCuddo influencesinfliences diddid notnot extendextend veryvery farfar south"d;;';iihir-;.-;i;". intoi"6 Southeastiouih*.t Texas.Texas. AfterAftir thethe Paleo-IndianPaleo-lndian period,perioi, therethere are aa numberrumber ofof projectileprojectile ;;th rather pointoiini typestro"r inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas thatthat representrepresent sharedshared traditionstraditions withwith adjacentadjacenl.regions, regions, rather thanlh.n traditionstriiitions thatthat areare primarilyprimarily centeredcentered inin adjacentadjacent regions.regions. TheThe geographicgeoglaphrc distributionsdrstflDutrons of projectile point typesWp"i inin thethe'various various zoneszones ofoi thethe coastalcoaital marginmargin ofof SoutheastS.outheast TexasTexas areare ;i-;;;i";iii;;"1,t resources' similariioiit"i toto those th6se ofof theGe inland inland subregion. subregion. Since Since the the coastal coasta-l margin margin lacks.lacks Ethic l hrc resources, lnland Inolans. somesome projectileprojectile pointspoints inin thisthis subregionsubregion maymay bebe thethe resultresult ofof tradetrade withwlth inland Indians.

CERAMICCERAMIC CHRONOLOGIESCHRONOLOGIES 1983:Figure 14 l), PotteryPottery startedstarted atat aboutabout A.D. A.D. 100 l0O in in the the Galveston Galveston Bay Bay Area Area (Aten (Aten 1983:Figure 14.1), probablyilildty as; a;;r'$;;J;iffii;from westward diffusion from Louisiana.Louisiana. AtenAren andand BollichBoltich (1969)( l96e) notenote thatrhat potterypouery

2424 shrtedstarted earlier earlier in in the the SabineSabine LakeLake areaarea at at the the Texas-[.ouisiana Texas-Louisiana border, border, possibly possibly by-70 by 70 B.C.B.C. iitii-(Aten 1983:297).tS1l,igl). The use of potteryponery seemsseems to have diffused at a slow rate, firstfirst alongalong thethe Lit"-eastern oortionportion 6f of thethe coastalcoastal ;arei;margin inin Southeast Southeast Texas Texas andand t}enthen inland. inland. The The use use of of potterypottery n"n"rutf"generally tiahad aa slowslow diffusion rate.rai]e. The earliest pottery in the Southeast sta(edstarted about about 4500 4500 E.i.intl"orgii(SassamanB.P. in Georgia (Sassaman 1993:16),butitlookirearlytwomiltglliqfqpottery.tobecome1993:16), but it took nearly two millennia for pottery to become ,ccentedaccepted throuehoutthroughout the the Southeast Southeast (Sassaman (Sassaman 1993:3). 1993:3). AtenAten (1983:297)(1983:297) states that pottery ieacliedreached rhethe brizosBrazos furer River Delra Delta by by it at least least A.D. A.D. 300.300. Aside from the Galveston Bay Area, ttrethe startingiU.ting time time ofof pottery isis irotnot well-definedwell-defined in otherother partsparts_of of thethe region.region. Aten'sAten's iiSS3figr?"(1983:Figure l4.l)14.1) seiuenclsequence ofof pottery typestypes inin the Galveston BayBay areaarea is_is not totallytotally l;;li.;ffi-i;duplicated in oO"/o.rtiother parts of of rhis this region. region. At At ririny many sites sites inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas, Texas, only only GooseCreekGoose Creek ;;[;-i.pottery is found,io.rna. which.i,t i.t waswas made ma-de throughout rhroughoirt thethe EarlyEarly CeramicCeramic andand Latel:te PrehistoricPrehistoric ["iioit.periods. et"nAten (1983)(1983) should be consulted for detailed descriptions of-poneryof pottery types. PotteryPonery iro"rtypes ur.are classifiedclassified mainly by pastepaste and temper types,types, withwith subtypes forfor incisedincised decoratign'decoration. dirl,Only limitedli111it"d examolesexamples cincan be given herehere forfor temporaltemporal placement ofof pottery types within partial intervalsintervals ofof the lateLate Preh-istoricPrehistoric andand EarlyEarly CeramicCeramic periods'periods.

Goose CreekCreek sandy paste pottery is rhethe main ceramicceramic ty.petype found in Southeast Texas,Texas, during ;iii;r;;i;4,all time periods ofoJ"!iu1lri. ceramic use.use.-This This potterypottery type has liitlelittle value in distinguishing between ii;'ffii'6;;;i,-rur.the Early Ceramic, Late Prehistoricn.t irroric dndand HistoiicHistoric IndianIndian timetime periods.periods. OneOne rarerare varietyvariety ofof Goose Creek,ireek, Goose CreekCreek Stamped,Stamped, does indicateindicate thethe.early^part early part of thethe Earlyaarly CeramicCeramlc periodooioa fet"n'1983:Fieure(Aten 1983:Figure 14.1). hrenAten describes aa number 6f'subtypesof subtypes of Goose CreekCreek potterybonerv ihatthat dodo notnot seefuseem toto havehave anyany definitedefinite temporal significancesignificance within the various tlmetime periods.;;;iii'r. Til.;;There iris no orderlyoia.ity temporal sequencesequence bfof incised patternpattern_types types onon Goose CreekCreek pottery,botterv. butbut incised"o patternspanerns maymay havehave at leastleast some some time-diagnostic time-diagnostic_ value.value. AtenAten (1983:figureft9'8iii*;; 12.2)ri.iiifioJ* shows that1I,.r onlyonly simpleiimple incisedincised patterns patterns werewere used in thetre EarlyFrly.Ceramic Ceramic ),i,ii.a-'fi,frli"-U"tfrperiod, while both ii.pi"simple andana complexcomplei patternspanerns were usedused inin thethe Latel:te Prehistoric:Prehistoric. Black (1989)iiS'89) hasil;;"ilfJfit"d'fi"y illustrated many incisedincised patternspatiems for potteryponery in thisthis region,region, butbut nono temporaltemporal significanceii![tii,""n"" has been assigned.assipmed. Winchell and EllisEllis (1991) havehave developed a classificationclassrlicatron system;;".;;; forf;;;t;* pottery of SoutheastS.rfi*tt Texas based on surfacesurlace treatment.tieatment. ItIt remainsremains to to bebe seenseen if thisi{i. classification.ii*ih["t'i#..rf,J."n method"i can U"be applied successfullysuccessfully to the$e chronological sequence of thisthis region. in. '!: Early According to Aten'sAten's ceramic sequence, minor.typesminor types that areare -found found onlyonly in the Early CeramicC;;"rria "periodperiod includeinclude GooseGoose CreekCreek Stamped,Stamped, Tchefuncte,Tchefuncte, MandevilleMandeville andand Conway.Conway. Conwaya;;;; isiJiit"booi" like Goose CreekCieek excepte*cept that rhat ConwayConuray hashas veryvery coarsecoarse sandsand tempering,temperin& withwith.sand sand grains-"irr being5"i"" distinctlydistinctlv visible. UsuallyUsually thethe largelarg6 sandsand grainsgriins inin ConwayConway potterypottery are visible withoutfiirt oui needn..f for magnification,mafnification, often on therhe surfaceiurface of sherds.sherds. AtenAten (1983:238)( l_983:238)-renamed renamed ConwayCon*V asas O'NealONeal Plain,P-lain, variety Conway, but there seemsseems to be little advantage for use of thisthis longerlonger name.name. TchefuncteTchefuncte potterypottery has a contorted paste witlroutwithout sand. Mandeville is likelike TchefuncteTchefuicte withwith aa contortedcontorted pasG,paste, butbut MandevilieMandeville paste paste is is sandy. It hashas notnot been been determineddetermined for SoutheastSoutheast Texas ifif TchefuncteTchefuncte andand MandevilleMandeville areare separateseparate technologicaltechnological entities,entities, oror simplysimply thethe resultresult of choosingchoosing differentdifferent clay sources.sources. Aten (1983:237)( 1983.:237) notesnotes thatthat rarerare sherds of Gooseb6ose Creek Creek Cord-Marked Cord-Marked potteryponery are found onon thethe coastalcoastal marginmargin duringduring thethe EarlyEarly CeramicCeramic period.period. SmallSmall amountsamounts ofof cord-markedcord-marked sherds are found at a few inlandinland sites,sites, suchsuch asas 4111R2734lHR273 (Winchell and Ellis 1991:81).l99l:81).

SanSan JacintoJacinto grog-temperedgrog-tempered (sherd(sherd tempered)tempered) pottery occurs as aa majormajor potterypottery typetyp€ inin thethe Latelate PrehistoricPrehistoriC period onon the coastalcoastal marginmargin of SoutheastSoutheast Texas, withwith aa moremore limitedlimited distributiondistribution inin thethe inlandinland subregion.subregion. SanSan Jacinto pottery is a good timetime indicatorindicator ofof thethe LateIate Prehistoric.Prehistoric. There is nono defined defined temporal temporal sequencesequence forfor incised incised pottery pottery patternspattems onon SanSan JacintoJacinto potterypottery (Aten 1983:Figure1983:Figure 12.2).12.2). EvenEven thoughthough AtenAten (1983)(1983) namesnames several several varietiesvarieties ofofgrog grog temperedtempered pottery,pottery, allall grog grog tempered tempered potterypottery isis refered refered toto herehere under under thethe generalgeneral SanSan JacintoJacinto typetype name,name, duedue toto historichistoric precedenceprecedence inin research,research, andand thethe fact thatthat all subtypessubtypes ofof groggrog temperedtempered potterypottery have the same time range (Aten 1983:Figure1983:Figure 14.1).l4.l). TheThe subtypesubtype ofof

2525 g.osgrog temDeredtempered Dotterv pottery that that Aten Aten (1983:241) (1983:241) calls calls Baytown Baytown Plain,Plain, variety variety Phoenix-l:ke,Phoenix Lake, iliifrwith abundantgrog grog t6.p"r, temper, is is only only found found on on tlre the coastal coastal margin. margin. The The occurrence occurrence oj of s,9me some oottervpottery"Urria"ri with with grog grog temper temper at at inland inland sites sites does does notnot necessarilynecessarily representrepresent vlstts visits Dy.by lnotansIndians iro,,from ihe the coaJtalhargin.coastal margin. The The use use of of abundantabundant grog grog tq,per temper mainly mainly on on lhethe c-oastalcoastal .margtn margin i;;;;tends itr;;fi to support rt the 6n..pt concept that that principal,activitiei principal activities of of Indians Indians of of the.coastal the coastal margin margin were were iii'"Jflargely confinedio to " this this suliregion. subregion. Aten(1983:241) Aten (1983:241) diddid notnot sortsort varietiesvarieties ofof grog-temperedgrog-tempered pofierypottery"ii"iir.a for for his his study study of of the the coastrl coastal marg,in margin of of SoutheastSoutheast Texas. Texas.

Bone-temoeredBone-tempered pottery pottery is is a a minorminor typetype throughout thisthis region,region, with varying temporalte-mporal .fiJ"r"riiiplacement in a-iff.i"nt'p"rsdifferent parts of of the the regi6n. region. Boneltempered Bone-tempered poflery pottery was was found found in in b-oth.both FarlyEarly 6;'!-,;;';;ACeramic and drcEihi.tori.Late Prehistoric conteit context at at sitesite 411-1R3154lHli3ls (Patterson (Patterson 1980a) 1980a) in in the-the inland thg a;;mi-2o;;Central Zone ofof Sortte"stSoutheast Texas.Texas. Bone-temperedBone-tempered pottervpottery waswas foyldfound th19yg[outthroughout.1990) the IorcLate Prehistoric sequence.iiir" at site 4lwHl2 41WH12 (patrerson.aid.Hudgins(Patterson and Hudgins 1989a, 1989a, 1990) inin the.inlandthe inland il;i;i;;';;fi.""" +/-80 (I- w;;;;;'A;;;iWestern Zone of ttthis is iegion,region, includingsraaincluding strata with with radiocar-bon radiocarbon dates dates of of A A.D. D' 900 900 +/-80 (I- iSS15944) ;)-""d and 990990 +/-80 (1-16221).0--t6i21'). AtAt thisthTs site, bonebone temperedtempered pottery isis proEblyprobably ofof thethe LeonLeon i,i*,iPlain i"ii-f-Sirtnrtype (Suhm una'i.it.and Jelks tciOZ:gS\,1962:95), also?oundalso found in the Colorado tuverRiver Basin of CentralCentral i;;;..'d;Texas. On ir-"-"ourt"i..rginthe coastal margin ofof SoutireastSoutheast TexasTexas in the Galvesto-n.BayGalveston Bay arelarea, b.o.nebone tempered oottervpottery isis foundfound in small q-uantitiesquantities principally in the later partpart ofof thethe [-ateLate hehistortcPrehistoric (Aten(Aten iSi;,ii;;-ia.'ii.-C"Ja61983:Figure 14.1). Caddo fottery,'whichpottery, which is-sometimesis sometimes bone-tempered,bone-tempered,.is is a rarerare ceramic wnetype in fiostmost of SoutheastSoutlreast TexasTixas in the Late Prehistoric, foundfound mainly on the northern li-tngefringe pottery_has o'dof thisrhis regionreeion (Patterson(Patterson 1992d:Table 4).4). The largest amount ofof Caddo pottery has been i"r"Ofound i"-FJtin Polk Countybourty fu.(McClurkan cCIrrkan 1968).1968). Aten (1083:244)(1983:244) observesobserves thatthat "Bone-Tempered"Eone-Tempe"red pottery classificationclassification is a problem to be solved elsewhereelsewhere thanthan onon thethe upperupper Texas Coast".Coast".

AsphaltAsohalt coated potterypotterv isis a rare typetype onon the upper TexasTexas coastalcoastal margin'margin, possibly related to Latei;6'il;;;.ri.';il Prehistoric and ifir1o'ilHistoric Ind'iinIndian Rockport'potteryRockport pottery ofof fiethe Central TexasTexas coastal marginmargin (Ricklisfni"f.f iiiSdi). 1992). Rockportf"ciport PlainPlain andand AsphaltAsphali DecoratedDeiorated pottery is found in the WesternWestem Zone of;iill\;-t;ir, Southeast Texas, inI" thett'" LateLti Prehistoricprehiitoric andand HistoricHistoiic IndianIndian periodsperiod-s as onon thethe CentralCentral Texasi"r-oi coast.*.ii. SuhmSrf,m andhnd JelksJelk (1962:135) describedescribe RockportRockport pottery as having a fine sandysandy appearance, withwith nono visible temperingiempering material; occasionally,occasionally, however,-bonehowever, bone temper isls added."oo*rance.afhed. ThisThii is aa well-firedwell-fired potterypottery typetype withwith aa homogeneoushomogeneous appearance.appearance. RockportRockport potterypottery isis associatedassociated withwith KarankawaKarankawa IndiansIndians (Ricklis(Ricklis 1992).

GEOGRAPHICGEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTIONSDISTRIBUTIONS OFOF CERAMICCERAMIC TYPES I CeramicCeramic typetvoe geographiceeosraphic distributionsdistributions in Southeast Texas are summarized in Table 11I forfor theil;;;ili;irctr;Jl;iiut" coastal margin and in Table 12rz forfor the the inland inland subregion.subregion. GooseGoose Creekcreek sandysandy pastepaste pottery isi; thed;; most,%;i significant;is"ifidi potteryp"t1-ry type in allalt partspars ofof- therhe region.reeion. ThereThere isis aa smaller smaller ffiil and Eastem Zones, amountamount ofof GooseGoos. Creek Cr""f. pottery pou.iv inLi the ti'ti Western Wtit.- ZoneZon6 than than inin thethe Central Ce-ntral and Eastern Zones, which;i;il-!r;"*irt"ni is consistent with*itr, Aten'set.nl (1971:Figure(tsit:rigure l0)10) model of thethe slowslow diffusiondiffusion ofof pottery potterv down the Texas coast fromrro*'rr,.'triil.i. the Louisiana borderbo'dir toto Corpus corpus Christichristi Bay.Bay. Aten's Aten's.model model ;;r,fr' tfr"-f;;;i-it.rt at Galveston showsIn"Jiii thatii,-"t pottery p"i;d;;;d started about;ffii 600ooo yearsiea'J laterlater atat CorpusCorpus ChristiChrisri BayBay thanthan at Galveston Bay.il;-R";kd;;-rfuphalt Rockport Asphalt Decoratedoeioiared pottery.r""rs^ro^'havepottery seems to have followedfollowed this $is east-to-west east-to-west diffusionrtiffirsion patternnattern down thetf,. Texasii*iio'uii. coast. RicklisPlcklis (1992:214)(1992:214) givesgives the the start slart of of Rockport Rockport potteryil#;,..";iili at about ;i.'i;0A.D. 1250 at;;-b;rp* Corpus Christichristi Bay, whilewhil6 toto the rhe northeast norrheast therethere isis aa radiocarboni;1il'.i'il"';;l; date of A.D. 990 associatedr"oiiitea with *iu RockportRockf6rt AsphaltAsohalt DecoratedDecorated potterypotterv atat sitesite 41WH124lwHl2 in in Wharton Wharton"i-n.o.lso County corntv-t"piitoto" (Patterson andad- HudginsAqalins-tetiga, 1989a, 1990). leeo)- Asphalt ff.p}lt^j"^Y"'"d decorated pottery did not develop in the western part of Southeast Texas, but probably in some part of the northeast section of the Central Texas coast. Most of the Rockport pottery found in the l,*i#gni*'"1*leyi.:i*1,"'*i*ll*mll:r;'ii:i$lTlll"lli:s",''T,,iiIndian site, 4lWH8 WesternWestern Zone Zone ofof Southeast Sor*,."tt"i"ii;l,- Texas is fromf;;-; a singlesingle inland inland historic histo;ic Indian site, 41WH8 the (Hudgins 1984). Few significant amounts of Rockportgl,i"s".'#Ti, pottery have beeniff :'Til'',#i found east t'J,t; of Sans:x Bernard**ii'*tiruirolnjiryx River. Rockport pottery was i:*:'l'''found slightly east of this river at site 41B0167 inin Brazoria Brazoria County County (Patterson (Patteison andand HudginsHudgins 1988).l98E)'

2626 SanSan JacintoJacinto grog-lemperedgrog-tempered potterypottery isis primarilyprimarily aa coashlcoastal marginmargin lyp-e type inin the-the latelate Prehisto_ric,Prehistoric, asas shown in-ain a comparisonibmparison bfof tabtes'tTables 11 t and 12.12. EvenEven the relatively small amount ofof San JacintoJacinto potterypottery fouhd found atat inlandinland sitessites may be over-estimated.over-estimated. Analysts not fa.miliarfamiliar with coastalcoastal margiirmargin potterypottery types types tendtend toto seeiee random random irregularitiesirregularities.in in .ceramicceramic p1ste.paste as reDresenrins"proirepresenting grog ternjeriiritempering (Aten (Aten 1983.239).1983:239). The geographic distribution ofof San Jacinto odnervpottery will-biwill be d-iscussbddiscussed furtherfurrher inin relationrelation toto mobility-senlementmobility-settlement pattemspatterns ofof IndiansIndians ofof thethe toastaicoastal margin. BoneBone tempered potterypottery seems seems toto lrave have diffuseddiffused into Southeast TexasTexas from thethe north an-dand fromfrom CentralCentral Texas,Texas, but notnot inin a uniform manner.

2727 CHAPTERCHAPTER 33

REPRESENTATIVEREPRESENTATIVE ARCHEOLOGICALARCHEOLOGICAL SITESSITES

GENERALGENERAL COMMENTSCOMMENTS

ReferencesReferences areare mademade throughoutthroughout thisthis volumevolume toto detailsdetails fromfrom individual,individual archeologicalarcheological sites. ThisThis chapter discussesdiscusses somesome ofof thethe key sites involved. Most archeological sitessites inin this regionregion ar'eare campsites, withwith fewfew examplesexamples-hunting ofof specializedspecialized tasktask sites.sites. ThereThere areare nono published eximplesexamples ofof quarryq'uany sites, satellitesatellite hunting and gatheringgathering sites, oror- specialized specialized lithiclithic workihops.workshops. OniOne bis6nbison killkill site has been published (McReynolds.,(McReynolds, Korgel,Korgel, andand EnsorEnsor 1988). A few of the smaller Rangia shellshell middensmiddens onon thethe coastalcoastal marginmargin seemseem toto havehave beenbeen triefbrief visits mainly to obtain Rangia shellfish, withoutwithout indicationsindications ofof otherother activities.activities. InIn bothboth the inland andand ioastalcoastal margin subregions, therethere are small sites representingrepresenting short occupationo-ccupation stays, and larger sites representing longer occupation periods. AsAs discusseddiscussed inin otherother reportreport seciions,sections, it isis-difficult difficult to'determinito determine whether larger sites areare the result of long repeated stays by smalismall groups, or short stays by large groups. All of thethe- representativerepresentative. sites summarized h6rehere can 5ebe regardedregirded as mediummedium-to to largelirge sites in terms of artifact quantities,quantities, unless stated otherwise.

Data from both excavated sites andand surface collections fromfrom deflated oror disturbed sites are importantimDortant to developdevelop aa complete comptete regionalregional synthesis. syn0resis. Excavations Excavations ofof multi-component multi-component stratifiedstritified sites provideprovidi data for chronological sequences ofanifactof artifact types. Radiocarbon dates from single site components are also important to develop regional chronologies. As shown in TableTablitg, 19, multi-componentmulti-cbmponent sites are more common than single componentco-mponent sites. After chronological sequenceisequences for artifact types have beenbeen established,establish_ed,.surface surface collections fromfrom specificipecific sitessltes becomebecbme important for thethi study ofof geographicgeographic distributions of artifact types and settlement patterns.pattems. InIn SoutheastSoutheast Texas,Texas, surfacesurface collectionscollections areare especially important and settlement -especially^important because surfacesurface'collections collections are more numerous than excavated sites. Story (1990:211,365) has stressedstressed the importance of data from surface collections.collections- In this region, mostmost. ofof.the the importantimportant surface collections have been mademade and publishedpublished byby avocationalavocational archeologists.archeologists. SurveysSuiveys by professionalprofessional archeologists locatelocate manymany sites,sites, butbut generally.dogenerally do not findfind.many many diagnosticdiagn5stic'artifacts. artifacts. AsAs StoryStory (1990:211)(1997:21l ) observes,observes, collectorscollectors and avocationalavocational archeologistsarcheologiss spendspe"nd moremore timetime lookinglooking forfoiahifacs artifacts thanthan dodo professionalprofessional archeologists.archeologists.

ThereThere isis littlelittle toto bebe saidsaid about the surfacesurface appearance of mostmost sites in thisilris region, otherother thanthan thatthat sitessites areare generally generally locatedlocated atat well-drained well-drained locationslocations near waterwater sources,sources, oror nearnear shellfishrf,"iffirf, resources.r.rorr'."i. Excepti*i"pt for largelarge RangiaRangia shellshell middens,middens,.most most archeologicalarcheolog^ical sites inin,this this regionregion havehave lowlow surfacesurface visibility.visibility. ThereThere areare seldomseldo-m visiblevisible structuralstructural featurest-eatures suchsuch asas mounds.Ernds oror eartheneartlren wallswalls atat sitessites inin thisthis region.region. EvidenceEvidence ofof sheltersshelters isis generallygenerally missing. missing. Prehistorici+;[i;;ri; iit.rsites are usuallyusually found due tot;natural natural erosionerosion oror modernmodem disturbancedisturbance ofof thethe surface.;;.f;;;. SitesSi6;;" are "r"oftenoit* foundforiO duedue toto thethe activitiesactivities ofof burrowingburrowing_anim-als..The animals. The stratigraphicsratigraphic integrityinteeritv ofof sitessites isis most most often often destroyed destroyed byby naturalnatural erosion,erosion, urbanurban development,d_evelopment, farmingtarmtng activities,;;i;;iJr,;r;;;tirrniipg. and pothunting. Stratigraphiciii.t;graphic mixingmixing cancan alsoalso occuroccur atat sitessites locatedlocated onon stablestable landland forms,forms, becausebecausC ofof slowslow soilsoil buildup.buildup'

INLANDINLAND SURVEYSSURVEYS ANDAND SURFACESURFACE COLLECTIONSCOLLECTIONS areas of SoutheaSt TexaS' SeveralSeveral intensiveintensive surfacesurface surveyssurveys have beenbeen donedone inin various-variouS areas of Southeast Texas. WilliamiViiii"i, McClure14.6lrr" hast recordedr..ora"a many,i,iny sitessites onon WhiteWhite OakOak BayouBayoy ini.n northernnorthem Harris[Iarris County,County, and.rJ hasf,ii publishedprUilrn.a 27"s27 ofof these these sites. sit*. JoeJoe Hudgins Hudgins hashas recorded recorded overover 85E5 sites sites in rn eastern eastern

2828 whartonWharton counryCounty and and westem western Fort Fort Bend Bend counly,.and County, and has has published published surlace surface collections collections forfor r.u"i"iseveral ofof toJsites.these sites. The Houston Archeologi&lArcheological SocietySociety has excavatedexcavated aa numbernumber of of sitessites ttrrithat *"i"were foundfound byby Hudgins. TheThe authorauthor hishas recordedrecorded over over 5050 sites in westernweslern Harrisflarris Corntv.County, inaand nu.has Ou'bli.h"iipublished *rny many of of thesethese sites.sites. AlanAlan DukeDuke hashas donedone intensiv-eintensive surveysurvey rvorkwork inin r""Jiuiseveral ur*rareas oi"thisof this region.region. PublicationsPublications forfor allall ofof thethe aboveabove surveyssurveys areare referencedreferenced inin there regionalregional bibliography byby PattersonPatterson ( (1995a).1995a).

One of the bestbest examplesexamples of collectioncollection documentationdocumentation in in thisthis regionregion isis thethe Andy Kyle *ii.Joncollection (KindalliXina"lt and Patterson 1986).1986). IvIr.Mr. KyleKyle collectedcollected from many sites in the easterneastem *.tpart .f of ttthis ir' reeion.region, andand maintainedmaintained labeled labeled colfuctions collections for for each each specific specific site. site. A A totaltotal ofof 7878 [",i!irecorded iit"iin sites in i"r"nseven counties are represented by by t]risthis collection.collection. The total collection ;;ilil"tcontains at least 5000 projectile points. TheTheKyle Kyle surveyssurveys resultedresulted in a major conributioncontribution to ffi,,.h*ldfulthe archeological daradata basebase forfor the otherwisiotherwise poorly iurveyedsurveyed BsternEastern ZnneZone ofof Southeast i...i.Texas. Allett prehistoricfirehistoric timetime periodsperiods areare represented, repiesenied, fromfrom Paleo-IndianPaleo-lndian throughthrougtl Latelate pr;i;ii";i;,Prehistoric, ;irhwith il",many of of thethe iitessites havinghaving veiyvery lon-glong occupation sequences.sequences. ThisThis collectioncollection a"1noni-trutl.demonstrates that theiethere areare a a significantsignificant iumbernumber ofprehistoric of prehistoric sitessites inin the Eastern ZnneZone in all time periods.

Collections mademade byby James Lockwood onon five sitessites in in northern northem Harrisflarris CountyCounty- areare especially importantimoortant because6ecause of thethe manymany artifactsartifacts from thetlre Paleo-IndianPaleo-lndian and Early Archaic ".*"iatlvperiods.#i"d;:''Til;i.-;;;;-lG There were 106 Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian pointspoints foundfound atat site 41HR3434IFIR343 (Patterson(P-anerson et al.al' iqdz"f--1992a), includingi"ilrJi"e-Cilo"is. Clovis, Folsom,Folsom, Midland,Midlind, Dalton, Plainview,Plainview, Scottsbluff,Scottsbluff, SanSan Patrice,Patrice, fiit"'Sii.Early Side and.m Cornereoiner Notched,l.iotched, Angostura, and several miscellaneous lanceolate types.types. ThisfriJrii"-r-t site starts |.-U11, with Clovisbto"is andina hashas anai'occupation occupation sequence throughthrough all laterlater time periods,pg!-ods, into the Historic Indian perioaperiod withwith aa glassglass grav-er.graver. SitgSite 4]HR35441HR354 (Patterson.et(Patterson et al.al. 1992b) iri. tii" fi[i*i. inaian pslssJldian hadii"J a collectioniottCction withwith anai occupationoccupation sequencesiquenie fromfrom thethe Paleo-Indian periodperiod throughthrough thethe Late;;"-pr;iii;6ri; Prehistoric iiretime poioas.'periods. BellBell poihspoints ofof thetlre_Early Early ArchaicArchaic were especiallyespecially_well- well- represented.;.'"r;;i;4.-Th;"i Three orr,,i.sites,other sites, ltrn'2r0,731,732,41HR730,731,732, hadhad imallsmall collections ofof Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian projectile points,points, and some pointspoinb fromfrom laterlater time periods.periods. long ManyManv surlacesurface collectionscollections ofof this regionregion havehave nownow beenbeen publishedpublished that have -veryvery long occupations.occu6ations. Some examples of sitessites that that startstart inin the the Paleo-Indian Paleo-lndian periodperiod andand continuecontinue throughthroigh all laterlater time periodsperibds intointo thethe LateIate PrehistoricPrehistoric include:include: 411-IR1824lHRl82 (Patterson(Patterson 1985a, 1990g),I 990;), 411-1R2064 I HR206 (Patterson(Pitterson 1980c),1980c), 411-ER571 4 lHR57l (Pattersln(Patterson 1986a),1986a)J-1HR62!.(Patterson, 4111R624 (Patterson, MarriotttlIarT-i

INLANDINLAND EXCAVATED SITES

ThereThere areare fourfour excavatedexcavated sitessites inin inlandinland SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas thatthat havehave occupationoccupation sequencessequences thatthat cover allall timetime periodsperiods fromfrom Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian throughthrough Latel:te Prehistoric.Prehistoric. InIn thethe earlyearly 1950's,1950's, WheatWheat (1953) excavatedexcavated several sites on thethe west sideside ofof Houston.Houston. OneOne ofof thesethese sites,sites, thethe DoeringDoering sitesite (411-1R5),(4lHRs), hadhad aa veryvery longlong occupation sequenc€.sequence. This work was donedone beforebefore thethe currentcurrent projectile point typology was fullyfully established.established. TheThe DoeringDoering sitesite appearsappears toto havehave hadhad stratigraphicstratigraphic mixing inin some, butbut notnot allall testtest pits,pits, especiallyespecially in in the the deepest deepest strata. strata. GaryGary pointspoints werewere foundfound atat excavationexcavation levelslevels deeperdeeper thanthan wouldwould bebe expected,expected, andand aa possible possible ClovisClovis pointpoint fragmentfragment was not found at the lowest excavationexcavation level. ItIt isis stillstill possible, possible, however,however, toto show show that that this this site site clearly clearly has has four four stratigraphic stratigraphic groups, groups, for for Paleo-Indian, Paleo-Indian, Archaic,Archaic, EarlyEarly Ceramic,Ceramic, andand Latelate PrehistoricPrehistoric periods.periods. Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian pointpoint typestypes includeinclude aa

2929 Dossiblepossible ClovisClovis specimenspecimen (Plate(Plate 381),381), Angostura Angostura (Plates (Plates 37s, 37s, 38b), 38b), Scotsbluff Scottsbluff (Plate (Plate 38a),38a), SanSan PatricePatrice (Plal'e(Plate 38m), andand Early Side-Notched (Plate(Plate 37f,g,h).37f,g,h). TheThe ArchaicArchaic periodperiod isis representedrepresented byby pointpoint typestypes suchsuch asas Carrollton,Carrollton, Bulverde, Bulverde, Pedemales,Pedernales, and and Gary--Kent..There Gary-Kent. There isiis a definitedefinite sLitigraphicstratigraphic group group for for the the EarlyEarly CeramicCeramic period period with with pottery pottery and and a.variety_ a variety ofof group with.P.erdi!, dartdart pointpoint types.types.-a'nd fhereThere isis alsoalso aa definite tateLate Prehistoric stratigraphic-stratigraphic group with Perdiz, Catahoula,Catahoula, and ScaltornScallorn arrowarrow points.points. DartDart poinSpoints continuedcontinued intointo thethe Late[:te PrehistoricPrehistoric oeriod.period. TheThe DoerineDoering sitesite isis alsoalso important beciusebecause ofof faunalfaunal remainsremains fromfrom allall excavation L"ik,levels, ,naand rnunvmany lirfiiclithic tooltool rypestypes otherother thanthan projectileprojectile poins.points.

SiteSite 4ttIR3l5411-IR315 (Patterson (Patterson 1980a) 1980a) in in northwest northwest Houston Houston h19 had an_ an occupationoccupation sequencesequence fromfrom thethe kteLate Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian periodperiod thr6ughthrough thethe LateLate Prehistoric.Prehistoric. ThedeepestThe deepest excavationexcavation Ievel.hadlevel had Plainview,Plainview, EarlyEarly Steirmed,Stemmed, Angoitura, Angostura, and and San San PatricePatrice points.points. There-There waswas ar.an Archaic projectileprojectile pointpoint iequencesequence startingstarting wirtwith Carrollton,Carrollton, thenBulverde,then Bulverde, Pedernales3ndPedernales, and thlthe Guty-Gary- kentKent seriei.series. SeverilSeveral pointpoint typeJtypes werewere foundfound inin both the t:teLate Archaic andand Early geramicCeramic neriods-periods. PerdizPerdiz anowarrow ooints'werepoints were atat all excavation levels in the Latelate Prehistoric.Prehistoric. Fired ' llayballsclayballs occurredoccurred inin ailall occupation periods. UnifacialUnifacial arrowarrow points.points andand small prismatic bta'cleblade rechnologytechnology were found aias early hsas the middle level of thethe Archaic period.period. Dart points continued into the lateLate Prehistoric period.

deep, Site 4lWHl941WH19 (Patterson etet al.al. 1987)1987) in easterneastem Wharton County was an -unusually-unusually deep, well-stratified iitesite with an occupationoccupati6n sequence fromfrom the Early Paleo-Indian period until protohistoric time. time. FolsomFolsom andand EarlyEarly Side-Notched points points were were foundfound inin thelhe lowestlowest excavationLxcavation level, below a Plainview point. The Latelate Paleo-IndianPaleoJndian excavation levels had a pqints. San Patrice point, a variety of Early Notched poinrq,points, andand 1a few -Ea{YEarly StemmedSlemmed points. A varietyvarietv of miscellaneousmiscelfaneous siemmedstemmed ioinSpoints with'well-groundwith well-ground basalbasal edgesedges werewere foundfound in the te EarlyEarlyio to Middle Archaic levels. Gary and Yarbrough poinlspoints were found in tl_rethe upper Levelsl,evels of the Archaic period.period. Early CeramicCeiamic periodperiod excavationexcavation levelslevels hadhad Gary, Gary-., Kent,and Kent,and of tire Archaic 'ooinS. Early Yarbroughiarbroueh dartdart points. LateIate PrehistoricPrehistoric excavationexcavation levels had Edwards,Edwards, Perdiz,Perdiz, andand ScallornScallominow arrow points,poinS, as well as a few dart poinS.points. Perdiz was the earliest arrow point type.

Fired clayballsclavballs were found at all excavationexcavation levels of site 41WH19.4lwHl9. A variety of heavyheavy Paleo-Indianp;;;-il.iil unifacialunifacial tools tools was was found. found. This This isis thethe first sitesite toto clearlyclearly establish establish thethe chronologicali[ior"t"gi*t positionpoiitio" of Early Notched point types in thist]ris region.region..Thtite_chronolggV The site chronology isis (SI- bracketedbilk;dd"bt by radiocarbon,'uaiocarbon datesdarei of 99209920 +1-530+/-530-B.P. B.P. (AA-2_98_)(AA-298) andand A.DA.D. _1585^+/-801585 +/-80 (SI- 6455).iaSll. Thereft isis a significantsienificant surfacesurlace collection from an erodederoded area ofof 41WH19.4lWHl9. MeserveMeserve andi"a Scottsbluffdi"iiititrff".6 pointsp"lnii were*"ri foundfound onon thethe surface,surface,.together together withwith all ofofthe the Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indiar pointpoint types;;; foundfil;d inin theihe excavations.excavations. ArchaicArchaic dart pointpoint typestypes inin thethe surfacesurface collectioncollection includeinclude Carrollton,di""fri"r. Bulverde,fit"tidi.-pedetnates, Pedernales, Travis, Nolan, Williams,wllliams, Gary,-Gary, Kent,Kent,--Marcos, Marcos, Darl,Darl, Yarbrough,i;;;;;ii, Palmillas,p;irli1x5, Morhiss, undand Ellis.etlis. ArrowArrow'points points inin thethe surfacesurface collectioncollection includeinclude Perdiz,Perdia ScallornScallorn andand Catahoula.Catahoula'

SiteSite 41PK6941PK69 (Ensor(Ensor andand CarlsonCarlson 1988)1988) inin PolkPolk CountyCounty hadhad anan occupationoccupatio,n.:9ilfl::,^flo* sequence from Paleo-Indianpaleo-lndian throughthrough Latelate PrehistoricPrehistoric periods.periods- TheThe investigatorsinvestigalors concludedconcluded.thatrn::lP* that the site was site is difficult firstniri occupiedLccroi"d betweenbetw-een 8000AOOO anda;d 70007-0OO B.C.S.C. TheThe occupationoccupatioi sequencesequence ofof thisthis site is difficult toil interprett;i#5i;;ri" because of stratigraphicphic mixing.mixing. Statisticalstatistial analysesanalvs's werewere usedused toto interpretinterpret thethe artifactffi;;i!;;;;ffi. sequences. Earlyiirr,"iitt"iiet NotchedN"tEt iit pointspoins formsfoims werewere foundfound inin thethe deepestdeepest excavationexcavation levels.levels. TheiilA;fri;;; Gary-Kent seriesii'G-ipp*i. appears 1"'srartto start beforebefore 20002o0o B.C.B.C. BothBoth GooseGoose CreekCreek andand Caddo- Caddo- relatedijii""a potteryp,i,iiiiifi;;;iJi;r;i. types were found. Arrownrio* pointpoint typestypes ofof thethe Latelate PrehistoricPrehistoric includedincluded Alba,Alba, Catahoula,Catahoula, andand Perdiz.Perdiz.

ThereThere areare a a number number ofof excavated excavated inlandinland sites sites in in this this region region with wifi multi-component multi-component occupations inin thethe latertater prehistoric prehistoric timetime periods.periods. ExamplesExamples ofof excavationexcavation resultsresults fromlrom sitessltes withiiil&;;;iil,"".routlonr occupations ini"',r,Jr_iii-erir,.ii, the Late Archaic, EarlyE rrv Ceramic, ggrqnig, andand Latetare Prehistoric prehistoric periodsperiods are:are: Shaferir,li.iirdodl (1968) foriJ1 the ii," Lake Lt. ConroeC.j-". area,uriu, and un'd McClurkan McClurkan (1968)(1968) forfor the the Lake lake Livingston Livinsston

3030 area. ProjectileProjectile pointpoint sequencessequences from from these these sites sites werewere typicaltypical forfor thisthis region.region. ExamplesExamples ofof excavated sites withwith EarlyEarly CeramicCeramic andand LateIlte PrehistoricPrehistoric componentscomponents areare 411-IR2734lHR273 (Ensor(Ensor and Carlson l99l)1991) and 4lWH7341WH73 (Patterson and and Hudgins Hudgins 1993). 1993). SomeSome detailsdetails onon site 411-1R2734ltlxz73 are are discussed discussed inin otherother sections sections ofof this report.

COASTAL MARGINMARGIN SURVEYSSURVEYS AND SURFACE COLLECTIONS

Most archeologicalarcheological surveys on lhethe coastal margin ofof Southeast TexasTexas havehave been donc-done in the Galveston BayBaylrea. area. Shafer (1966,1972)(1966,1972) and Ambler (1970) conductedconducted surveys inin thisthis areaarea that tocatedlocated many sites,sites, butbut whichwhich recoveredrecovered onlyonly smallsmall collectionscollections of artifacts.artifacts. At many sites, enough diagnosticdia!,nostic artifacts werewere foundfound to estimate which chronological periotsperiods were represented.representeii. Mo-re More recently, recently, Ebersole Ebersole ( l99l(1991) ). and and otherother members ofof thethe Houston Houston the_ resulted in AicheologicalArcheological Society-additional havehave-conducted conducted a survey inin the GalvestonGalveston BayBay areaarea thatthat resulted in recording-recording overover 100 additional prehistoricprehistoric shell shell middens, middens, but but only only oneone ofof theseOrese sitessites, . (41CH290) hashas beenbeen publishedpublished so far.far.

Surprisingly,Surorisinelv. withwith allall of thethe archeological survey work done in thethe GalvestonGalveston BayBay area,area, there areTeware few publishedpublished examples of intensiveintensive surface survgys,surveys, done withwithrnore more thanthan-one one visit to aa site.site.'A A surface surface collection col[ection fromfrom site site 41CH290 4lCH290 (Patterson (Patterson andand EbersoleEbersole 1992)1992) demonstratesdemonsfates thethe valuevalue ofof intensive surlacesurface collectingcollecting on shell midden sites. This site hadhad typicaltvoical potterypottery and projectileproiectile point types ofof bothboth thethe EarlyEarly CeramicCeramic andand LateLate PrehistoricPrehistoric periods,deiiods. and some boneb6ne tools. FaunalFaunal-iemains remains showedshowed use of deer,deer, turtle,turtle, and fish. Enough diagnosticiiagnostic artifacts were foundfound toto definitely identify thethe twolwo prehistoricprehistoric time periods.periods. This sitesitJis is aboutabout 200200 feetfeet longlong atat thethe shoreshore lineline ofof a a brackish brackish waterwater lake.lake. The site hashas beenbeen highlyt,igt ii disturbedaiit rU.d byby wavewaie action,action, whichwhich facilitatedfacilitated collection ofof largelarge amountsamouns of archeological materials.materials.

There are 144 publishedpublished surface collections for thethe coastalcoastal marginmargin subregion ofofSouteast Southeast Texas, which isii 72%lZ* ofof thette totaltotal archeologicalarcheological sitesite reportsrepors for this subregion. Only 287o28% of sites publishedpublished inin thisthis subregionsubregion have datadata from excavations.

COASTALCOASTAL MARGIN EXCAVATEDEXCAVATED SITES

AtenAten (1983:Chaper(1983:Chaper 11)l l) hashas describeddescribed several sites alongalong thethe coastalcoastal marginmargin thatthat have beenbeen excavated.excavited. em6lerAmbler 1i902,t973)(1967,1973) has published daadata onon several excavated sitessites in thethe GalvestonGalveston Bay area.area. Inln general, the results ofof excavations of sitessites onon thethe coastalcoastal marginmargin havehave yieldedyielded dataiaa thatthat areaie consistent with Aten's (1983) synthesis.synttresis. ThereThere isis considerableconsiderable variation in thetlre sizes of RangiaRangia shell middenmidden sites, whichwhich reflectsreflecb variationsvariations in thethe intensityintensity ofof useuse of of the the sites. sites. Small Small sites siGs represent represent briefbrief visits,visis, and and large large sitessites represent represent manymany visitsvisits withwith possiblepossible longlong timetime periodsperiods forfor eacheach visit.

DeringDering and Ayers (1977) havehave described excavations atat sitesite 4lBOl2641B0126 inin Brazoria Brazoria County,County, whichwhich-has has a seriesslries ofof smallsmall areasareas of RangiaRangia shell whichwhich eacheach representrepresent aa brief sitesite visit.visit SinceSince otherother typestypes ofoffaunal faunal remainsremains were not reported, $isthis sitesite seems to have been used for shortshort periodsperiodC mainlymainly toto procureprocure Rangia shellfish, withwith otherother portionsportions ofofthe the dietdiet obtainedobtained atat otherother locations.

GilmoreGilmore (1974)(197a) hashas publishedpublished results of excavationsexcavations at a smallsmall RangiaRangia middenmidden inin thethe TrinityTrinity RiverRiver DeltaDelta withwith occupationsoccupations inin thethe LateI-ate PrehistoricPrehistoric andand HistoricHistoric IndianIndian periods.periods. AA varietyvariety ofof faunalfaunal remainsremains werewere recovered,recovered, withwith deer,deer, turtle,turtle, fish,fish, alligator,alligator, andand rabbitrabbit beingbeing especiallyespecially important. important.

3131 TheThe BovsBoys School sites,sites, 4111:R80,8541HR80,85 (Aten (Aten etet al.al. 1976) areare importantimportant multi'componentmulti-component excavat6dexcavated sites, sites, with with sitesite 41HR804lHR80 containing aa LateI4t-e. Prehistoric cemeterycemetery whlch which lsis ;i;r;r;?discussed inin otrierother secrionssections ofof rhisthis report.report. SiteTlHR85Site 41HR85 ]ras has aa lateLate Archaic (preceramic)(preceramic) ;;;;;;i-."dlicomponent, and is a nungioRangia and and oyst'eroyster shell.midden. shell midden. While While much much of of the the report.onreport on thesethese sitessites concentratesconcentrates on on" mortuarymortuary praitices,practices, details details of of excavations excavations and and recovered recovered artifacts artifacts are are given.given.

TheThe Dow-cleaverDow-Cleaver site,4lBo35,site, 41B035, isis anan excavatedexcavated shellshell middenmidden onon thethe BrazosBrazos fuverRiver deltaicdeltaic iiri"lii*,1*"rt.-plain, at the western end ofof the'coastalthe coastal marginmargin ofof thisthis regionregion (Aten.l9.zl).(Aten 1971). t1^i^sIt is estimated fi;iih;r;;;.ouo"ithat the site covered "naii.s..rei.22.5 acres. Occuparion-appearsOccupation appears toto h.vehave startedstarted aboutabout 500500 8.C.,B.C., andand iiiii'",i"l',i"iilcontinued until thistoric istoric ti.e. time. At As ur*iusual withwith cdasa-l coastal marginmargin sites., sites, only. only a a smallsmall amountamount ofof iiifflJ'irtif.i6'*"ielithic artifacts were found,found, comparedcompared to to thousandsthousands of of posherds.potsherds. This This sitesite isis importantimportant 6e*usebecause aatudata areare givengiven forfor anan areaarea outsideoutside ofof thethe GalvestonGalveston BayBay area'area. siteSite 4IFIR8241HR82 (O'Brien(O'Brien l97l)1971) isis anan excavated shellshell middenmidden onon ArmandArmand BayouBayou in.in tla.rrisHarris Prehistoric Rangia shell C;r;:;ii[County, with f"r.Late ei.t"i.,Archaic, frrlyEarly Ceramic, andand l:teLate Prehistoric -compon-ents.components. Rangia shell oredoirinatepredominate butbut therethere isis somesome oysteroyster shell.shell. ThisThis isis aa smallsmall site,site, aboutabout 150I 5U leetfeet lnin dlameter'diameter. 6;i.-.'Cffi-;;na'ip.rt"-""aGoose Creek sandy paste and SanSan JacintoJacinto grog-temperedgrog-tempered potteryponery were found. Projectile ;ilpoints r;;;;;r"drecovered l'nciuded included KentKent dart points,pointsl and Perdiz,Peidia Scallorn,Scallorn, Alba, andand CatahoulaCatahoula irrowarrow points.poins. The artifact conlentcontent is typical of the Galveston Bay area'area.

Site 4lHR6394111R639 (Patterson (Patterson 1990d)1990d) is is a a smallsmall RangiaRangia middenmidden onon CedarCedar Bayo!Bayou atat the inland ;;;;fedge of therh;|nital coastal margin,marein, about 12Iz miles inland from the coast line ofof GalvestonGalveston Bay.Bay. ThisTi?;.:i;;;;il;i7b site is about 40 iiiil"feet in hi.r""ter,diameter, andand is aa stratifiedstratified multi-component site. Both ceramic and.ri-riiir-ii-.'iif"; lithic artifact types,yfi; indicateinai".t" occupations in thethe. EarlyEarly Ceramiccframic.and and Latel:te PrehistoricPrehistoric i";"a..periods. iurn"fFaunal remainsrei,hins includeinciude deer,deei, gar,gar, miscellaneousmiscellaneous fish, alligator,alligator, turtle,turtle, snake,snake, opossum,5io]*],",,- fifii.;;;il;.;;t;iaentiiid'clrabbit, raccoon, and unidentified birdbird lMcclrre(McClure lee2).1992). DaraData fromfrom more sites.ofsites of margin to delermrne thistfiirlyp" type Iriare neededn."ited to ob'tainobtain a-a betterbelgr picture of full useuse of the coasulcoastal margin to determine seasonal;;r"ili subsistencesubsistence patternspattems of Indianslndiani of the coastal margin of this region.region'

3232 CHAPTERCHAPTER 44

PREHISTORICPREHISTORIC TECHNOLOGYTECHNOLOGY

LITHIC TECHNOLOGYTECHNOLOGY

LITHIC PROCUREMENTPROCUREMENT

Southeast TexasTexas isis notnot uniformtyuniformly endowedendowed withwith lithiclithic resources. ItIt waswas commoncommon for inland Irdi;il6Indians to Eav;itravel 25 25 to to 5050 milesmiles ioto obtainobtain lithic lithic materials. materials. The The only only source source of of large large pieces pieces ofof ih"nchert iris thett" ColoradoColorado RirerRiver Basin,Basin, inin the formform of chertchert nodulesnodules inin alluvialalluvial depositsdeposis iirtr"rion-(Patterson, HudeinsHudgins and and Sebesta Sebesta t994).1994). SmallerSmaller chertchert nodules nodules and and pieces pieces ofof petrifiedpetrified woodwood are availableavailable inihein the BrazosBrazos fuverRiver BasinBasin (weber(Weber l99l).1991). TheThe TrinityTrinity RiverRiver BasinBasin isis aa source of petrified*t lir"a wood. Caney Creek and thethe SanSan JacintoJacinto fuverRiver (Moore (Moore 1995),1995), nor$north ofof Houston,,Houston,. ;;.',*;;"fare sources ofimatiof small chertine'rr nodules and petrifiedpetrified wood.wood. Basically, chert resourcesreso-urces are locatedlocated i"in therf,i*"tr.- western partp.n ofof this region andand'peuified petrified wood resources areare mainlymainly locatedlocated inin the ;,1.-eastern p;npart of'theof the region. T[eThe geographicgeogriphic distributions of of typestypes of lithiclithic^ materialsmaterials areare i"n""i"dU,reflected by lithictitt ic materialmate'rial types f6un?found aiat Indian campsitescampsites in various parts ofof thethe region.region. At ;il;-;;i;iHo*ior,sites west of Houston, chertit.f isir therhe predominant predominant lithiclitliic material,material, with.small-er.amountswith smaller amounts of o"trin"apetrified wood. At sitessitei easteast of Houston,Houiton, petrifiedpetrified woodwood isis thethe predominantpredominant lithic material,material, iryit}with small amounts of chert present. TheThe KyleKyle collections (Kindall(Kindall and Patterson 1986) are portions of goodil;";;;;;E-oi examples of thett" predominantpi"do.inant useuse irfof .petrifredpetrified wood in thethe easterneastem portions of Sortf,*rtSoutheast TLxas.Texas. Site 41W1-1194liVHI9 (Patterson (Patterson et et al. al. tlSZ; 1987) and and site site 4lHRl82 41HR182 (Panerson(Patterson 1985a) are examples of thethe predominantpredominant useuse of chert west of Houston. quartzite' A.few.softer HammerstonesFlammerstones are are generally generally made made of of a a coa-rsecoarse -graqe grade 9tof quartzite. A few softer hammerstones mademade ofof silicified limestone are also found, whichwhich. can bebe consideredconsidered as anan part exoticiiotic materialmaterial fromfrom CentralCentral Texas. ThereThere isis aa finefine gradegrade ofof quartzite quartzite'points, fromfrom thetl-e northernnorthern part of this regioniiii"" thatrh"r was *"r usedused to to manufacture manufacture_ projectilepiojectile points, _grcnerallygenerally asas aa^small small proportion"i-OliiLpirri.r?ii"rui of total lithictitt ii assemblages.ass".blages. AtAt sitesite 4111R273,4-tHR27l,.in in northernnorthern HoustonHouston inin thethe CentralCentral Zone,%;.,'lithilfl;k; lithic flakes were*"i" 81%SrZ chert,chei.- 14%Vyo petrifiedpetrified wood,wood, andand 5%5o/o quartzite qrnrtzite (Mueller-Wille etet al. 1991:132).l99l :132).

pgriods,. west of.the MostMost largelarge projectileprojectile-of points, of thethe Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian and Archaic periods, found.found west of the easterneastern borderb-order of HarrisUariis County appearappear to to bebe made of chertscherts fromfrom thethe ColoradoColorado RiverRiver points greater 50 mm in length. In the ea^stern Basin.Basin. ThisThis appliesapplies roughlyroughly toto projectilepiojeciile points greater-points thanthan 50 mm in length. In the eastern portionDortion of SoutheastSoutheast ieias,'larl'eTexas, large projectileprojectile points areare not common because of thethe limitationsiimitations of availableavailable petrifiedpetrified-wood. wood. MostMost'cherts cherts found in SoutheastSoutheast Texas can bebe separatedseparated only only byby colorcoloi (Patterson 1974,1974, 1979b),1979b), whichwhich isis not aa sufficientsufficient basisbasis toto distinguishdiitinzuish cfertchert sources. NoNo studies have beenbeen mademade toto distinguish distinguish chertchert sourcessources byby chemicalchemi-cal analysis.analysis. SmallSmall quantitiesquantities of EdwardsEdwards Plateau chertchert areare foundfound atat some sites inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas.Texas.

TheThe trendrend towardtoward smallersmaller dartdart points in thethe EarlyEarly CeramicCeramic periodperiod (Patterson(Patterson 1980a,1980a, EnsorEnsor andand CarlsonCarlson 1991)l99l) maymay be be related related to to Indians lndians using using nearer nearer lithic lithic resources. resources. For For Harris llarris County,County, thisthis wouldwould meanmean usingusing smallersmaller piecespieces of of chert chert from from the the Brazos Brazos River, River, rather rather thanthan obtainingobtaining largelarge chertchert piecespieces fromfrom fartherfarther away inin thethe Colorado Colorado RiverRiver Basin.Basin. TheThe trend trend towardtoward smallersmaller dartdart points is reflected in byproduct flakeflake (debitage) sizes. AtAt sitessites suchsuch asas 41HR3154lHR3l5 (Patterson(Patterson 1980a:Figure 198Oa:Figure 19)l9) andand 41WH194lWH19 (Patterson(Patterson etet al.al. 1987:Figure1987:Figure 20)20) therethere isis aa trendtrend towardtoward smaller flake sizes inin laterlater timetime (Figure(Figure 8).8).

ProcurementProcurement of lithiclithic rawraw materialsmaterials inin thethe westernwestem andand centralcentral partsparts ofof Southeast Southeast TexasTexas seemsseems toto have have been been a alogistic logistic activity, activity, not not closely closely embedded embedded in in residential residential subsistence subsistence

3333 movements.movements. There There is is no no correlationcorrelation between between intensity intensity of of lithic lithic manufacturingmanufacturing at at campsitescampsites andand distancesdistances fromfrom lithiclithic sources.sources.

OnlyOnly silicifiedsilicified varietiesvarieties of of petrifiedpetrified woodwood are are generally-suitable.forgenerally suitable for makingmaking thinthin bifacialbifacial dartdart ooinS.points, althoushalthough crude'stone crude stone tools tools can can bebe made ofof non-siliceous typestypes ofof petrified *ood.wood. SinceSince manylarietiesmany varieties of of silicifiedsilicified petrified petrified wood wood lack lack the the finc fine crystalcrystal structurestructure ofof chert,chert, collectionscollections 6fof dartdart pointspoints mademade of of petrifiedpetrified woodwood can can have have a-rather_ a rather c^rude.appearance.crude appearance. ThereThere isis aa largelarge variation'invariation in thethe qualityquality oi"variousof various typ€stypes of of petrifiedpetrified wood wood for for flintknapping. flintknapping. ForFor example,'oneexample, one varietyvariety ofof petrifiedpetrified woodwood thatthat locallocal mineralogisbmineralogists callcall "golden"golden palm"palm" isis aa highhigh qualityquality knappingknapping material.material.

TheThe coastalcoastal margin ofof rhisthis regionregion lackslacks significantsignificant lithiclithic resources.resources. IndiansIndians ofof thisthis subregionsubregion chosechose toto limit li-thiclithic procurementprocurelment fromfrom remoteremote sources,sources, inin favorfavor ofof subSitutingsubstituting bonebone andand shell tool materials wherewhere possible. AtenAten (1983:Table(1983:Table 13.4_and13.4 and pqCepage 300)300) hashas noted.onlynoted only i."itsmall u.orntramounts ofof lithiclithic flai

There may be problems in determining the actualactual level_oflevel of lithic manufacturing activities at coastal margin targelarge shell midden sitis.sites. TheThe largelarge volumevolume ofof shellshell would tend to dilute coasral mirgin "Thisshell samples of flakes.fiakes. This would be especially truetrue in the Latellte Prehistoric period, when only smallsrra[l flakesflukes werewere producedproduced fromfroir thethe- manufacturemanufacture ofof arrowarrow points.points. AsAs another another consideration, lithic manufacturing activities would notnot be exlT'dedexpected to have occurred in all areas of largelargi shellshell middenmidden sites.sites. Therefore,Therefore, the recovery of flakesflakes inin excavationexcavation samplessamples would not necessarilyn-ecessarily relate to thetlre level of manufacturingmanufacturing.actly1tY. activity. Still, the relatively low numbers of stone projectilepr6jectile points recovered atat mostmost shell midden sitessites doesdoes imply a low levellevel of lithiclithic manufacturing.manufacturing.

LITHICLITHIC MANUFACTURINGMANUFACTURING PROCESSESPROCESSES

TheThe mostmost importantimporlant lithiclithic manufacturingmanufacturin-g_ p-rocessprocess forfor most of thethe. prehistoric prehistoric, periodperiod inin SoutheastSiirtt *ii-b1."il Texasfeias was*as the manufacturemanufacture of bifacialbifacial spearspear points,points, startingstarting withwift flakeflake.blanks. blanks. FlakeFi"k. blanks were;re obtained in this regionregion byby thethe'primiry primary reductionreduction ofof chertchert nodulesnodules oror petrifiedoetrified woodwood pieces,oieces. usingusing aa quartzitequartzite hammerstone.hammerstone. SinceSince mostmost IndianIndian campsitescampsltes. havehave yielded;i"l;; fewf.;lgr;..roitia large worked cores6r"r'or or unbrokenunbroken chertchert nodules,nodules, itit appearsappears thatlhat.most most primaryprimary reductionieduction waswas doned-one atat thethe lithiclithic materialmaterial source.source. PrimaryPrimary reductionreduction atat thethe lithiclithic sourcesource hashas aa great;;i;&";;;; advantage ininl.itirg testing andand selectingselecting goodgood material,material, and inin reducingreducing weightweight ofof materialsmaterials toto bebe transportedfansported toto remoteremote campsites.campsites.

AfterAfrer producingoroducinq flakeflake blanks,blanks, thelhe nextnext stepstep wouldwould havehave beenbeen heatheat treatingtreatin-g ofof thethe blanks. blanks' ThereTh; isI;;;;i;';"iifr".. much evidence of heattEirr*ting treating ofof chertthert inin lithiclithic flakeflake collectionscollections fromfrom sitessites inin thisthis region.;;i;;. HeatH;i;*tinq treating cancan"f beb" identifiedieilifi;J"by by waxywaxy surfacesurface luster,luster, andand sometimessometimes^by by aa reddishreddish colorationti,ii,iliri,i-li if tracei*;'ii;;;fi;Ji iron compounds are.ie present.ri."'"ni. ReddishReddish colorationcoloration isis mostmost oftenoften foundfound onon theirii".r.iii,"i"f surfaces of heatIiJaI;;6e treated flakefr;k" blanks,blanks, andand aa highlyhighly reducedred-uced specimenspecimen maymay notnot havehave.anY any remainingremainine surfacesurface withwith reddishreddish coloration.coloration. Tan colored flints are mostmost likelylll(ely toto show snow heated to too high a indicationiilil;ffi of heat treatingrr."iirg byUv reddishreddish coloration.coloration. Iflf chertchert isis heated to too high a temperature-temperature thereii;;;;'6;-d;;&p";i,";r"tlt can be "-iir;i potlidp"tiiJ surfacei"#it.hacture fracture scars,scars, or or even even greatergreater materialmaterial damage.dama_ge. Heat Heat treatingreating can be done experimentally inin a homef,on,i-o".h oven at 530530. degreesdigrees FF forfor 33. hours hours (Patterson(P.atterson 1979c).1979c). iifi "t of soil on the chert to Indiansi"iliir would*"rfa havefiaue used,s"d ai.'rooO wood" fire,lri, probablyprobably usingusingi a thinthin coveringcovering of soil on the chert to

3434 Dreventprevent overheating.overheating. Most Most local local chertscherts inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas areare veryvery toughtough andand difficultdifficult oto hake.flake. Heat treatingtreatin; lowerslowers the tensile strength aboutaboul 40o/o40% (Purdy(Purdy an{and Brooks 1971, panersonPatterson t98la).1981a). TlereThere isis littlelittle archeologicalarcheological evidenceevidence to judge if heat reatingtreating ofof chert waswas commonly done atat the lithic source locationlocation oror atat thethe campsite-.campsite. SinceSince fewfew Indianlndian- sitessites in tlristhis region have very muchmuch materialmaterial that has been damaged by.thermalby thermal exposure,exposure, therethere isis a oossibiliwpossibility that heat-treatineheat treating of of chertchert waswas oftenoften donedone near thethe lithiclithic sourcesource location.location. In this icenario,'onlyscenario, only successfullysuccessfull! heat treatedtreated material wouldwould have beenbeen transportedtransPorted toto the campsite.

Manufacture of of bifacialbifacial spearspear pointspoints (dart (dart points) points) was was donedone mainlymainly atat campsites in.thisin this resion-region, althoushalthough initialinitial shapineshaping ofof preformCpreforms maymay havehave sometimessometimes beenbeen donedone atat the lithic so-urce'locatioi.source location. The manufacturingmanuficturing' processprocess cancan bebe identified by broken preforms, and by collections of bifacialbifacial thinningthinning flakes.fla-kes. The majoritymajority of prehistoricprehistoric archeologicalarcheological sitessites in Southeast TexasTexas areare campsiteJthatcampsites that have have evidence evidence ofof bifacial reductionreduction beingbeing done.done. AsideAside from unfinished spear points, flake size distribution characteristicscharacteristics can can give give evidenceevidence ofof ' from unfinished spear'(Pattirson poinS, '1990c). flake size distribution- bifacial reduction (Patterson 1990c). An example of thethe characteristiccharacteristic exponentialexp-onential curve shapeshaoe for flake sizesize distributiondistribution from bifacial reduction hashas beenbeen shownshown for an ArchaicArchaic period stratum ofof sitesite 4lwHl941WH19 (Patterson 1990c:Figure 4).

There are indications at many-from campsites that minimally trimmed flake blanks for dartdart- point manufacturewere were broughtbrought from quarry locations,locations, rather thanthan initially_initially shaped bifacebiface .unrf""ture -of preforms.oriiotr.. AA wide rangeranee of flake sizessizes andarid remainingremaining cortexcorlex on flakes indicatesindicates thatthat flake blanks6i"rir were*"r" brought i-oto sites withwith aa minimumminimum amountamounl ofof trimmingtrimming andand. bifacialbifacial reductionreduction done previouslyoreviouslv ataithe the raw material sourcesource location.location. Also, the large number ofof flakes found aturnru?,V many campsites indicates thethe highhigh degree of bifacialbifacial reduction donedone atat the siteq.sites. Sites 41WH19qlWHiS "".piites(Patterson(pairerson et al.al. 1987)1987) and ai'd 411-1R315 qtfnf ts (Patterson 1980a) have typicaltypical datadaa thatthat show thethe above conclusions.

Bifacial preformspreforms for spear points are producedproduced by percussionpercus_sion flaking, as manymany modernmodern flintknappersflintknap'pers can demonsratidemonstrate (weber(Weber l99l)-1991). Although hardhard hammerstones can be used for bifacial 'tirinning,thinning, better control cancan bebe obtainedobtained byby ihethe useuse of soft percussion,percussion, such as byby bifacial bener controi -of use ofof antlerantler oror-silicified silicified limestonelimestone percussors. percussors. RemainsRemains ofof antler antler percussorspercussors areare seldomseldom preserved at archeological sites, but limestone hammerstones areare sometimessometimes found, as.as well asis harderharder quartzitequartzite h-ammerstones.hammerstones. A A preformpreform waswas generally converted into a finishedfinished point and align the projectileprojectile pbintpoint byby-antler use of pressurepressure flaking to shape the stem and point and to align the edges.ldgles. SharpenedShuipened antler tinestinis are good pressurepressure flaking tools,tools, butbut areare_not not often preserved at sites.sit6s. AA completecoinplete sequencesequence ofof producing producing dartdart pointspoints startingstarting with chertchert cobbles hashas beenbeen replicatedreplicated byby PattersonPatterson ((1981b) l98l b) andand WeberWeber (1991).( l99l ).

Occasionally,Occasionally, dartdart pointspoints are found at sites in this region where thelhe bladeblade sectionsection appearsappears toto havehave beenbeen reworked.r6worked. The reworking ofof blade sections isis usuallyusually judged by thethe blade section beingbeing shortershorter than mostmost specimensspecimens ofaof a type, more beveling onon edgesedges oror aa moremore constrictedconstricted shapeshape atat thethe tip.tip. WhenWhen bladeblade sectionssections ofof projectile projectile pointspoints appearappear toto havehave beenbeen reworked,reworked, therethere are twotwo possibilities.possibilities. OneOne possibilitypossibility isis thatdrat thethe pointpoint waswas broken broken duringduring useuse andand returnedretumed to the campsite for reworking to restore thetlre point. The other possibility isis variationvariation inin shapeshape duedue toto the the orginal orginal manufacturingmanufacruring process, caused by small size ofof starting starting rawraw materialmaterial or breakagebreakage of preformpreform duringduring manufacturemanufacture with subsequentsubsequent shortening of thethe productproduct point.point.

ArrowArrow pointspoints areare smallersmaller thanthan spear points.points. The productionproduction of arrowarrow pointspoints waswas donedone mainlymainly byby pressurepressure flakingflaking ofof thinthin flakeflake blanks,blanks, usuallyusually underunder 55 mmmm inin thicknessthickness (Patterson(Patterson 1985b).1985b). PressurePressure flaking producesproduces only smallsmall sizesize flakes. flakes. Therefore, Therefore, atat Late late Prehistoric Prehistoric sitessites wherew}-ere onlyonly arrowarrow pointspoints were being made, mainly small flakes will bebe found,found, mostlymostly underunder 15l5 mmmm squaresquare (Patterson(Patterson and Sollberger 1978).1978).

3535 UnifacialUnifacial arrowarrow pointspoints inin thethe form form ofmarginallyof marginally retouchedretouched flakes flakes areare easy easy toto make.make. EvenEven aa flintflint flakeflake cancan bibe used asas a pressure flakingflaking tool.tool. Bifacial arrow poinSpoints withwith deep pr-essurepressure flakingflaking requirerequire moremore skill skill toto manufacture.manufacture. There There is is a a sigrrificant significant advantage, advantage, however, however, forfor lhethe manufictuiemanufacture of of bifacial bifacial arrow arrow points points by by extensiveextensive pressure flaking,flaking, comparedcompared to to the minufacturemanufacture of of marginallymarginally rerouahed retouched unifacial unifacial arrow arrow poinF. points. A A much much wider wider ranBe range of of flakeflake shaoesshapes andand sizessizes calncan bebe- usedused asas blanks blanks toto make make bifacial bifacial arrow arrow points. poins. TheThe apparentapparent evoiutionevolution from unifacial arrow pointspoints toto standardizedstandardized bifacialbifacial formsforms maymay havehave been-been atat leastleast nartiallvpartially caused caused bv by the the flexibiliw flexibility ofof beingbeing ableable toto use a wider range ofof flake blanks. This i,rouldwould 6speciallyespecially ipplyapply in situations wherEwhere therethere waswas aa limitedlimited s-upplysupply ofof byproduct flakesflakes fromfrom the'm"nuihcijr6the manufacture of of dartdart poinSpoints thatthat would would bebe suiublesuitable forfor reuse for arrowarrow point manufacture.manufacture. Atso, Also, thethe greatergreater uniformity uniformity of of bifacial-arrow bifacial arrow points points m3y.have may have gi.vengiven more consistentconsistent results inin huniinghunting thanthan thethe crudercruder unifacial unifacial forms. forms. Conversely, Conversely, itit shouldshould b€be notednoted tlratthat rherethere isis an advantageadvantage-to to using marginal retouchretouch toto make,make arrowarrow p-oinlspoints onon very_thinvery thin flakes.flakes. Thin flakes tend to breakbrea[ when heavy pressure flakingflaking isis being done. EvenEven standardized arrowarrow pointpoint forms, forms, suchsuch asas PerdizPerdiz and and AIba,.are Alba, are often often foundfound withwith littlelittle retouch on one face, due to limitations in flake thickness and width.

Sharp edgesedges for cutting tools can bebe producedproduced by pressurepressure or percussion flaking..flaking. It should be noted,nbted] however,however, thatthlat unretouchedunretouched flakeflake edges are sharpersharper than retouchedretouched edges.edges. A retouched edgeedge of-aof a cuttingcutting tooltool oftenoften represents represents resharpening.resharpening. SteepSteep edge-edge anglesangles -forfor scraping tools-aretools are easily producedpro-duced by.useby use of smallsmall hammerstones.hammerstones. Gravers,Gravers, drills, notched toolstooli andan"d denticulates (iaiv(saw tooth edge)edge) were generally produced byby pressure flaking. flaking. AllAll ofof these tool typestypes cancan bebe easily easily replicated, re[liiated, asas produced produced byby thethe author author andand manymany otherother experimental flintknappers.fl intknappers.

L1THICLITHIC TOOL TOOL TYPES TYPES ANDAND FUNCTIONS ToolTool FunctionFunction than projectile A varietyvariety ofof stonestone tooltool types types are are found found atat sites sites in in Southeast Southeast Texas. Texas. Other-Other than projectile points,ooinS- formalf6rmal tooltool typestvpes areare not common afterafter the Paleo-Indian period, although many sites have yielded aa fewfew'icraoers scrapers andand gravers.gravers. The utilized flake waswas thethe dominantdominant stonestone tooltool frru" ui"ld"d -bifacial type,tvp., often6rt"n casuallycasually selectedseleited fromfrom bifacial thinningthinning debitage. The utilized flaleflake can be fully$lly functionalii,'"iii"r"i forf* many.orly tasks,tasks, suchsuch asas butchering butchering (Patterson(Pitterson- 1975a)l9?5a) andand woodworking.wood^working. ToolTool functionfunction cancan sometimessometimes bebd judgedjudged byby edgeedge wearwear patternspatterns (Tringham.et(Tringham et al.al. 1974),1974),.but jtbut some tasksiriki'*.t such as softr"itnl*t meat cuttingcrttingiire give littleiittlJ"age edge wearwdar (Patterson(Panerson 1984).1984). Therefore,Therefore, it isis oftenoften not,J possible"r to judgeiudee ififa a flakeflakE has[as been usedusel as a tool. Also, ififa a flakeflake edgeedge hashas beenbeen usedused fori;; more""rritt"1o;,;;til'onJrunction, than one function, suchsuch asas cutting cutting andand scraping,scraping, thetlre edgeedge wear wear pattern pattern cancan bebe confusing.confusing.

BasicBasic functionalfunctional edgeedge wearwear patternspatterns as described by Tringham-Tringham etet al..(1974)al. (1974) areare easyeasy toto replicate,r"oti."t.- includingincludins'*"a, wear patternsplft.tns for cutting,cutting scraping,siraping, andand planing.planing However,However,. the the interpretationiii"iJii-*iti"" of what materialsnr.i.rl"tr *eiewere being worked,*or-ked, usingusing-both both macromacro andand-micro micro methodsmethods of;i#G;, analysis, isi;;iill still"i*f,.t controversialiontroversial inin spite spite ofoFthe the large targ6 body body of of literature titerature onon this this subject. subject. ForFor example,examole- wearwear patternsDattems on scrapersi"rip.o from processingprocesiing bison hideshides- developeddeveloped byby SchultzSchultz performing rhe same task. (1992)( ffi;i;"'ifr'diji.rJui are not the same as foundiounJ'uv by someiome otheroti.,er investigators investlgators in in performing the same task. on the edge EdgeEdqe wearwear fromfrom longitudinallongitudinal cuttingcutting isis characterizedcharacterized by longitudinallongitudinal scallops on the edge and;f-r;iiJ polish on the highiiieh points p"i;d;iih'";il"ps of the scallops (Tringham (rrinehim eteial. al. 1974:Figure le74:Figuie 5, 5, Patterson P_atrerson 1975a).ffiiJ:'ildd;;;f,;;;f It takes",i'ii,; much use of a.n.r" flake forioi cutting toto develop develop a afull full wear wear pattern. pattern. Initially, Initially, "ritn! of a flake for scraping cuttingffii;;ftff; produces al'lJii., series ofJririuuiJn.r...rr. nibbled flake scars ono"n therhe tool edge.edge..Use Use of a flake for scraping produces a uniform series of unifacial flakeflaki scars,scars, much much likeliki the the flake flake scar scar pattern pattem whenwhen ;il;;"', ;;ttti.-."ri", "i-;;if""i"l

3635 Durposefulpurposeful retouchretouch is is usedused toto make a scraper,scrap€r, butbut withwith generally smallersmaller flake scars than iroirfrom purposefulpurposeful retouch.retouch. PlaningPlaning action action also also producesproduces a a series series ofof unifacialunifacial flakeflake scars, but generillygenerally less pronouncedpronounced than from scraping, and with more ofaof a nibbled pattern.

without having been t"1o^ushei to A utilized flake is simply-flakes a lithic flake thatthat has been used without having been retouched to a formalformal shape.shaDe. ManyMani flakes areare suitablesuitable forfor cutting,cutting, scraping,scraping, andand planingplaning functionsfunctions without anvany siapingshaping r-etouch.retouch. AA newlynewly made chert flakeflake can have an edge sharpersharper than a steel knife, althouei'thealthough the edgeedge ofof a chert flake will become dulled faster ttanthan aa steelsteel knife. Patterson (lszSafhas (1975a) has comptetelycompletely butchered butchered a. a deer deer using using a..single a single chertchert flake,.withflake, with no problem in tool edgeelge damagedamag,e during t}isthis experiment. TheThe utilizedutilized flakeflake was the dominant itonestone tool type at most sites in Southeast Texas.

F/ge-wearEdge-wear pattemspatterns discussed discussed herehere are are based based on on observationobservation with with low-power._magnificationlow-power magnification (10x-80x).fi0-x-80x). Studiesstudies ofof edge-wearedqe-wear patternspatrems using high-power magnificationmagnification (Keeley (Keeley 1980), iuchsuch as 200x, havehave notnot beenbelen donedone-in in SoutheastSoutheastTexas. Texas. Edge-wear studies using high-power mapnificarionmagnification reouirerequire specialspecial equipment"equipment, specialspecial training,training, and and extensive extensive specimenspecimen cleaning.cleaning. 1'hiiThis woetype of analysisanalvsis isis'too too slowslow totb bebe suitablesuitible forfor useuse inin thethe limitedlimited time usually available for thetht'analysis analysis ofirf largelarge lithiclitlric collections.collections. Also,Also, thethe interpretationinterpretqtion .of of differentdiffe_rent^types types of microwear polish remainsr"Inai-ns somewhat controversial (Yerkes(Yerkes and KarduliasKardulias 1993:103).1993:103).

Formal Tool Types

Formal lithic tool types are not numerous atat inlandinland sitessites inin thisthis region,region, as_as shorvnshown inin-Table Table 13,13. and eveneven lessless commontbmmon atat coastalcoastal marginmargin sites, asas shownshown inin TableTable 14. 14. Paleo-Indian Paleo-lndian formali"i-ri-t""1 tool typestvDes seem toto bebe somewhat somewhat moreriore commoncommon thanthan formal tool types inin laterlater periods,,"ii"ai. ir.tt'"isuch as at site 41WH1941WHl9 (Patterson(Patterson etet al. 1987:Figures1987:Figures 14-18).l4-18). TheThe AlbanyAlbany haftedhafied scraperL.uoii'ii is iitirsica classic example ofofa a Paleo-IndianPaleo-lndian tool type (Patterson 1991a, 1991d).l99ld). AnotherAngther typicalrypi&t Paleo-Indianpui"o-Gdian tooltooi typetype is is the th.e combination co.mbination scraper-graver. scraper.-graver.- Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian. unifacialunifacial toolst6bls inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas arear6 generallygenerally thickerthicker and heavier than unifacialunifacial toolstools of laterlater time periods.oeriods. At sitesire 41WH1941WHl9 (Patterson(Paierson Ctet al. 1987:Tablest987:Tables 8,9), many of thethe Paleo-IndianPaleo-lndian stone tools[ooti hadtia thicknessesthicknesses of overover 10 l0 mm. mm. It It would would appear appear that that many many Paleo-Indian Paleo-Indian unifacialunifacial toolstools werewere mademade on flakesflakes specificallyspecifically manufacturedmanufactured to make these tools. This isis inin contrastcontrast toto unifacialunifacial toolstools fromfrom laterlateitime time periods,periods, wherewhere flakesflakes forfor unifacialunifacial tooltool manufacturemanufacture were casually selected fromfrom bifacialbifacial thinningthihning debitage.debiuge. The actual functionfunction ofaof a stone tool cannot bebe rigorouslyrigorously proven by the type designation,designation, as many stone tool specimensspecimens could havehave beenbeenirsed used for ai variety of6f tasks.rasks. DesignationDesigrration of formalformal tooltoo! types hashas analyticanalytic- value,v_alue, inin anyany case,case, forfor thethe comparisoncompariion of lithiclitlric collections.collections. FormalFormal lithiclithic tooltool typestypes foundfound inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas includeinclude unifacialunifacial cuttingcutting tools,tools, bifacialbifacial knives,knives, scrapers,scrapers, notchednotched tools,tools, denticulatesdenticulates (saws),(saws), perforators,perforators, choppers, etc, as summarized in Table 13. Various stone tool typestypes cancan performperform thethe same rangerange of taskstasks as modernmodem metalmetal handhand tools.

SomeSome possiblepossible functionalfunctional usesuses ofof unifacialunifacial tooltool typestypes cancan bebe itemized,itemized, basedbased onon activitiesactivities thatthat probably occurred atat campsitescampsites inin thisthis region. region. PossiblePossible functionsfunctions ofof unifacial tool typestypes include:include: (1)(l) scrapers:scrapers: hide preparation andand woodworking, woodworking, (2)(2) denticulates: sawingsawing of wood andand bone,bone, (3)(3) notchednotched tools:tools: woodworking,woodworking, (4)(a) perforators:perforators: drilling holesholes in wood, bonebone andand ceramics,ceramics, (5)(5) choppingchopping tools:tools: butcheringbutchering andand plantplant processing, and (6) bifacialbifacial knivesknives andand unifacialunifacial cuttingcutting tools:tools: butcheringbutchering andand woodworking.woodworking. EthnographicEthnographic examples can bebe usefuluseful inin showingshowing atat leastleast some of thethe usesuses ofof aa stonestone tooltool type.type. UseUse ofof notchednotched flakesflakes asas spokeshavesspokeshaves byby AustralianAusralian aborigines has beenbeen illustratedillusrated by HaydenHayden (1977:Figure(1977:Figure 5).5). Surprisingly,Surprisingly, FlaydenHayden (1977:Figure 6)6) also illustratesillustrates a denticulateddenticulated flakeflake being usedused toto smoothsmooth aa,wooden wooden shaft,shaft" ratherrather thanthan beingbeing usedused asas aa saw. This is aa goodgood example example wherewhere actualactual tooltool functionfunction cannotcannot bebe predictedpredicted fromfrom tooltool form.form.

3737 wear panerns On flakeS demonstrate hat InIn summary, summary, formal formal unifacial unifacial tool tool types types _and and edge edge wear patterns on flakes demonstrate that itonistone rootitools werewere beingbeing used used at at aa iiie.site. InIn mosimost cases, however,however, the. the actualactual tasktask thatthat waswas ol.for-"aperformed *nnot cannot be be ifentified. identified. In In any any event, event, it it is is useflul.to useful to show show that.a that a varietyvariety ofof taskstasks Ir"i"'U.ipgwere being p"*.rmedperformed with with stone stone rooli tools at at a a site, site, ql as isis typical-oftypical of campsitescampsites inin thisthis region.region. IndicationiIndications 6fof tooltool useuse maymay givegive some some indicationindication ofof intensityintensity of of sitesite use.use. PrismaticPrismatic BladesBlades

TwoTwo tvDestypes ofof orismaticprismatic bladesblades areare foundfound inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas,Texas, largelarge Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian blade-sblades andand l"i";later ;#llsmall frismaticprismatic bladesblades (Sollberger(Sollberger and and Pa_ttersonPatterson 1976). PrismaticPrismatic bladesblades areare flâkesflakes fitf,with G-"BhJ.it."rtlengths at least t*i..twice the'widths,-withthe widths, with parallel parallel laterallateral edges,edges, and and withâtwith at leastleast oneone flakeflake of i|"iscar iiiel-ridge on thithe dorsal face parallel to thetire laterallateral edges. The purposefulpurposefd -productionproduction of ,ii.nruii?prismatic UtuA"rblades"" isis aa specializeilspecialized process,process, wherewhere forceforce isis ippliedapplied atat anan establishedestablished rid_89ridge onon aa ;;;;'i;;;.core face. Th;?actui'!The fracture ptiniplane foliowsfollows th6the ridgeridge to,to produc6produce aa longlong flakeflake with.with parallel lateral edeesedges (Sollberger(Sollberger andand PattersonPatterson 1976). TheThe bestbest indicationindication ofa of a prismaticprismatic bladeblade industryindustry is,is id;;i,h"a;;iArt.rhe]nolvhedral-core.the polyhedral core. SmatlSmallSmall amountsamounts ofof prismaticprismatic bladesblades cancan bebe producedproduced fornritously fortuitouslyfortuitously duringduring iliiu'.i.ibifacial i"Jr.tionreduction operations.operations. Therefoie, Therefore, to to identify identify a a truetrue prlsmaticprismatic tlade blade industry,industry, itit is importantimportant for a sigrrificantsignificant number.of.prismatic.number of prismatic blades.blades toto bebe presentpresent and/orand/or no[yne.apt-9of:polyhedral cores *iiiwith *iitiiiparallel nuLtflake i."ir.scars. Prismatic blade technologies areare particularly applicableapplicable to.to the study of functional uses of productpI"d":j flakes. The production of prismatic blades is a study .of functional S"s o{ lrl-k:t:. T*,.P::dl".,lôi.^:l 11'-11::: .ll1::.lt-,: ."""ilfii.ispecialized nl"r*niooineflintknapping r"Ct,i;quetechnique rhat that isis notnot likelylikely toto havehave been imployedemployed unless there were specific uses fiifor thi-sthis specialized type of product flake.

There are rare finds of Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian large prismatic bladesblades inin thisthis region,region, suchsuch as aiat sites 41HR343aifin:Al (patrerson(Patterson etet al. 1993a:Figure1993a:Figure 01,6), 41HR642ltm,0l2 (Patterson(Patterson- 1990b:Figure1990.b:Figu.re 2),.2), andand 41HR332qi}fi.ffZ ('McClure(McClure andand PatrersonPatterson 1989).t9-89).-Texas.-specimens_of There is littlelittle evidenceevidence forfor Paleo-Indian'Paleo-lndian bladesblades havingf,iri"E beenU".'" manufacturedminufactuied inin SourheastSoutheast Texas. Specimens of thisthis typetype areare oftenoften made of Edwardsi;a*";ai Plateauplit*, flint, and were probably manufacturedmanufactured- in Central Texas.Tixas. Several sites withwitlr thetf,i manufacture,.nrf.itui" of largelarge Paleo-IndianPaleo-lndian typetypg prismaticplillnalc.Uades blades are known inin CentralCentral Texas,Texas, such,rit'* as thertrJb.rtt Gault sitesiti (Collinsltottins and HeadrickHeadiick'1992, 1992, Collins, Hester and HeadrickHea-drick 1992),122?Lft" the Pavoi"ri Realn*t siteritJ (Henderson(Hendeison and Goode 1991),1991), and site 41ME34lME3.(Patterson- (Patterson 1977,1977, 1981d).l98ld). AA Paleo-Indiani;i;:I"di";;;l tool kittii made*.a" of ea*"rdsEdwards Plateau chert was found itat site 41HR343, includingincludi.ng a;;;if;;i.l unifacial point,ili;t, an endend scraperscrapir and andand.a a perforatorperforator mademade onon prismaticprismatic.bl{l blades, and11,1 a combinationcombination scraper-graver made onOn"nd an ordinaryordinary. flake.flak-e. These typestvoes of unifacial tools are inln theirJ'pir"i-i"dii"iooft Paleo-Indian tool tradition aaitioit of theti.'ci."iitiirs Great Plains (Irwin(Irwin andandW-ormington Wormington 1970).1970)' Paleo-Paleo- Indianfniian prismaticorismatic blades generally have widths over 2020 mmmm (Sollberger (Sollberger andand. Patterson Patterson 1976:529).i9;6;iidi.'i;i;"-G6"" Paleo-Indian ?iirr.tic prismatic bladeblade manufacruremanufacture seemsseems toto be connectedconnected with thethe manufacture and use of highly curated unifacialunifacial tools,toots,.possibly possibly related to.ato a veryy..ry.Tglll: mobile ;;i.;d;;;"d ,* *gtiiiiurated- lifeway.lifewav. TheThe manufacturemanufacture"r of largelarge prismaticprismatic blades did not continuecontinue intornto thethe Archaic Arcnarc period,#io}1*ir;;i;;d;;;;;h;t which had a somewhat less1"fi mobileniobil" lifeway,lif"*"v, and an emphasisemphasi! onqn thethg productionproduction ofof bifacialfii;;ilIilj;;ili; projectile points.i"i"ii. Prismaticniiirrrtic bladeblade technologytechnol6eu-is is notnot particularlyparticularly^advantaceg,,s-l9l advantageous for lithicfitiri. manufacturing,J"ri""t rin'g processesprocesses primarilyprimarily relatedrelated toto bifacestifaces (Patterson(Patterson 1979e),1979e), asas.prtsmauc prismatic bladest;;;r';;;;;;o[ are not good blanks6tants forio.'Oi the manufacture,uirA.rure ofof symmetrical symmeirical bifaces.bifaces. Also,Also, byproductbyproduct flakesf;k"r fromfro; darta# pointpoint manufacture..nri"'iruii would*"rta yieldyieJd aa goodgo6d supplysupply ofof flakesflakes forfor unifacialunifacial tooltool manufacture,iririifii,t *, without*itt out needneed forfor aa specializedspecialized prismaticprismatic bladeblade industry.industry' number of sites in IndustriesIndustries toto produceproduce smallsmall prismaticprismatic blades havehave been foundfound atat a number of sites in Southeasts;r;;i Texas,iu;:ir;i, such as 41HR184crffiiia (Patterson(i.nerson 1973,1994b), le73,lee4b), 41HR2064rHR2o6 (Patterson(Panerson 1980c),l.?_80"). and 41HR182 (Patterson"s 1985a).rs'8lii. Atei-siiJnnnlts'lr"tterson site 41HR315 (Patterson 1980a),le80a), thethe productionproduction ofof ffi;lfiiidr-ai.tt"rson points at smalli,n.ff prismaticpi-ir..ti.'blades blades startsstars at;;tli;;;r. the same timetime asas thethe productionpioduction ofof unifacialunifacial arrowarrow points at peri'od. Blade oroduction at this site then thisrhis site,sire, at at about about thethe start start of oi'd. the Late Gii-etthaic Archaic period. Blade production at this site then continues through therr,i Early Ceramic and Late Prehistoriciletiitoric timetinie periods. periods. SmallSmalt prismatic prismatic iiitiii,-.1.-ir'i"rei, r"'rr'c'#;i;";;Ui;-tii poinE, blades werewere mostmost oftenofren usedu*a-iii in thisit region t.gion to to make make unifacial unifacial arrow airow points, perforators,ferforators, blades I A gravers,fi.u!|';ffi and unifacial;;i-f;.i;i-iil inset blades;l;;;'il for compound;;p"'nd arrowarrow points points (Patterson (Panerson 1973,1994b). le73' ee4b)' A

3838 studvstudy ofof prismaticorismatic bladesblades fromfrom sitesite 4lHRl8441HR184 in Harrisllarris countyCounty (Patterson(Patterson 1994b)1994b) showsshows rhatthat imali small orismaticprismatic blades blades were were also also used used as as utilized utilized flakes, flakes, withwith specimensspecimens havinghaving typicaltypical edAe-wearedge-wear pattemspatterns ofcuning of cutting and and scraping scraping functions. functions. Odell Odell (1994:105) (1994:105) hashas shownshown aa similar pafiempattern of of ieueralseveral functions-forfunctions for smalt'priimaticsmall prismatic blades blades inin thethe MiddleMiddle WoodlandWoodland periodperiod ofof ihethe midwestern unitedUnited states.States. Small prismatic bladesblades foundfound inin Southeast TexasTexas generally have widths rhatthat groupgroup aroundaround 1212 mmmm (Sollberger(Sollberger andand PattersonPatterson 1976:Figure1976:Figure 5).5). AA widttrwidth ranperange ofof 10-15l0-15 mmmm isis-ideal ideal forfor thethe manufacturemanufacture of unifacialunifacial arrowarrow points.points. WhereWhere there are defiiitedefinite prismatic bladeblade industriesindustries at at sitessites inin Southeast Texas,Texas, the distributionsdjltributions _of of blade widths are bell-shaped curves (Sollberger(Sollberger andand Patterson Patterson 1976:Figure1976:Figure 5; PattersonPatterson widths ire bell-shaped curves !; - I994b:Fieures1994b:Figures 1,2).1,2). ThisThis reflecbreflects thethe limited range ofof blade sizes desired.desired. IndustriesIndustries to manufaciremanufacture small-prismatic small prismatic bladesblades at at sites sites inin thisthis region have bothbgth blades and polyhedral cores to demonstratedemonsg.afi thethe manufacturingmanufacturing process. process. Some Some polyhedralpolyhedral cores cores from from site site 4llIRl8441HR184 are shown in Figure 6, and small bladesbladis from this site are shown inin FigureFigure 7.7. PrismaticPrismatic blade technology-technology is aa specializedspecialized manufacturingmanufacturing technique_,technique, tE!that rrritwas usedused to.maketo make specificspecific stone tool productprodlict typ*.types. It has been noted by Patterson (1973)(1973) that small blade cores inin, Southeast fexasTexas hauihave aa varieryvariety ofof geometrical forms. For example,example, corescores in Figure 6A,C hivehave single platforms,pladorms, and the coreihowncore shown in FigureFigure 6B68 hashas multiplemultiple platforms.plaforms. Hester and Shafer (ISZ3)(1975) havehave discusseddiscussed smallsmall bladeblade technologiestechnologies forfor thethe centralcentral andand southernsoulhern Texas coast.

Projectile Points

One analyticalanalvtical problem forfor stone projectile poinbpoints is toto distinguishdistinguish betweenbetween largelarge.arrow arrow pointsooints uniland smalls1;1uil dart poinS.points. A studystudf (Patterson(Patteison 1985b) shows thatthat arrow points in thistftis regionIegion generallygenerulty weighweigh'under under 2.3 grams,grains, have thicknesses under 5 mm, and have stem neck widthswiddrs under 9 mm.

At manymany sitessites inin thisthis region,region, moremore dartdart pointpoint basalbasal fragmentsfragments are fouldfound thanthan-other other typestypes of darta^rt pointooirt fragments.frasments. IndiansInldians returned io to thethe campsit-campsite with spears having brokenbroken points.points. SpearSoea;;irrr points "werewere thenthen replacedreplaced at thethe campsitecampsite' andand basalbasal fragmentsfragments discardeddiscarded at thisthis location.id."tloii- (Patterson 1980b).l98obi. Asphalt was sometimes used for haftinghafting ofof stonestone (Patterson(Patterson 1980a:4;iStd;, ; Shaferihafer 1968:53)1968:53) andand bonebone (Duke 1982b:6)1982b:6)2lojectile projectile points,points, withwith tracesraces ofofasphalt asphalt occasionallyoccasio;ally foundfound onon projectilepiojectile pointpoint basal areas. The exact source of asphaltasphalt cannot be determined, but it is knownknbu,ir that pieces of asphaltasphalt can be foundfound onon coastalcoastal marginmargin beaches.beaches. AsphaltAsphalt piecespieces areare sometimessometimes foundfound atat IndianIndian campsites. Bifacial Knives

BifacialBifacial knives are occasionallyoccasionally foundfound atat sites in SoutheastSoutheast Texas, andand seemseem to bebe somewhatsomewhat more common in therhe Latetate Prehistoric.Prehistoric. TheThe amount ofof bifacial knives iin thisthis regionregion isis probablyprobably over-estimated,over-estimated, as dart point plefgrmspreforms cancan sometimessometimes be mis-classified asas-knives.'There knives. There isis evidenceevidence inin WhartonWharton CountyCounty ofof bifacialbifacial knivesknives beingbeing brought brought toto thethe areaarea byby IndiansIndians fromfrom fartherfarther to the northwest, possiblypossibly by tripsrips down the ColoradoColorado River BasinBasin (Patterson(Patterson et al. 1987,1987, PattersonPatterson and HudginsHudgins 1989a). The use of bifacialbifacial knivesknives inin thethe Latelate PrehistoricPrehistoric hashas beenbeen attributedattributed to the increased presence of bisonbison duringduring the Toyah PhasePhase inin CentralCentral Texas. This may be a factor for bifacial knives inin thethe WesternWestern ZoneZnne ofof SoutheastSoutlreast TexasTexas duringduring thethe Latelate Prehistoric,Prehistoric, but there is also another technological explanation.explanation. Inln thethe Latel:te Prehistoric,Prehistoric, with the predominance ofof the bow and arrow,arrow, there were few largelarge sizesize byproductbyproduct flakes thatthat could have beenbeen usedused asas butcheringbutchering tools. TheThe useuse ofof curatedcurated bifacialbifacial knivesknives maymay havehave beenbeen aa responseresponse toto thethe lacklack ofoflarge large flakesflakes suitablesuitable forfor tooltool use.use.

Corner-tangCorner-tang knives havehave beenbeen found at sites inin thethe WesternWestem Zone ofof SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas atat sitesite 41AU364lAU36 inin the the Late l:te ArchaicArchaic (Hall(Flall 1981:Figuret98l:Figure 18),l8), andand atat sitesite 41WH194tWHl9 inin thethe Late larc PrehistoricPrehistoric (Patterson et al. 1987:Figure1987:Figure 4). ThisThis artifactartifact type isis usuallyusually placedplaced inin thethe LateI:te

3939 ArchaicArchaic period period in in CentralCentral Texas Texas (Turner (Turner and and Hester Hester 1993:250), 1993:250), but but it it shouldshould bebe ."-".U"i"aremembered that that the the I-ate Late Archaic Archaic period period terminates terminates much much later later in in Central Central Texas Texas thanthan inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas. Texas. The The two two very very long, long, well-madewell-made corner-tangcorner-tang artifacts artifacts at at site site 4lAU36 41AU36 werewere F.r"afound as -.""grave soods. goods, andand do do iot not seim seem to to have have been been made made for for functional functional use, use, because because of of thethe very large"r rir"."Lsize. In conrast,contrast, lhe the corner-tang corner-tang artifact artifact from from site site 4lWHl9 41WH19 is is not not as as well-made well-made and"i.,l.ieiand was-inwas in campsitecampsite context,context, wilhwith probableprobable functionalfunctional use.use. AtenAten (1983:Fizure(1983:Figure 13.2)13.2) hashas illustrated unifacial unifacial and and bifacial bifacial lithic lithic tools tools found found onon the toutruicoastal nlurginlmargin. BothBoth thethe limitedlimited rangerange ofof tool types,types, mainlymainly scraperss-crapers and perforators,perfora_tors,. andand tfrethe sratismall iiiissizes of thesethese toolstools probablyproba[ly reflect theifie scarcity of lithiclilhic resources.resources. NonJithicNon-lithic toolstools ofboneof bone and shell were used as an alternate toto lithiclithic tooltool types.types.

CERAMIC TECHNOLOGYTECHNOLOGY

POTTERY MANUFACTURE

Most research inin ceramics in Southeast Texas has concentrated onon analysesanalyses to establishesublish .[i.""t,rgi*tchronological iiqu"n""..sequences. LittleLittle researchresearch has has beenbeen done onon thethe actual achnl manufacturing manufacturing pro"i.r.process, iuchsuch asas tlayclay sources,sources, firing techniques, etc.etc. BlackBlack (1988)(1988) has conductedconducted some !*nerimenSexperiments toto repli6atereplicate Goose Goose CreekCreek pottery, pottery, using using some some local local types types ofof clay.clay. Black notes thatlrit oott..vpottery inin this region was typicallytypicaily mademide byby coiledcoiled constructionconstruction withwith roundedrounded pot U.tt.ir..bottoms. tieHe alsoalso noteinotes rhatthat firin!'offiring of ponerypottery withwith a a woodwood firefire will generally not be hot enough toto cause vitrification,vitrification, butbut the ware will bebe waterwater tight. are sometimes found Ceramic vessel shapesshapes are typically conical, butbut cylindrical-cylindrical shapesshapes. are sometimes found (Pattersonfp"n.iio" 1990d).tSgOd). Vesseltessel rimriri cross-sectionscrosslsections varyvary fromfrirm squaresquare toto feathered,feathered, butbut no temporallemporal significanceii-iiii.n.. hashas been6een establishedestablished for rim shapes.shapei. Rims are sometimes incised oror notched.notched. Theffi'" qualityq*tity of potterypottery in this region is highly variable. Sherds in aa largecollectionlarge collection will vary fromi-rn'*"ttjnr.,i well-fired (hard)(hard) to very soft.s6ft. At inlandinland sites, it is common to see sherdssherds disintegratingdisintegratin_g in-situ. Coastal margin pott6rypottery generallygenerally seemsseems to bebe better firedfired than inland pottery.pottery. ItIt in-situ. Coasral -goups !9tte1 _than.inland would*oriJ appearupp*i thatt6at someslome socialsociil groups werewere moremore skillfulskillful than than othersothers inin manufacturiing manufacturiing pottery.potte.y. Coastalbb"rtat marginmargin IndiansIndians placedp'iaced moremore emphasisemphasis onon potterypottery thanthan inlandinland Indians.Indians. in Loui-siana, with PotteryPottery-oo in SoutheastSoutheast Texas lackslack the typetype ofof sequencesequence foundfound in adjacentllilcent Louisiana, with typest thatitri".n can be assignedassipned toto fairlyfairly narrownariow time periods. Aten (1983.Figure(1983:Figure 14.1)l4.l) hashas beenbeen successfuls'utcessful inin definingdefining-a a chronologicalchronolo[ical sequencesequence ofof ceramicceramic. typestypes_ inin thelhe GalvestonGalveston BayBay.area area thatffii;;;il;;e covers some broadbr"oad time rime ranges rai-ges inin the ihe Early Early Ceramic Ceramic-ind and Late hte Prehistoric Prehistoric periods. periods. ResearchR;;;;"h byb"-;;;ious various lnrestieators-i,usinvestigators has concentratedconcenttat6d on the study of potterypottery subtvpessubtypes inin anan effort.ff"rt toto obtain moremore detaileddetaile-d chronologicalchronological sequences.sequences. VariationsVariations inin ceramicceramic subtypessubtypes areare usually,.*fii-r"Lt.O related"U'tui" toto pastepaste type,type, tempering temperi;g materials,mateiials, vessel thickness,thickness, andand surfacesurface finish.finish. Studiesill]i;,5 of;i;;;;rL ceramic subtypeslrUrvp6i havehave notnot yetyel producedproduce!. moremore detaileddeailed chronologicalchronological sequencessequences fori;-1fr]i this region.;;gid. ForFoi.i.'ripi", example, GooseGoose Creek Creek Red-FilmedRed-Filmed potterypottery was producedproduced,for-a for a veryvery longi;;;ifu;ili;d time period (Aten(eten 1983:Figuretd3r:rigure 14.1).14.l).Anotlrer.exaniole Another example isis thatthat vesselvessel thicknessthickness doesdoes not;;ir;il seem toio be be time-diagnostic. time-diagnortl"lni At site site'atWH36 41WH36 (Patterson (Paner|on andand HudginsHudgins 1989:17),1989:17), thethe thicknessA;;ffi; rangeff;f;;;Hilff for sherds of 44 to6 10l0 mmmm waswas aboutabout the same for all excavation levels ofof thethe Early Ceramic andand LateLate Prehistoricpr"histrii periods.periods. Therefore,Therefore, thisthis reportreport has generallygenera.lly avoidedavoided fril, C.r.ri" nave ceramic subtypessubtypes inin relationrelation toto chronology.chronology. RemarksRemarks mademade herehere onon potterypoflery subtypessubrypes have status of not;;l"eoinic beenG;;;;dJt" made to discouragediscourage further iJrth"ii.i""?'.t, research, butbut insteadinstead toto summarizesummarize thethe currentcurrent status of research. The naming ofor pottery p'otii.y subtypesirutvpo byby variousvarious investigatorsinvestisators cancan bebe confusing.confusins. For For ;;;;;il.'Th;-;u.ing paste varieties that do example,examole- WinchellWinchett andand Ellispllis (1991)(ib'9ifi;'"';t;a have used sometori namesn.r"t forfor-sandy sandy paste varieties that do notili;'.;;p;;i;th;6oot" incorporate the Goose Creekcti.t designationdisipation thatthat isis usedused bybv mostmost investigators.investigators'

4040 Conway pottery hashas very coarse sand temper, with sand,sand grains oftenoften rounded. ItIt would purposefully is appear thitthat thijtype this type ofof sortedsorted sandsand lempertemper was was purposefully added,added, and and is-not.a-component not a component oiof the natural clryclay (Aten(Aten 1983:238). Goose Creek sandy paste ponery-pottery isis classifiedclassified by Aten ((1983:231) 1983:231) asas untempered,uniempered, which meansmeans that sand inin thisthis pottery typetype isis aa componentcomponent ofof the iraturalnatural clay. clay. AtenAten statesstates thatthat the the sandsand grain grain sizes sizes inin GooseGoose Creek pottery areare rarelyrarely rvell- well- sorted intointo aa specificspecific size. ThereThere is a possibility thatthat-sand sand temper may have been added.toadded to at least some GobseGoose Creek pottery, butbut aa knowledge knowledge ofof thethe propertiesproperties of of sourcesource claysclays wouldwould be needed to make a definite determination. much shell Shell tempering ofof pottery isis very rarerare at coastalcoast4l margin sites,sites, -even-.thougheven though much shell material oaswas aiuihbie.available. ShellShell temperingtempering was was used used extensively extensively inin thethe MississippiMississippi ValleyValley by the MississippianMssissippian Culture.Culture. The The low low useuse ofof shell temperingtemperin-g inin- SoutheastS.outheast .TexasTexas may have been a culruiilcultural choicechoice or there maymay bebe technicaltechnical reasonsreasons whywhy shellshell tempering was not used. For example, RangiaRangia shellshell mighimight notnot bebe aa good type ofof temperingtempering material,material, local clays might not'reipondnot respond wellwell to shell temper,temper, or the manufacturemanufacture ofof shell temperedtempered potterypottery maymay' requirereo"uire specialspecial firing techniques noinot developeddeveloped by Indians of the Texas coast.coast. O'BrienO'Brien and Holland i:tSSZ:St)(1992:51) stateJrate rhaithat "The key key toto successfulsuccessful useuse of shell temperingtempering is controllingconEolling firing temperatures below below about about 700 700 degreesdegrees C-C- thethe pointpoint atat whichwhich calcite,calcite, upon coolingcooling and fiydration,hydration, changeschanges to calcium hydroxide." W. M.M. BlackBlack (personal (oersonal communication)communication) found thatt}at bone tempertemper could notnot bebe prepared prepared without first burning thethe bone to makemake thethe material material friable.friable. BrewingtonBrewington (1992:4) hashas reached rhethe same con'clusion.conclusion. Black also foundfound thatthat bone temper in the interior ofof the vesselvessel wall is likelylikely toto remainremain a dark color,color, whilewhile bone temper,ontemper on thethe vesselvessel surfacessurfaces willwill become white due tot6 higherhigher firingfiring temperature.temperature. BrewingtonBrewington (1992:4)(1992:4) reaches.reaches the same conclusion. Therefore, bone-temperbone temper i-nin sheidssherds fromfrom archeologicalarcheological sitessites can rang,erange in color from black to white.

Aten (1983:Chapter(l983.Chapter l2)12) has named subtype,ssubtypes ofof fired clay (grog)(8198) temperedtempered potterypottery on the amounts and difibrentdifferent fhysicalphysical propertie!'ofproperties of the grog lempeJ:temper. It is not clear, however, thatthat grgups rather "rounsthese subtypessubtypes of groggrog temperedt6mperid potterydottery-Potsherds were mademade byby differentdifferent socialsocial groups oror rather were*ere simplysimf,ly manufacturingmanulfailuring variaiions.variations. Potsherds cancan be pulverizedpulverized to differentdifferent particleparticle sizes forfor'pieparation preparation ofof grog temper, dependingdepending'tempei on on howhow muchmuch efforteffort isis made in thelhe pulverizingoulverizini piocess.process. VaryiniamoJnSVarying amounts of of temper cancan bebe added to thethe pastepaste asas another another manufacturingiianufactuiirig variable, whii-hwhich need not be viewed asas aa culturalcultural preference.prefererce. GrogGrog^tempered tempered potterypottery of theth;coastal coastal marginmargin often hashas particlesparticles that can be recognizedrecogrrized. asas sherdsherd fragmentsfragmenS (AteniAten'l9E3:239). 1983:239). AfterAfter describingdeicribing subtypessubrypes of groggrog temperedtempered pottery,ponery, Aten (1983:241)(1983:241) diddid notnot sortsort these subtypes for his study of potterypottery on thethe upper Texas coast. AlthoughAltho:gh subtypes ofof groggrog tempered tempered potterypottery do notnoi appearappear toto havehave temporaltemporal .significance,significance, rherethere maymay bebe significancesign-ifi&nce forfor geographicgeo'graphic distribution,distribution, 15as di5sr':sseddiscussed above,above, with the use of Baytown PlainPlain potterypottery confined toto thethe coastal marginmargin of thisthis region.

POTTERYPOTTERY FUNCTIONFUNCTION

FunctionsFunctions ofof potterypottery inin thisthis regionregion areare poorly understood.understood. Pottery could have been used forfor cooking,cooking, foodfood storagestorage andand waterwater storage,storage, but theredrere is aa lack lack of of direct direct archeological archeological evidence.evidence. Lacelace holesholes tolo repairrepair vesselsvessels showshow that that somesome potterypottery waswas usedused forfor storagestorage wherewhere aa water-tightwater-tight vessel waswas notnot necessary.necessary. The poorly fired quality of pottery,ponery, especially inin thethe inlandinland subregion, gives thethe impressionimpression thatthat poor qualityquality pottery would not havehave beenbeen durabledurable for cooking use.use. SeasonalSeasonal storagestorage ofof foodfood materials materials maymay havehave been been an an important imporant functionfunction ofof pottery.pottery.

4141 OnOn thethe coastalcoastal margin,margin, therethere isis aa scarcity of freshwater sources.sources. Pg1e-ryPottery m.aV.havemay have beenbeen imoortantimportant forfor wateritoiagewater storage inin thisthis subreg.ion.subregion. Boiling Boiling to to process process shellfish shellfish and and olher other marinemarine foodsfoods maymay havehave beenbeen ano-theranother importantimportant uleuse ofof potterypottery onon thethe coashlcoastal margin.margin.

Pottery was a useful item for aa numbernumber of p-ossiblepossible functions.functions. ShaferShafer (1975:250)(1975:250) has.noted,has noted, Pottery was a useful item for -of howeier,however, thatthat inin EastEast TexasTexas ceramicceramic technologytechnology hadhad nono apparent apparent effect effect onon eitrereither settlementsettlement putt"-pattern o'ror stonestone technology.technology. TheThe useuse ofof poterypottery maymay havehave increasedincreased subsistencesubsistence efficiency,efficiency, butbut diddid notnot significantlysignificantly alieralter thethe generalgeneral lifestyle.lifestyle.

FIREDFIRED CLAYBALLS

FiredFired clayballsclayballs areare foundfound atat somesome inland sitessites inin tlris_this region (Patterson-(Patterson 1986b, 1989g).198.99). At site 41WH73qtwHzl (Panerson(Patterson andand Hudgins 1993) in Whartonwhlrtq County,county,.466l^clayballs 4661 clayballs were ieiorer"Arecovered fromfrom sraUstrata of the Early eeramicCeramic airdand Latetate Prehistoric periods. Clayballs varied from 15 to 75 mm in diameter, airdand had anan averageaverage weightweight ofof 6.06.0 grams.grams. Atsile-4lWHl9At site 41WH19 ip"tt.i.on(Patterson etet al. 1987),1987), fired clayballsciayballs were recovered fromfrom excavationexcavation levelslevels ofof thethe lateLate radiocarbon i"iio-na;u,Paleo-Indian-associated rhroughthrough iirethe Proto-HjsroricProto-Historic periods.periods. AtAt sitesite 4lWHl9,.the4IWH19, the earliest radiocarbon datidate associated wlthwith clayballs isis 79707970 +1-530+/-530 B-C.,B.C., andand the latestlatest radiocarbonradiocarbon datedate associated *ittwith clayballs ilis A.O.A.D. 1585t saS +/-80. There is a radiocarbon date of A.D.A.D. 16701670 +1-+l- "iio.;"ted80aO directlydirectlv datingdatins an earth oven with fired clayballsclayballs at sitesite 41HR2064lHR206 in HarrisFlarris CountyCounty (PattersonfPatrersori 1994c).l994cI WhiteWhile fired clayballs havehave aa wide geoglaphicgeographic occurrenceoccurrence inin 0risthis region, the[J frequencyfr.qu"n"y ofof sites with clayballsclaySalls isis relatively low.low. ThereThere areare 38 sitessites (13%)( l3%) withwith clayballsclavballi ofof ihethe 298298 sitessites inin thethe midmid 1995 1995 computerizedcomputerized data basebase forfor inlandinland SoutheastSoutheast Texas.i"i.i. erAs shown in TableTabte 15, only a few sites with clayballs have large numbers of this artifactartiiact type. At somesome sites,sires, clayballsclaybills and pieces of naturalnarural caliche are found together in hearth[.".tt features.f#t r".. At thettre AliensAliens-Creek Creek complexcomplex (Hall(Hall 1981:281), l98l:281), roastingroasting hearthshearths wereruere composed;;p"r"d of carbonate concretions (caliche) and.sandstoneand sandstone pieces, witlroutwithout fired clayballs. Infn thisdi. case,case, therethere waswas nono needneed toto make make fired fiied clayballs, clayballs, asas naturally naturally occurringoccurring materialsmaterials were available to perform thethe same function.

The probableorobable function ofof clayballs was as heatingheating elements forfor use inin roastingroasting foodfood materials.ut"il.i. in earth ovens. This isii tlrethe explanation usua-llyusually given for use of this type of objectobject atat sitessites of of the the Poverty Poverty Point Point culture culture in in Louisiana Louisiana (Ford (Ford and and Webb Webb 1956:44). 1956:44). GibsonGibson (1975:202)ilSi S:ZOZ\ statesstates thatthat'iT'trere "There is now littlelinle doubt thethe Poverty Point objects were used inin pitpit baking,iaking, a modeirode ofof cookingcooking commoncommon toto thethe periodperiod betweenbetween 1500-6001500-600 B.C.B.C. inin thethe LowerLower MississippiMisiiilippi Valley and contiguous[ontiguous areas". HudginsHudgins (1993)(1993) has.has conducted gonducted cookingcooling experimentsexoerimlns with clayballsilavballs in pits.pls. Inh theseftese experiments,experiments, firedfired clayballsclayballs werewere mademade fromfrom moistmJist clayclay byby bakingbaking onon thethe hothoi coalscoals ofofa a woodwood fire.fire. TheseThese firedfired clayballsclayballs werewere thenthen usedused toi;;;rt;dt, roast meat, such;uch"as as chicken,chicken, after heating the clayballs onon a wood.wood firefttg !nin aq pit.pit AfterAfter placingpf.ilng meatnle"i'on on the hothot clayballs,claybills, rhethe pit was coveiedcovered withwith soilsoil to hold in thethe heat.heat. AA chicken[f,i.ii"-" was*"i thoroughlytt oroughly roastedroasied inin 2.5 hoursh6urs by this method.met]rod. HudginsHudgins_(1993:50) (1993:50) foundfound thatthat clayballs heatedtreatea toto 425ZZ5 degreesdeprees FF retainedretained aa temperatureiemperature levellevel ofof 275275 degreesdegrees FF afterafter oneone hour,"irri,"tt. and a temperature levelle"vel ofof 180180 degreesdegrees FF afterifter twotwo hours.hours. Inln comparison,comparison,.hot hot coalscoals ;;Jr.;;;;ffiiirutur. just alone;1";; fromi;;;;;;a a wood fireliie cooledcooted toto 220220 degreesde-sees FF inin oneone hour,hour, andand thenthen cooledcooled toto just aboveabove ambientambient temperaturetemperature atat thethe endend ofof twotwo hours.hours. HudginsHudgins concludedconcluded thatthat thethe primaryprlmary factortactor inln theii;;ff;;i#;i effectiveness ofoiuring using heatedt *t"a clayballsclayballs appearsappearslo to bebe inin theirtheir abilityability toto retainretain heat.heat. fired AtAt thethe LateLate ArchaicArchaic PovertyPoverty PointPoint sitesite in in Louisiana, l,ouisian a, Haag$ag (1986:24)(1986.2\ hashas described describgd fired clayballi,iiv6irr use,ii by6v fillingniii"e a pitpit'iuth with clayballsclavballs withwith aa firefire builtbuilr onon toptop.to to heath1t the4.t.dllblll::,ft"n clayballs, then sweeping the firefi;" remains,ernuini" asideasidi andand'cooking cooking directlydirectty onon thefte hothot clayballs.clayballs. ItIt isis doubtfuldoubful thatrhat il;;i;;dr. heat thislf,iJ presumedtir"r-rria procedurepiocedure isis correct.correct. OnlyOnly aifire fire underunder thethe clayballsclavballs wouldwould thoroughlythoroughly heat several;;;#iffi;;5i;iilb;il;: layers of clayballs. SeveraliJ,Liii tonst"ri'"i of firednred clayballsclayballs havehave beenbeen foundfound atat thethe Poverty Poverty Pointi"l"t site,iii.]*;ir, with many,.n! specimenstpe.ir"nifia"ing having formalfotmal shapesshaies (Webb(Webb 1982:Figure 1982:Figure 19).l9)' AsAs shown shown

4242 started earlier byby manymany sitessites inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas,Texas, thethe useuse offiredof fired clayballsclayballs forfor cookingcooking started -muchmuch earlier ttianthan ttrithe tateLate ArchaicArchaic onon thethe greatergreater GulfGulf coastalcoastal plain.plain. ItIt isis curious thatthat knowledge g4inedgained from making firedfired clayballs-didclayballs did notnot leadlead toto the earlyearly inventioninvention of potteryponery in SoutheastS-outheast Texas. TheThe c-loseclose resemblanceresemblance betweenbetween soapstonesoapstone vesselsvessels and and earlyearly ceramicceramic vesselsvessels onon thcthe Atlantic coastcoast (Sassaman(Sassaman 1993.21)1993:21) givesgives thethe possibilitypossibility thatthat potterypottery waswas inventedinvented firstfirst asas aa substitute for soapstone vessels.

Sassaman (1993:133)(1993:133) notesnotes lhatthat firedfired clayballsclayballs werewere usedused inin GeorgiaGeorgia andand South carolina,Carolina, but becamibecame obsolete'afterobsolete after 3700 B.P. when pottery was in-use. Sassaman (1993:135) has concluded that firedfired clayballs wouldwould bebe ineffectiveineffective asas aa substitutesubstitute forfor boilingboiling stones,-duestones, due to ooorpoor resistance of clayballs to thermalthermal shock.shock. HuebnerHuebner (1986:36) has concludedconcluded from ixperimentalexperimental useuse ofof fired clayballs that clayballs werewere not used for boiling technology in Texas.

The relatively low frequency of sites withwith clayballsclayballs indicatesindicates that cookingcooking withwith clayballclayball hearfhshearths was ,iotnot ua generallygen.rilly prefered method. Meat cancan easily be cooj

GROUND STONESTONE ARTIFACTSARTIFACTS

Two classes of ground stone artifacbartifacts are found in Southeast Texas, artifact:artifacts made of local of sandslone sandstone and artifactsirtifucs made of exoticexotic materials.materials. ArtifactAnifact types made of local-local sandstone "-Jri-iinclude mano-metate ""a grindinggrinding setssets andand abradingabrading tools.tools. Sandstone cancan bebe found locally at outcropsoutcroDs in deeplydeeOly cutcut-sfeam stream channels, such as the SanSan BernardBemard River. Mano-metate[4ano-me6te sets were*.i" used,i*J forf"i grindingii'"ding pigmentspigmens and possiblyiossibly for foodfood processing,processing althoughalthough_th^is.artifact this artifact type isis foundforna onlyoily occasionallyocdsion-ally at campsites. AtAt.site site 41FB3,a.l FB3, (Patterson et al. 1993b),1993b), tracestraces ofdftred red ochreo"hre werewer6 foundfound onon manos,,inos, metates,metates, and grinding slabs, with red ochre used at this sitesite withwith burials.Uuriats. SandstoneSandstone abradersabradeis are found atatiites sites inin-both both the inland and coastalcoasgl marginmarS,in subregions. Possible uses of sandstonesandstone abraders include projectileprojectile.point point shaftshaft smoothing,smoodring, .rbr"iionr.-ps-inding edgeedee grinding inin lithiclithic manufacturing,manufacturing, pigment grinding forfoi burialburial ceremoniesceremonies and bodybody decoration,deioralion, manufacturem-anufacture of bone tools,tooii, indand manufacturemanufacture of bonebone and shellshell non-utilitariannon-utilitarian artifactartifact types.types.

GroundGround stone artifact types found in thisthis region region made made ofof exotic exotic materials materials include include bannerstonesbannerstones (Duke 1989),1989),'1963) beads, boatstones (Hall 1981),l98l), glrgetsgorgets (Hall 1981),l98l),.and and veryvery rarerare plummetsplummets (Hartman(Hartman 1963) from the PovertyPoverty PointPoint CultureCulture (Webb(Webb 1982:Figure1982:Fig:;re 27).27). TubularTubujar ground stone beads werewere foundfound withwith aa burial at sitesite 41FB4241FB42 (Patterson(Panerson et al.al. 1993c).1993c).

BONEBONE ANDAND ANTLERANTLER TOOLSTOOLS

AA varietyvariety ofof bonebone toolstools areare foundfound onon bothboth inlandinland andand coastalcoastal marginmargin sitessites inin thisthis region.region. ToolsTools typestypes includeinclude projectileprojectile pointspoins (Duke(Duke 1982b:6,1982b:6, AtenAten 1983:Figure1983:Figure 13.3),13.3), awlsawls (Hall(Hall 1981),l98l), fishhooksfishhooks (Duke(Duke 1982b:6,1982b:6, AtenAten 1971:Figurel97l:Figure 7), needlesneedles (Duke 1982b:6)1982b:6) andand pinspins (Vernon(Vemon 1989). 1989). InIn regardregard toto fishhooks,fishhooks, CabezaCabeza dede VacaVaca (Hedrick(Hedrick andand Rileyfuley 1974:76)1974:.76) notednoted thatthat protohistoricprotohistoric coastalcoastal margin Indians had nets,nets, presumablypresumably used forfor fishing.fishing. Non-Non- utilitarianutilitarian bonebone artifactartifact typestypes areare discusseddiscussed inin anotheranother sectionsection ofof thisthis report.report. BoneBone toolstools areare under-representedunder-represented atat sitessites inin thisthis regionregion becausebecause ofof poorpoor preservation.preservation. DeerDeer bonebone isis thethe mainmain materialmaterial usedused forfor tooltool manufacture.manufacture. BoneBone toolstools werewere especiallyespecially importantimportant inin thethe lithic-poorlithic-poor

4343 coastalcoastal marginmargin subregion. subregion. Judged Judged by by th-e the ralgg range of of pointpoint sizes.sizes illustrated by by Aten iiSSifir.;""(1983:Figure 13.3).13.3), bo-nebone pointi*erepoints were usedused asas bothboth dartdart pointspoints and and arrowarrow points points on on thethe (Patterson io.ir"ir"urgirofcoastalcoastal marginmargin of of fiisthiS this regidn.region. region. ForFor example, example, a a bone bone pointpolntpoint ftprylrom from litqslte site 4lLHzvu41CF129041CH290 (ranerson(Patterson ansandand Ll"ri"t.Ebersole ieli,figrre1992:Figure Zd) 2D) has has a a weight'of weight of 2.12.1 grams,grams, whichwhich isis lightlight enoughenough forfor arrowarrow poinlpoint *"-irig-U"""use.use. LonLong-bone if,rplir"ir.implements have have be"enbeen found found at at several several sites_in sites in thisthis re-gion,.region, asas s.ummarizedsummarized trrby r+ifHall flSs8",Fisire(1988a:Figure l).1). FlallHall (1988a:172)(1988a:172) has concluded that sharplysharply pointedpointed long-bonelong-bone functions, such iri,pton"ittti*.r.-"ii"implements '.i'"werewere 'i".iriedused ^.'^*t"aiawls,-as awls, but thatfiatthat specimenssDeiimens specimens witlrwith bluntblunt endsends hadhad other other functions, such asas irseuse forfor hairpins,hairpins, headhead scratcher/lousescratcher/louse crushers,crushers, oror sweatsweat scrapers.scrapers.

ToolsTools werewere alsoalso made ofof deer antler,antler, such such as as occasional occasional finds finds ofof pressurepressure flaking flaking tools tools mademade ;i;;tl;;il;of antler tine ani-on (Vernon iSAS,1989, et.nAten et et al. al. 1976:41).1976:41). kojectileProjectile pointspoints were were sometimes sometimes mademade of of antlerantler (Aten(Aten dtet alal 1976:40).tgZO:qO). Antlers were also probably usedused asas batons forfor sotl-percusslonsoft-percussion iliii;;';i-;hil-trtflaking of chert, but euia,inceevidence is seldom preserved. AntlerAntler seemsseems to have been preservedpreserved eueneven ,iotemore pooriypoorly than bonebone in this region.region.

SHELL TOOLSTOOLS

Shell tools in this region are foundfound exclusivelyexclusively on the coastal margin. OysterOyster shellshell was.thewas the 111ui.ii"imaterial o1of choice, possiblyfossibly becausebecause oysteroyster shellsfiell isis large, large,.thin-,. thin, andand harder harder andandJlatter flatter thanthan RangiaRansia shell.shell. ShellSheli toolsiools werewlre a substitutesubstitute for stone tools in a lithic-poorlithic-poor area.area Oyster shell i;fu-;;;;.dtools were used forfor scrapingscraping andand cuttingcutting (Aten(Aten 1983:264).1983:264)., AtenAten.(1983:Figure (1983:Figure 13.2)l3'2) illustrates somesome oyster sheilshell scrapers.s-rapers. Oyster shellshell tools, usedused forfor cuttingcutting and/orand/or scraping,scraptng, were;;;;;;;;;;J recovered i,ilotin both Earlyruttv CiramicCeramic indand lateLate PrehisioricPrehistoric levels.of levels of coastal margin site 41HR639q ifm.O jg (Patterson(patterson 1990d:3).1990d:i). Site 411-IR6394lHR639 is is aa small RangiaRarrgia midden on.Cedar,on Cedar Bayou about 12 milesmiles inlandinland fromfrom- the coastlinecoastline of GalvestonGalveston Bay. Oysteroyster shell tools werewere i;;&;Jimported t"to rhi;this rit"site fro1nfrom rhethe nearbynearby coast. coast. The The use use of of oy_steroyster shellsshells asas tools cancan_ be judged bybv'edse edge wearwear andand bybv purposefulpurposelul edgeedge flakingflaking retouch.retouch.-J.O. J.O. DwyerDwyer reportedreported that he hadhad severaliJr"r.i oysteroytter shells-uied'asshells used as knives by thethe KarankawaKarankawa. in in lieulieu ofof flint (Dyer 1920,1920, AtenAten was use 1983:265).f-eAi-OS)- AnotherAnorher substitute forfor ston6stone tools in the lithic-poorlithic-p-oor coastal .marginmargin was thelhe use ofoi caneir* and reedreed knives,knives, asas reportedreported by Swanton (1946:565) forfor historichistoric Indianslndians along therhe GulfGulf coast.coast."ia

NeckNeck (1991:17)( 1991:17) has has noted noted that that freshwaterfreshwater musselmussel shellsshells werewere usedused asas toolstools andand ornamentsornamenB atat siteiii"?iiiilZlrifort 41FB32 in Fort BendSena County.County. Evidence forfor thethe useuse ofshellof shell as tools is inin thetre form of shellri,Jf edges worn toto aaiharp sharp edge. Indicationstndications that shell was used for ornaments is shown byby shellshell fragments"ii"i-*"-fragments that that appearappear to have man-made holes.

NON-UTILITARIANNON.UTILITARIAN ARTIFACTS AT CAMPSITES grave at PrehistoricPrehistoric non-utilitariannon-utilitarian artifact typestypes areare generallygenerally foundfound in this region as grave goodsgPFq at burialburial sites,sites. withwith rarerare findsfinds at at campsites. campsites. Some Some examples examples of of prehistoric prehlstorlc non-utilitarian -non-utlllurrlan artifactfi1il";;t'f;"d';ili;;;i;;.fut types found outside of mortuary contextcontext atat inland inlind sitessites include: include: shark shark teethteeth and and boneiln,j-*iu;*';-;i;.;llnlls(i.tt"rr,in pendants at site 41HR315 (Patterson 1980a),1980a),apieceof a piece of galena gtenaandaquartzcrys_talat and a quartz crystal at siteIitl'-aiii.ru'iplitlli",i."a-n1iail"i 41WH2 (Patterson and Hudgins 1980),issol, andand copper6opper beadsbeads andand galenasalena atat sitesite 41WH2734lwH273 (Ensor7ir.nt and Carlsonbarlson 1991). l99l). Non-utilitarian Non-utilitarian artifactartifact typestypes areare even even rarer rarer at at prehistoric prenlstorlc campsites^nd on the coastal margin of this region.,.gion. Non-utilitarianNon-uiiiirarian items do notnot seemseem_to to havehave L"r".r"ii,I',ir1t";;#-;;r;i;-oirti, -hunter-garherer been#;i1; very importantffiil"i1"-tt in the i-oiitv daily livesiives of of hunter-gatherer bandsbands of thisthis region.region. However,However, non-utilitarian artifactsartifacs may,.i6"'unJo-t"prei-ented- be under-represented at campsitescamps.ites duedue toto poor poor preservation. preservation' on mortuary Non-utilitariani$;;iiiirr;i"""i":"iilii"ri",i arrifacrsartifacts aj as grauegrave goods'goods will bebe discusseddiscussed inin the the section section on mortuary practices.practices.

4444 TechnologyTechnology forfor makingmaking firedfired clayclay objecsobjects was was well-establishedwell-established inin Southeast.Texas,Southeast Texas, forfiredfor fired clayballs7'"a and oonerv.teramicpottery. Ceramic iech-nology technology waswas seldom used forfor non-utilitariannon-utilitarian anifacs'artifacts. "rr"U"lfieiJ"iiS3lfig[ri"Aten (1983Figure ti.fl113) hasn.r illustratedillusrated aleramica ceramic turtleturtle effigy effigy from.afrom a coastalcoastal margin.site,margin site, tutbut ttris this isis aa #erare find. find. Apparently, Apparently, the the use use of of clay clay figurines figurines as as artistic artistic glave grave goods goods did did notnot developdevelop as a tradition.

TECHNOLOGICALTECHNOLOGICAL CHANGECHANGE ANDAND CONTINUITYCONTINUITY lnIn SoutlreastSoutheast Texas,Texas, therethere are are not not a a large large number number ofexamples of examples ol of technological technological change change overover tf,"-tfr.rr*ir-"fthe thousands of r&rsyears ofof prehistoric himanhuman occupation. occupation. SpearSpear point point styleslended styles tended toto changechange ;;;;i;ilii;.over long time i"iirvals,intervals, 6utbut rhis this type type of of changcchange had had titrte little effect effect on on lifestyles.lifestyles. ItIt is.notis not clearclear what fac-torsfactors werewere important for for changes changes of of spear.spear Point.typespoint types. Some possibilitiesposslbllltles are cultural o-r.f.r"nie.preference, hadtine hafting melhods,methods, anJlithic and lithic m'ateriai material availablity..As availablity. As noted noted above,.formal above, formal toott"riiir"itools typeswdo were somewhatsomewhlt moremore importantimporlant inin the Latekte Paleo-IndianPaleo-In_dian pertqdperiod $anthan lnin laterlater ii,i"time periods.ri"ll"Or.-eti* After tirithe Paleo-Indianialeo-tndiair period,period, lherethere isis little indicationindication of technologicaltechnological projectile poins. Formal unifacial tgol types, ;;;J;ir;;change shown b,by -t.io""1ootstone tool typesrypes otherorherthan than projectile points. Formal unifacial tool types, ;;i;%-;;-r;;;.such as scrapers, haveu* notnot iri'generalin general been found to bebe time-diagnostic.time-diagnostic. This isis. anotheranother i;J;;;;;?'th"indication of the tontinuitvcontinuity inin liffestylelifestyle over timetime in thisthis region.region. ActivitiesActivities at campsitescampsites werewere similar in all prehistoric time periods. After intoductionintroduction of of aa newnew technologytechnology toto aa region, there isis generallygenerally a.perioda period ofof local for the adaptationlaiirrii- t"to tf,ethe newnew rechnolofr.technology. In SoutheastS%utheast fexas,Texas, a,perioda period of local adaptationadaptatior for the il#;il;;;;;;i;"';h;;bow and arrow can be shown bVaby a longlong period ofof use'ofuse of unifacial poinspoints before thethe useuse of standardized forms of bifaciaibifacial arroriarrow poins,points, whenwhen thethe bow andand arrowarrow becamebecame thethe Jriiia-"ra-i*a i"imi of qxample predominantnredominant weaoon weapon svslem system in in the Latefate PrehistoricPreiristoric period.period. Another.Another example ofof timetime requiredHri,ti'fdif"J!I"rtl,iio, for local adaptation oi. of a niwnew technologytechnology isis th'ethe slow rate of diffusion of potteryponery downd;'ffiilT;;;;*rilft.,r" the Texas coast. The use ofotgrog grog temperedtempe.ed-potlery pottery onon thetlre coastalcoastal marginmargin isis anotheranother example;;;d"- of an.n adaptation.a.pt"tion perioi'period f[ttowidfollowed by'by majormaj6r useuse of thethe technology technology (Aten(Aten time generally show tlris type of ;aii''Fl-Cr;;1983:Figure 14.1).f ,i.f l.-SJri"ti- Seriation patternsf,une-s fotfor artifactartifact use use overover time generally show this type of adaptationadaptation patternpattem very well.

The introductionintroduction of thethe bowbow andand arrowarrow was anan importantimportant technologicaltechnological change for huntinghunting The "L"ngq IoI efficiency, butUut a fairlyfairly longlong period period of of adaptation adaptation wasuras required, required, startingsta4ing with unifacialunif-a-cial arrowarrow " poiirt types. Cress man I 977 : I 09) has points;iil;d"fii.i"n"* and ending!ft i"e with;ilh standardizedii""'dardized bifacial arrow point types. Cressman_( (1977:106) has noted;;iA;;i.ii"; a similar longtSng periodp*ioa forfor locallocal adaptationadaptation of thethe bowbow andand arrowarrow inin thelhe GreatCreat Basin.Basin. AnotherA;;rh;r-i;ilrt important ni"tdchnological technological changechange inin this regionregion waswas thethe introduction introduction ofof pottery. pgttgry. Afternft"i introduction,i"troJ-rition, a high useu# levellevel forfor-pottery pottery waswas maintainedhajntained onon the.the coastalcoastal margin,margin, butbut potterypott".V t""uhas a mixedrniria historyniito.y at inlandinland sites.iites. Inin thetre inlandinland subregion,subregion, thethe useuse.of.pottery of pottery peakediea[ei sometimesometi.e inin therhe EarlyEaily CeramicCeramic period,period, with decreaseddecreased use ofof potterypottery inin thethe Latelate PrehistoricFi"f,irtoii" thatrhat aicompaniedaccompanied ia more mobile lifestylelifesryle (Patterson(Panerson 1976,1976, 1980a,1980a, Patterson Patterson andand HudginsHudgins 1993).1993). This This will will be be discussed discussed further further inin relationrelation toto mobility-settlementmobility-settlement patterns.pattems.

SomeSome possiblepossible typestypes ofof technological technological changechange willwill never never be be known, krown, because because perishable perishable materialsmateriils were involved.involved. This wouldwould includeincluiie itemsitems suchsuch asas clothing, clothing, sheltershelter andand non-non- ceramicceramic containers.containers. Not manymany significant signil'icant technologicaltechnological changeschanges mademade by by prehistoric prehistoric Indianslndians areare foundfound inin thethe archeologicalarcheological recordrecord ofof this this region, region, because because hunter-gatherers hunter-gatherers tendtend toto bebe conservative conservative to to preserve preserve successful suCcessful adaptive adaptive patterns. patterns. ItIt isis probably probably characteristiccharacteristic ofof thethe hunter-gathererhunter-gatherer lifewaylifeway thatthat a a technologicaltechnological changechange isis accepted onlyonly if itit makesmakes aa significantsignificant contributionconfibution toto efficiency and survival probability of of aa lifeway. SomeSome ofof thethe moremore sophisticatedsophisticated traitstraits of complexcomplex culturescultures would be ofof littlelittle valuevalue toto the the basic basic hunter- hunter- gatherergatherer lifeway.lifeway.

4455 TechnologicalTechnological continuitycontinuity isis as as importantimportant as as technological technological change change in in the the lifestyleslifestyles of of hunter-hunter- gathererslOnegatherers. One goodgood eximpleexample of'technologrcalof technological continujtycontinuity inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas isis thethe Gary-Gary- kentKent dartdart poiniseriespoint series thatthat was apparentlyapparently usedused forfor aboutabout 5000 years'years. TheThe trend toward smallersmaller dartdart oointspoints inin laterlater timetime notednoted aboveabove waswas aa slow evolutionaryevolutionary development.development. ThisThis isis matchedmatched byby ia trendtrend towardtoward aa higherhigher proportionproportion ofof smallersmaller flakeflake sizessizes inin later_time,later time, asas shownshown inin FieureFigure i8 for sitesite 41WH194lWHl9 (Patterson(Paflars6n etet al. 1987:Figure1987:Figure 20).20). AA smooth trend toward smallirsmaller flakeflake sizessizes isis shownshown overover anan interval ofof at least 10,00010,000 years, without anyany breaks thatthat wouldwould showshow suddensudden technologicaltechnological changes.changes. ThisThis is is illustratedillustrated in in FigureFigure 88 byby showingshowing flakeflake size disributionsdistributions atat variousvarious excavationexcavation levels.levels.

TheThe useuse offiredof fired clayballsclayballs inin inlandinland SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas fromfrom thethe LateLate Paleo-lndianPaleo-Indian throughthrough thethe Proto-Historic timetime periods demonstratesdemonstrates longlong technologicaltechnological continuitycontinuity inin thisthis region. This isis thethe longestlongest timetime intervalinterval forfor useuse ofof firedfired clayballsclayballs soso farfar publishedpublished inin NorthNorth America.America.

It should be noted that technologicaltechnological change does not necessarily indicateindicate otherother types_types of cultural change. JenningsJennings (1989.26)(1989:26) hashas observedobserved thatthat "There is an unproved assumptionas.sumption that changes Inin details 5fof ihethe attribirtesattributes ofof artifacts areare an index to significantsigrrificant changes in observed slight other aspictsaspects'in of the culture where the objecfsobjects had_theirhad their original value. The.The observed slight change in materialmaterial specimens maymay equally well document aa certaincertain rigidity,rigidity' arguingarguing culnrialcultural stability rather than cultural change."

The "processual""processual" schoolschool ofof archeologyarcheology. emphasizesemphasizes the the studystudy ofof whywhy-cultural cultural andand technologicaltechnoiogical changes have occurred. Th-iiThis is easier said thanthan done, horvever.'Technologicalhowever. Technological change c;ncan be described,desdribed, but reasons for changechange are oftenoften elusive.elusive. TechnologicalTechnological.change change can occuro"ccur for a number ofoi reasons, but availableavailabla datadaA seldom support any firm conclysions.conclusions. Technological change may be caused by factors such as changes in climate and subsistence patterns,pattems, culturalirltural preference,prdferenLe, technological innovation, and diffusion oftechnologicalof technological ideas.

DIFFUSION ANDAND LOCALLOCAL INNOVATIONINNOVATION

Diffusion of ideasideas and locallocal innovationinnovation are bothboth possiblepossible causescauses ofof technologicaltechnological change,change, andand bothboth mechanismsmechanisms of changechange shouldshould bebe consideredconsidered inin balancedbalanced studies.studies. DiffusionDiffusion of technologytechnology can resultresult from exchangeexchlange of ideasideas and/or actual migration of people.people. More often thanthan notnot thei6e originorigin ofofa a specificspecific technologicaltechnological traittrait isis difficultdifficult toto determine_ determine.

ThereThere are twotwo principleprinciple indicatorsindicators for the location of the origin of a technological trait.trait. OneOne indicatorirai*to. isis chronology.chionoldgy. The region with the earliestearlie-st date fbr.for a traittrait.is is possiblypossiblV thethe.oriSin origin pointooini ofJti the trait.r.it- ThefhE'other other indicatorind'icator isis densitydensity ofof geographicgeographic distributiondistribution ofof aa trait_ trait. TheThe region;;;*ith with therh; highestliieh".t concentrationion""nt ofof aa trait,trait,iuchis such as aiprojectile projectile pointpoint type,type, cancan possiblypossibly bebithe the originorigin pointpoini ofof thethe trait.trait. InIn"tion somesome cases,cases, wherewhere bothboth. thethe earliestearliest datedate andand theth.e highesthighest concentration;;";;;;fi;;;ia of a traitttait areate inin thethe samesame region,region, therethere isis aa higherhigher probabilityprobabilitv thatthat thisthis maymav bebe thethe regionregion ofof originorigin ofof thethe specificspecific trait.trait'

ItIt isis oftenoften notnot possibleoossible toto determinedetermine anyany exactexact pointpoint ofof originorigin ofof aa technological technological trait.trait. AnAn exampleexamole isis thethe PedernalesPedemales point,poinl wherewhere thethe earliestearliest twotwo radiocarbonradiocarbon datesdates forlbr.thls this pointpotnt typetyp€ are;;;i;'s;rdrti"iir in Southeast Texas (Pattersonii"'n"riii" 1989e),ises.), butbut thetlre highesthighest concentrationconcenration ofof thisthis. pointpoint typetvpe isis inI; CentralC;;;;l Texas.i;. Thert Pedernalesp,iO"-.iir pointpoint couldcould havehave starteds6ded inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas,Texas, butbut itit isis moremore likelyiit;ly',h;i that chronological;h;;l,r;i;ii"r"" data forf"i thisit ii pointpoinr typeryp" inin CentralCenral TexasTexas areare notnot adequateadequate toto reachreach aa conclusionconclusion onon thisthis issue.issue. occur in TheThe Perdiz Perdiz arrowarrow pointpoint isis an an example example where where the the earliest earliest radiocarbon radiocarbon datesdates occur in 6) in this Southeasti"r6'".rt'i"*r, Texas, andunfi therert isi.lfuo also au-f,lfi1oni"ntt.tion high concentration ofof thisthis artifactartifact typety,e-(Table (Table 6) in this region.;.g;. Thereil",-"'-h:,6-j""d';;;;ibiiity is a good possibility"r. thatrhaisourheasl Southeast TexasTexas isis therhe locationlocation ofof firstfirsr developmentdevelopment

4646 ofof thethe PerdizPerdiz ooint.point, becausebecause therethere are are no no conflicting conflicting datadata from from adjacent adjacent regions regions to to challenge challenge thisthis conclusion.conclusion. TheThe latelate adoptionadoption ofof thethe PerdizPerdiz arrowarrow point point in in regions regions of of TexasTexas adjacentadjacent toto Sou0reastSoutheast Texas Texas is is aa possiblepossible exampleexample ofof diffusiondiffusion ofof technology from SoutheastSoulheast Texas.Texas. ftThe ilnire"s"a increased presencepresence ofof bison in Central andand SouthSouth TexasTexas in Orethe I:teLate PrehistgricPrehistoric periodperiod In.,may thave caus;dcaused somesome movementmovement ofof peoples fromfrom SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas intointo thesethese otherother reglonsregions a*ionduring"r" ttir this timetime oeriod,period, as as bisonbison were-neverwere never reallyreally plentifulplentiful inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas. Texas. ItIt isis proposed thatthat movemenimovement ofof peoplepeople fromfrom Southeast TexasTexas may accountaccount for the Perdiz arrowarrow ".ooo"sed;;#i[i";point being Aisribureddistributed ovei over much much of of Texas Texas byby A.D.A.D. 1200 (Turner(Tumer andand HesterHester 1985:187),1985:187), iromfrom thethe fo-rmerformer smallersmaller areaarea o[of distributiondistribution inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas.Texas.

InIn SoutheastSoutheast Texas,Texas, thethe bowbow andand arrowarrow and and pottery pottery are are examples examples of of the the diffusion diffusion ofof major i;;h;;i;Gtechnologies into thisttii. region,resion, as discussed inin otherothei sections ofof thisthis report.report. The introductioninroduction ;i;;nil;of pottery iio1nfrom rt.the east;ndeast and its its slo*slow diffusiondiffusion downdown the Texas coast is a particularlyparticularly goodgood iiJrri"'orrt.example of the diffusion ofrechnology.of technology. ShaferShafer (1975:250) hashas concludedconcluded thatthat the adoption oiof potteryooi"r" was*.t mademade bybv indigenousindigenous populationsi6pulations in EastEast Texas, ratherrather than introduction byby' ,,ifr"1,i6migrating peopte,people, which supforssupports thithe cbnceptconcept thatthat thethe spreadspread of of potterypottery to to the the westwest waswas by Jiifrrionl'niidiffusion. This doesdo"r notnot precludepriclude indicationsindicati6ns that iniiial,initial introduction of of pottery inin the *iii-eastern iirrpart of the ioasralcoastal harginmargin of of SoutheastSoutheast Texas Texas couldcould havehave involvedinvolved some migrationmigration of peoplepeople fromfrom"irt. Louisiana.[.ouisiana.

A specimensnecimen of potteryDotterv from the Latehte Prehistoric at at site site 4lWHl241WH12 maymay bebe anan example of diffusiondiffirsion of anan artisticirtistii idea.idea. TheThe sherdsherd (Patterson andand HudginsHudgins 1989a:Figure 2F)2F) isis bone temperedi;;;;;;i indand haihas aa Caddo-like designdesign withwith manymany verticalvertical lineslines fromfrom the rimrim edge-endingedge ending withUtfI" a horizontaltrori-ntul line, and a row of largeiirge irregularirregula? punctationspunctations below. below. TheThe desigrrdesign elemenSelements seem.."--t typical oi."l ofof Caddo Caddo potteryponery (Suhm(Suhriand and JelksJelk 1962:Platei962:Plate 80).80). However,However, these,these, designdesign elements.i".."'ti are not arrangedu.r"ng"'d inin anan bveralloverall pattern that that is is typicaltypical ofof Caddo pottery (Dee(Dee Ann Story,ii;;;ff;;;i;ommuiricationl. personal"r. communication). ItIr appears that bonebone temperedtempered incisedincised sherds fromfrom thisthis site are;;;'il6; Leon Plainidi" typetyf" pottery,pott".y, with*itt thettiti unusualunusual attributearuibute ofof beingbeingincised,.using incised, using borrowedborrowed CaddoC.aa" O.iig,design elements.et6ireris. LeonL6on Plain bone tempered potterypottery isis only.only found inin-0re the WesternWestem Zonezf,ii ofof SoutheastSo"utheast Texas,Texas, andand isis probably probably aa trait trait introducedinLoduied to thisthis regionregion from.from Central Central TexasiJrir viari" the.iriC"td.*do Colorado Riverfurer drainagedraiiage syitem.system. In thisthis specificspecific case, it isis concludedcon-cluded thatthat thethe Caddo-like6ffi;-li1.";"6.t pottery designdesign isis not thEthe resultreiult of trade. NoNo other example of incisedincised bone-bone- temperedr"rno"r"d odtt.rv'h..pottery has b6enbeen found inin thisthis generalgeneral area,area, andand long-distancelong-distance tradetrade of bulkybulky potteryponLry is not,iot aa veryu"ry viableviable conceptconcept forfor mobilemobile hunter-gatherers.hunter-gatherers'

Inln consideringconsidering therhe transfertransfer of lithiclithic traitstaits fromfrom CentralCentral Texas toto SoutheastSoutheast Texas,Texas, -therethere seems;.ili;b;;l."d.n"v to be a tendency forior atat leastleast aa fewfew Central Central TexasTexas artifactartifact types toto persistpersist laterlater inin thethe WesternWestern ZoneZone ofof SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas thanthan inin CentralCentral Texas.Texas. ThereThere isis aa culturalcultural transitiontransition zone betweenbfi;;; CentralC.ntr"t and Southeast Texas along the Colorado fuverRiver Basin south of the Balcones faultiaultline line andund asas far"nafar easteast asas therhe BrazosBrazos River.Riier. TurnerTurner and HesterHester (1993:250).4!(1993:250,243) placepllce thethe corner-tangcomer-tane biface and the "butted"butted knife"knife" bifacebiface in thethe Latelate ArchaicArchaic periodperiod in in Central Central Texas,Texas, butbut"these these artifactartifact typestypes havehave bothboth beenbeen foundfound inin thethe Latel:te PrehistoricPrehistoric. periodperiod atat sites inin WhartonWharton County in thetlre Western*istem Zone of Southeast Texas. A corner-tangcorl^el:t?I-g biface waswa^s foundfound atat sitesite 41WH194lWHl9 (Patterson(Patterson etet al.al. 1987:Figure 1987:Figure 4),4), and and "butted "butted knife"knife" bifacesbifaces werewere foundfound atat site 41WH12 (Patterson and Hudgins 1989a:Figure 4), allall inin Late late Prehistoric Prehistoric context.context. site 4lWHl2 (Pitterson and Hudgins-from 1989a:Figure TheseThese Latelate Prehistorichihistoric specimens from Southeast TexasTexas areare notnot as well-madewell-made asas Late l:te ArchaicArchaic counterpartscounterparts from CentralCenfal Texas.Texas. Further researchresearch is is neededneeded to establishestablish aa moremore definitedefinite relationshiprelationihip betweenbetween thesethese artifactartifact typestypes inin CentralCentral andand SoutheastSoutheast Texas.Texas. Also,Also, asas notednoted inin thisthis report,report, thethe Scallorn Scallorn arrowarow pointpoint persistspersists longerlonger inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas thanthan inin CentralCentral Texas.Texas.-Bement Bement etet al.al. (1989:163) (1989:163) havehave notednoted thatthat the the cultural cultural transitiontransition zonezone betweenbetween CentralCentral TexasTexas andand EastEast TexasTexas isis alsoalso found found somewhat somewhat farther fanher north north thanthan SoutheastSoutheast Texas.Texas. ThereThere areare notnot rigidrigid boundariesboundaries ofof aa transition tansition zonezone for for technologicaltechnological traditions. raditions. ItIt wouldwould appear,appear, however,however, thatthat thethe strongeststrongest technological influencesinfluences fromfrom Central Cenfal TexasTexas areare foundfound ini in Southeast Southeast TexasTexas roughlyroughly betweenbetween thethe ColoradoColorado andand BrazosBrazos Rivers,fuvers, whichwhich isis aboutabout

4747 the same asas thethe WesternWestern ZoneZnne of SoutheastSoutheast Texas shown inin FigureFigure 1.l. TheThe east-westeast-west distributions of projectileprojectile point types support this conclusion.

48 CHAPTERCHAPTER 55 LIFEWAYSL1FEWAYS

SUBSISTENCESUBSISTENCE PATTERNS

ItIt is notnot possiblepossible toto reconstructreconstruct the complete-complete diet of prehistoricprehis-toric Indians inin this .region,region, G."rsebecause th"rethere isis littlelittle preservationpreservation ofof floral remains,remains, and-and many sites lacklack adequate adequate oreservatiOnpreservation of of faunalfaunal rlmains.remains. There There are are enough enough datadata on on faunalfaunal remains,remains, hOwever,however, to fescribedescribe rhethe rangerange ofof animalsanimals thatthat were were usedused as as foods.foods. PreservationPreservation ofof faunalfaunal remainsremains isis bestbest at shell middenmidden-sites, sites, both inland andand onon thethe coastal margin,margin, because.ofbecause of thethe alkaline.soilalkaline soil ioniitioncondition arat thisthis type-oftype of site. Examples of good faunalfaunal preservationpreiervation atat inland shellshell midden sites are in reports by McClureMcCIure'(1986, (1986, 1987 ,1991). TheThe bestbest examplesexamples-o^f of faunal ;it"t |1, in t"p.its by'margin ,1991). -faunal pr.."*utionpreservation at'coastal at coastal marginsheli shell middens middens have have been been given given by by DillehayDillehay (1975)(1975) andand McClure (1994)(1994).

For Southeast Texas,Texas, aa summarysummary of of typestypes ofof terrestrial faunal faunal remains remains is is given given inin Table.l6,Table 16, and .-ru,.,ror,a summary oiof aquaticiquatic fauiralfaunal r6riainsremains js. is givengiven inin Table 17. Except for.for thefi9 possible association"ra of Paleo-Indiansitaleo-Indians withwith extinctextinct Pleistocene animals inin surface collections from f.AiF.aainMcFaddin BeachBeach nearnear BeaumontBeaumont (l,nne (Long lg'l7),lhere1977), there isis nono evidenceevidence for-huntingfor hunting ofof extinct ;;;a;;;megafauna i"in thitthis i"iion,region, as was dbnedone 6yby Paleo-Indians in some areas of North America. It appears rf,"ithat a broad-based6i."E-Uii"a"s subsistendsubsistence patternpattern was was practicedpracticed in in thisthis region during all "rr'."oprehistoric time" D;;iod;,periods, eveneven during m6stmost ofof thethe Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian period (Panerson(Patterson etet al. margtn "lJfririo.i"-iir"-iSSZt.1987). AsA. maymav be be-pi"gti."t seenseen'in in Tables Tables 16 16 and and 17, 17, Indians Indians of of the the inland inland and and coastal coastal margin subregionsr',]U*Giirr *.i"were practicallytV omnivorous,omnivorous, utilizing utilizing a a widewide variety ofof faunalfaunal. resouJges.resources. As shownshowi'in in TableTable 16,1'6, IndiansIndiani ofof thethe inlandinland andand coastalcoas!4l marginmargin subregions.utrlrzedsubregions utilized tllethe same typestvDes ofof terrestrial terrestrial faunal resources. The main difference inin faunalfaunal utilizationutilizatlon betweenbetween inlandiii""a .niio.ttand coastal l margin Indians waswas the use of brackishbrackish water and marine foodfood resources byil;-;;;;i coastal marginmars.in Indians.Indlans. Deer and turtle were the mostmost importantimportant animals-animals utilized tyby inlandi,if."O Indians,irdi"".,iutt such as atit siterir" 411-1R2734lHR273 (Baker (Baker et et al. al. l99l:l6l).1991:161). Deer andand..turtlc.were.also turtle were also veryverv importantimportani to coastal"i margin Indians. TheThe rangerange ofof faunal resources utilized-byutilized by Indianslndlans of;i thistiril';Ai;;"*ia region ranged fromi-1n.r11itt small animals,animals, suchsuch asas rat,iat, raccoon, opossum,opossum, andand-rabbit" rabbit, to large animals, suchir.t asis deerdter and bison. Antelope remains have been identified at a fewfew sites. "rir"ti, -Table EvenEven thoughthough bearbear would have provided aa good meatmeat source,sou-rce, Table 1616 showsshows thatthat.this this bear animalanimal waswas- notnot aa majormajor food sourcesource in thisthis region.region. Larsonkrson (1980:174) concludesconcludes that_that bear greater coastal plain..He states waswas notnot aa major major foodfoo-d source source throughout throughout thethe greater southeastern-southeastern coastal plain. He states thatthat With"with theth6 kinds kinds ofof missile missile weapons wea-pons the the Indians Indians hadhad atat hand,hand, itit mustmust havehave beenbeen veryvery difficultdifficult andand certainlycertainly veryvery dangerousdangerous toto attemptattempt toto killkill aa free-rangingfree-ranging bear."bear."

AquaticAquatic faunalfaunal food resourcesresources werewere usedused inin bothboth inlandinland andand coastalcoastal marginmargin subregions,subregions, asas maymay bebe seenseen in in Table Table 17. 17. Aside Aside from from shellfish; shellfish; alligator, alliqator, fish, fis.h, and -an! water water turtles turtles werevere importantim6onant aquatic foodfood resources. Inland freshwater fiihfish types includeinclude gar,gar, catfish,cadish, drum,drum, bass,bais, bowfin,bowfin, andand sunfish.sunfish. Coastal Coastal marginmargin brackishbrackish waterwater and marine fish typestypes includeinclude gar,gar, catfish,cafrlh, drum,drum, bowfin,bowfin, shark,shark, seasea trout,trout;and and sheepshead. SomeSome remainsremains ofof waterwater birds,birds, suchsuch asas duckduck andand geese,geese, havehave beenbeen foundfound atat bothboth inlandinland andand coastalcoastal marginmargin sites. AsideAside fromfrom aa fewfew specimensspecimens ofof fishhooks, fishhooks, therethere isis litlelitle evidenceevidence onon how how fish fish were were procured. procured. ThereThere isis nono evidenceevidence preservedpreserved forfor thethe use of nets.nets. InIn additionaddition to use of fishhooks,fishhooks, largelarge fishfish maymay havehave beenbeen spearedspeared oror shot with arrows. Small fish may have been scooped byby handhand from shallow waterwater locations,locations, andand fishfish trapstraps maymay have beenbeen mademade inin shallow waterwater locations.locations.

TheThe conceptconcept ofof specialized specialized hunting hunting ofof nownow extinct extinct megafauna megafauna byby Paleo-Indians PaleoJndians doesdoes notnot seemseem to to apply apply to to this this region. region. Faunal Faunal remains remains fromfrom Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian componentscomponen8 ofof excavatedexcavated sitessites havehave only only modern modern faunalfaunal typestypes (Patterson(Patterson 1980a,1980a, PattersonPatterson et al. 1987).1987). AsAs Bryant Bryant andand

4949 ShaferShafer ( (1977:20)1977:20) state,state, "We"We seriouslyseriously doubt doubt that that big big gamegame huntinghunting wouldwould havehave been economicullveconomically soundsound as-aas a major subsisiencesubsistence pattempattern in in anyany ofof the parklandparkland andand woodlandwoodland areasareas of of easlerneastern TexasTexas wheiewhere the the species species of of big game werewere probablyprobably dispersed oror notnot oresentpresent inin larqelarge numbers."numbers." There There is is i aperception perception by by some some archeologistsarcheologists that adapArionadaptation toto iocallocal foodfood resourcesres]ources is a gradual proceisprocess thatthat requiresrequires a a long long timetime period.period. ThisThis 4aymay bebe truetrue forfor some foodfood resources,resources] butbut asas a a general general scenario, scenario, hunter-gatherer hunter-gafierer gr99Ps.groups eithereither.adapt adapt rapidly to local food resources or perish or move. TheThe Shawnee-Minisink Shawnee-Minisink site site in iipiai, to local food resources -oi ,perish .move.. idnns'ulraniaPennsylvania is is aa soodgood example of where even thethe earliestearliest ClovisClovis inhabitantsinhabitans adapted toto iocallocal lioratfloral andand fau-nalfaunal resources resources (McNett (McNett 1985:322). 1985:322). MeltzerMeltzer (1993:306) (1993:306) has observed rhatthat availableavailable evidenceevidence doesdoes not show a single ClovisClovis adaptation,adaptation, but many Clovis adaptationsadaptations toto aa widewide range of plant and animalanimal resources.resources.

RangiaRangia cuneatacuneala brackish waterwater shellfishshellfish waswas anan imp_ortantimportant foodfood resourceresource forfor coastalcoastal margin i;ai;;.Indians. Rangia Rangia shell shell middens middens can can be be very very large.'Site large. Site 41HR7441HR74 (Duke (Duke l98l)1981) isis aa.Rangia Rangia midden over"tOooover 1000 feet long.long. RangiaRangia shellsshelli werewere apparentlyapparently spread outout toto pave-andpave and repave camDsires.campsites. Aten ((1983:Chapter 1983:Cha-prer t11) t) has describeddescribed thethe detailsdetails ofof severalseveral RangiaRangia shellshell middenmidden siteslsites. A highhigh proportionproporrion dfof therhe sitesiites inin thethe coastal coasta.l margin m_argin datad?ta.base base areare RangiaRangia shell middens (pitteisoir(Patterson 1989b),1989b), withwith considerableconsiderable variationvariation ;n in 5i"g. size. WhileWhile Rangia.Rangia wasawas a major food itemitem forfor coastal Indians, the importanceimportance ofRangiaof Rangia inin thethe dailydaily dietdiet shouldshould notnot bebe over-over- eitimated,estimated, asas RangiaRangia meatmeat isis not aa'rich rich foodfood material.material. Erlandson (1988)(1988) notednoted.that that the importanceimoorranie ofof sheiifishshellfish in prehistoricprehistoric economieseconomies has been the subject of continuedcontinued debate.debate. 'Rangia A Rangia sample fromfrom TrinityTrinity Bay Bay gave gave an an averageaverage weight weight of of 33 gramsgrams^ of meat.meat perper specimenspecimEn (Pattirson,(Patterson, Ebersole Ebersole and and Kiidall Kindall l99l-:2-7_).. 1991:27). Using Using a a value value ofof 0.78.0.78 caloriescalories perper grameiam from qeneralgeneral datadata onon clamsclams (Chaney(Chaney 1943:394),1943:394), aa person wouldwould need to consumeconsume TOOS1068 RangiaRaneii to obtainobtain therhe daily minimumminimum requirement of of 25002500 calories. Using aa.protein protein contentconte of 6.2%6.20A andand aa minimumminimum requirementrequiremeni of of 60 grams per day (Dering(Dering andand AyersAyers 1977:59),lsli:ss1,a a personperson would needneed to consumeconsume 323323 RangiaRangia_oobtain to obtain the minimum daily proteinprotein requirement.r"quir"niLnt. Byrd Byrd (1976) (1976) hashas reachedreached the the same same conclusion conclusion on on the the low low foodfood valuevalue of thethe Rangia clam.

ExperimentalExperimental studies show that Rangia shells are tightly sealed whenwhen harvestedharvested (Patterson,(Patterson, EbersoleEbirsole and Kindall 1991),l99l), and areari difficult to openopen forfor meatmeat extraction.extraction. ProcessingPro_cessing of largeIargeamounts amounts of Rangia required some-typ!some type ofof heai,heat, whichwhich would openopen the shell and cook thethimeat meat at the same tJme.time. Use ofof heatheat forfoi-Rangia Rangia processing could havehave beenbeen_ byby roasting,roasting, steamingsteaming or boiling. Roasting is a goodgood candidatecandi-date becausebecause some burntburnt shell is foundfound atat manyn].n" shellit".ti.iaaeni. middens. NeckNeck (1991:17)(tSlt:tZ)-has has notednoted that that burntburnt shellshell wouldwould bebe under-represented,under-repres^erted, because6"*irse burntUrrni shellrtell disintegratesdisintegrates moremore rapidlyrapidly thanthan unburntunbumt shellshell due to conversion ofof burntbumt shellstrett fromfrom calciumcatclum carbonatecarbonite to calcium hydroxide.hydioxide. Sassaman (1993:65),has(1993:65) has concludedcon-cluded thatthat heat was used to processprocess shellfishshellfish alongalong the AtlanticAtlantic coast.coast. TheThe authorauthor hashas used boilingborlmg toto heat was used to -the processil;.;; Rangia,R.Eitri[i.t which canii, bebe donedone inin aa'few few minutes.minutes. RangiaRangia hashas aa tastetaste similarsimilar toto AtlanticAtlantic saltwatersaltwater clams.clams.

With respect toto TexasTexas coastalcoastal marginmargin adaptations,adaptations, marine foodsfoods may have beenbeen aa secondarysecondary with resoect "Populauon resource,,".orrce. especiallyesoeciallv emphasizedemphasized afteraiter A.D. 100.I 00. Yesner Yesner (1981:445)( 1981 :a45) states states that trat "Population growthn.o*th appearsiooizts to havehavl playedplayed aa significant significant rolerole in in further further intensification intensification ofot' maritime marrume adaptation;;;;;it;G;"tufiv (especially exploitation.idtoiiition ofoflmore more diversifieddiversified marinemarine resources) inin latelate HoloceneHolocene times in many areas". Perlman iiS8O)(1980) commentscomments thatthat peoplepeople "locate"locate inin termsterms ofof critical critical ;il[-ilil;;;;i.-pJ.fr.,i resources ln resourcesresources andand'then then adjust those 'optimal' locationslocations toto allowallow access toto secondarysecondary resources in orderorder toto minimizeminimize risk."risk." (Neck A varietyvariety ofof freshwater freshwater shellfishshellfish typestypes areare foundfound. inin inlandinland SoutheastSoutheast Texas (Neck 1986,1986' A sites 1991),l99l) butbut distributiondistribution isis notnot uniformun]ioiii throughoutttrrougtrout the region. MostMost inlandinland shellshell middenmidden sites are found in the Western Zone, such as along therh9 San BernardBemard River. River' An An excavation excavation ;i"'i3r,ft'il-th;"w;;iilA;;,'ru"r, -S"a1 good picture of program;;;ffilr"ihiJ;J-b|G"-iffirio,i'eiini"roEicar in this area by the Houston Archeological"titone Society has given aa good picture of

5050 prehistoric exploitation exploitation of of freshwaterfreshwater shellfish shellfish (Patterson (Patterson and and Hudgins Hudgins 1986, 1986, 1987a, 1987a, 1987b,1987b, issga,1989a, 1989c).tsgsc). FreshwaterFreshwater shellfishshellfish atat variousvarious sitessites were utilized from the Early Archaic rhrouehthrough thethe IiteLate kehistoric,Prehistoric, with with shell shell middenmidden site site 4lFB3741FB37 (Patterson 1989.a)1988a) having an +l-120 B:P. (I-15206). Inland freshwater shell middens do earlyiadiocarbonearly-have radiocarbon date date of of 66906690 +/-120 B.P. (1-15206). Inland freshwater shell middens do not have the size of the large Rangia shellshell middens onon the coastalcoastal margin..Themargin. The locationslocations ofof availablitvavailablity of freshwater sh;llfishshellfish ieemseem to have varied through timetime alongalong inland streams in this region, evidently due to changingchanging environmental conditionsconditions ofof the streams, suchsuch as sandbar locations,locations, and water depth andand flowmte.flowrate.

The exploitation of freshwaterfresh\ ater shellfish in thethe EarlyEarly ArchaicArchaic (Patterson(Patterson andand HudginsHudgins 1987a) indand Middle Archaic (Patterson andand HudginsHudgins I1986) 986) time periods tends to.showto show that a broader useuse ofof food types byby hunter-gatherershunter-gatherer-s ls is notnot always _correlatedcorrelated withwith either.either aa high oooulationpopulation level or an-increasedan increased knowledgeknowledge of secondary food resourcesresources in laterlater prehistoric iinietime periods. Freshwater shellfish shellfish isis definitelydefinitely aa low-value secondarysecondary food resourceresource thatthat was utilizedritilized in early time periods in this region, when-when population levelslevels were.low.were low. ThereThere are not enoushenough data toto detirminedetermine ifif a broadErbroader rangerange of of foodfood types was utilized during the high populationpopulaiion levelslevels of thethe Latel:te ArchaicArchaic and EarlyFlrly Ceramicceramic-- periods in.in this region, or insteadinitead iherethere waswas simplysimply a higherhigher intensityintensity ofof exploitation oftraditionalof traditional foodfood types.

The writing of CabezaCabeza dede VacaVaca providesprovides somesome historichistoric informationinformation that applies to.to thethe subsistencesubsistence" activitiesactivities of of Indians'ofIndians of the coastalcoastal marginmargin ofof SoutheastSoutheast Texas. De VacaVaca mentions,.ntions thatt}at Indians ofof this region ate nutsnuts andand roots,roots, andand aa varietyvariety ofof smallsmall faunal types, such as rat, snake,snake, Iizard,lizard, frogfrog a-ndand insects, insects, as as well well as_fish.(He_d_ric!.a1das fish (Hedrick and Rilel.J Riley 1974:43).974:43). De Vacav.." describesa.sdu"r deer huniinghunting 5yby drivingdriving rhemthem toto thethe shorelineshoreline (Hedrick(Hedrick and and Riley Riley 1974:44). Coastal Indians seemseem to haveha-ve-moved moved alongalong thethe coastcoast andand somewhatsomewhat inlandinland toto gathergather nutsnuts and prickley pear (Hedrick(Hedrick andand Riley Riley 1974:43-45).

Even thoughthoush remainsremains are not oftenoften preserved,preserved, nutsnuts and acornsacoms werewere probablyprobably anan importantimpOrtant part,"n of the prehistoriciitoiiC ai"tdiet inin thisthis'region. region. Shafer (1975:250)(1975:250) has noted thethe-presence presence of charred!f,"ir"a"irt,E,i"t *"liriwalnut ih"llr.tshells at sitessites in thethe LakeLke ConroeConroe area. Pignut shellsshells were found at site 41WH73afWfil (Pattersoniputt"oon andand HudginsHudgins 1993)1993) inin WhartonWharton County. TheThe Western Zone of Southeast Texasiexas isis particularlyparticularly well-known for largelarge quantities of pecanpecan trees.trees.

Acorns from various types of oak trees would have been widely available as a food sourcesource inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas,Texas, butbui it cannot be determined to what extent acorns were actually used by prehistoricprehistoric IndianiIndians ofof this region.region. SwantonSwanton (1946:273,293)(1946:273,293) mentionsmentions thatthat acornsacorns werewere widely usedused byby IndiansIndians of thethe-Southeast, Southeast, and RicklisRicklis (1992.221)(1992:221) notes the historic use of acornsacomi byby KarankawaKarinkawa IndiansIndians onon thethe central TexasTexas coast.coast. GoodchildGoodchild (1984:22) statess ta-tes thatthat "Some"Some kinds of acornsacorns werewere simplysimply roasted,roasted, butbut mostmost acornsacorns are bitterbitter and slightly toxic becausebecause they contain tannic acid,acid, indand aa numbernumber of of methodsmethods werewere usedused 1o to getget rid-ofrid of thethe tannin.tannin. As aa generalgeneral rule, acorns of the white-oak group (with(with rounded lobeslobes toto the leaves) containcontain lessless tannintannin thanthan those of thethe black-oakblack-oak group (with pointedpointed lobes)lobes) andand requirerequire litlelitle oror nono treatment."treatment." l:rsonLarson ((1980:188) I 980: 188) also notes that acorns fromfrom the white oak species lacklack tannintannin and cancan bebe eaten eaten without without unpleasant unpleasant effects.effects. GoodchildGoodchild (1984:23)(1984:23) statesstates thatthat "Acorns"Acorns were eaten roasted, boiled,boiled, oror crushed intointo flourflour to makemake bread,bread, and oil waswas extractedextracted from thethe acorns of live oakoak (Q.(Q. virginiana),virginiana), aa southeasternsoutheastern species."species." ExperimentsExperimenb byby thethe authorauthor have shownshown thatthat tannin in acomsacorns is not in theOre form of tannictannic acid.acid. WaterWater fromfrom boilingboiling acornsacorns hashas a neutralneutral pH. Removal ofof tannin inin acornsacorns cancan bebe done by boiling of wholewhole acorns,acorns, oror coldcold waterwater extractionextraction ofof crushedcrushed acorns.acorns. AcornsAcoms remainremain aa goodgood candidatecandidate forfor aa prehistoricprehistoric foodfood sourcesource inin thisthis region.region.

BisonBison werewere presentpresent inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas,Texas, butbut probablyprobably not continuously. BisonBison hadhad aa limitedlimited regionalryglo-nal geographicgeographic distributiondistribution and were notnot presentpresent in largelarge numbersnumblrs (Patterson 1992c).1992c). DillehayDillehay (1974)(1974) hashas noted noted that rhat bisonbison werewere generally generally availableavailable onlyonly duringduring somesome timetimt

5151 Deriodsperiods in in thethe SouthernSouthern Plains.Plains. The The distributiondistribution of of bisonbison remains remains in in SoutheastSoutheast Texas Texas isis !t,o*nshown ;nin FigureFigure 99 forfor siressites ofof allall timetime periods.periods. BisonBison did_not did not penetratepenetrate the the B.ig Big Thicket Thicket or or oin",piney woodiareas woods areas lhat that cover cover much much of of tlie the region, region, but but confined confined occupation occupation to to the the more more open open [""iLtcoastal oi.iri"prairie areas. areas. Thus, Thus, bison bison remains-occur remains occur mainly mainly in in the the WesternWestern Zone Zone and and thethe iouGnipo.tionsouthern portion ofof ttrethe CeniralCentral ZoneZone inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas. Texas. Sites Sites with with bison bison remains remains found found inin Gi.this r*ioiregion are summarized inin Table Table 18.18. There There is is an an indication indication of of an an increase increase in in bison bison inin thethe faieLate ffetristoric,Prehistoric,"r".ummarized butbut thethe datadata setset isis notnot large.large. The The dislributiondistribution of of bisonbison remainsremains at at sitessites westwest orof ttthe coi"i"o,iColorado RiverRiver rhatthat isis shownshown inligurein Figure 99 isis based on dat4data by HuebnerHuebner (1991). flr"tn"rHuebner" (1991) (1991) has has proDosedproposed a a corridorcorridor oT of bisonbison migrationmigration to to thethe south between thethe Cotoraao'anaColorado and flrazos'Rivers,Brazos Rivers, but but there there is is littlelittle evidenceevidence to to supportsupport th.isthis corridorcorridor asas aa ;r;i;r;-r;i;prefered route foifor Ui.onbison comingcoming intointo SouthSouth Texas,Texas, basedbased onon tlrethe geographicgeographic d_istribuliondistribution ofof [il;;;.;il;bison remains aiat arctreological-sires.archeological sites. h It seemsseems likelylikely thatthat bisonbison comingcoming intointo South^-Cen_tralSouth-Central ;;e-ilrhand South i;-^Texas diddid this-bythis by routes west of thethe ColoradoColorado RiverRiver (Patterson(Paflerson 1992c).1992c). TheThe Texas was not optlmal tor !se'.aS Dlson coastalcoastal prairieprairie environmentenvironment of of SoutheastSoutheast Texas was not optimal for -bls6nbison use, as bison oreferprefer shortshort srassgrass environmentsenvironments insteadinstead Ofof thethe longlong grassgrass environmentsenvironments I'oundfound lnin thlsthis reglon.'region. itir.There aoiidoes ,iot.ppearnot appear roto havehave beenbeen largelarge herdsherds of-bisonof bison inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas duringduring anyany timetime period.period.

The hunter-gatherer subsistencesubsistence patternpattern waswas successfulsuccessful in.Southeastin Southeast Texas Texas for.a for a longlong time o"iioa.period, fronr"from rtthe Paleo-Indian through thethe Late Prehistorichehistoric time periods. Agriculture waswas ;;i;.ti;"4not practiced inin" rhisthis regionreeion in prehistoricprehis-toric times, even though the Caddo Indians practiced someiorn!.niiiuttute agriculture inin an"adiacentan adjacent region toto the northnorth duringduring thettre LateI:te PrehistoricPrehistoric period.period' HudsonHraroni (1976:76)f SZO,Z6) notes tlitthat agriculrureagriculture waswas widespreadwidespread inin thethe MississippianMississippian cultureculture in-thein the SoutheastSJrtt ersi Woodlinds,Woodlands, butbut thltthat some Indian groupsgroups remainedremained as hunter-gatherers.hunter-gatherers. The choice tot" practiceorattice agricultureaericulture is notnot alwaysalways inevitable.inivitable. AgricultureAgriculture may notnot have,have,been been a viable"t.i* subsistencesubiist"nce o'ptionoption for much of prehistoricpr6historic Southeastloutheast Texas (O'Brien(O'Brien.a-nd and SpencerSpencer "iaUte1976).iSZ6i. SJrSoils .fof the Gulfbulf coastalcoasral plainplain areire notnot well-suitedwell-suited forfor_agriculture agriculture withoulwithout use of modern.odJ-- farmingiarhing practices. larsdnLarson ((1980:222) 1980:222) statesstates that "There"There isis ratherrather substantial substantial ethnohistoricaleifrnot istoricat Eridenceevidence toto indicate tiratthat agricuitureagriculture was almost completelycompletely. absent on thethe Coastal Plain westwest of thethe ApalachicolaApalachicola River."River." It isis significantsignificant thatthat intensiveintensive prehistoricprehistoric agriculture.griirtt r" was practiced oniyonly in interior regions ofof thtthe Gulf coastal llain,Plain, north of thethe bandUi,i ofoF pineypin"i woodriood thatrhat runsruris alongalong thethe eastern ealtern GulfGulf coastal coastal. plain. plain. Some Som_e_ acculturated accultur.lted (Pettula historictristoric'So."-t IndianslilAlaris practicedpracticed agriculture i-nin the northernnorthem part of SoutheastSoutheast Texas (Pettula 1992).1992)' Some historicittorii Indianst,idians inin Wharton\,frrarton CountyCounty werewere knownknown asas "fish-eaters","fish-eaters",, becausebpq_Wq theyth_ey livedlived on;'th; the creeks;r;;k and;a rivers,iir.o, dependingdepending for foodf6od almost entirelyentirely onon fishfish andand shellfishshellfish (Hudgins(Hudgins 1984:29).1984''29\.

LarsonI-arson (1980:226)(1980:226) has concludedconcluded that meat and shellfish were a minorminor portionponion ofof thethe totaltotal calories;ff;r'i, in thetlr; dietdief ofof prehistoricprehistoric IndiansIndians onon thethe southeasternsoutheastern coastalcoastal plain.plain. HeHe statesstates thatthat "It"It plant lbod.tn older to wouldwould seemseem thatthat itit wasuas necessarynecessary for thethe IndiansIndians to dependdgpend upon_up9r-l plant food in order to maintain;;i;;i;;;;naUte a reasonable nutritionalnutritionailevel level even thoughrhough thisthid level did notnot reachreach thatthat deemeddeemed necessarynecessary atat thethe presentpresent time."time."

HuebnerHuebner andand BouttonBoutton (1992)(1992) havehave carriedcarried outout stablestable_carbon carbon isotopeisotope analysesanalyses ofolhuman human skeletalitii.t"i'riruint remains fromfrom siteiite 41AU36illUiO in thethe WesternWestern ZoneZnne ofof Southeast Southeast Texas.Texas. C3C3 foodfood resources,;;fi;;;,;;i;iv mainly nutsrrr, anduna deer,o"ii, were*ere thettre principalprincipal dietarydietary componentcomDonent ofof IndiansIndians atat thisthis sitesite in the Late Archaic period.pirioa. C4ii'g'fiJi-.piiilt grass species were*"L a minor,iroi partpart ofbf thethe diet.diet. FutureFuture studiesstudies ofof i;-[.,!.L1.A*iii. " thisiiiiJ typetvp. couldl""ia giveiire'more more detailsdeuili onon subsistencesubsistence patternspatterns inin thisthis region.region

MOBILITY-SETTLEMENTMOB ILITY.SETTLEME NT PATTERNS the inland and. co-astal Mobility-settlementMobilitv-settlement patterns areare considered here separately for the inland and coastal margin;;;#i;ffi;t;;. subregions. Settlements[ir.ri.]riiini"in''u'", patterns are, ofor course,iorrr., tiediied totoiubsistence subsistence patterns.pattems. AsAs StoryStory

5252 (1990:260)(1990:260) notes,notes, therethere isis diflicultydifficulty inin determiningdetermining seasonality seasonality and, and duration duration ofa of a staystay atat anan inlandinland caniosite.campsite. OtherOther aspectsaspects of of mobility-settlementmobility-settlement patlems patterns can can bebe consldered,considered, hgwever,however, i.;l;lu"dfor inland sltes.sites. SomeSome ofof thethe characteristiischaracteristics of of inlandinland sites sites are are as as follows follows (Panerson (Patterson 1991e):1991e): dimensions l.-1. -Sites Sites areare usuallyusually discretediscrete locations,-withlocations, with fairlyfairly well-definedwell-defined boundaries.boundaries. SiteSite dimensions tyli."ttytypically r"n!erange fromfrom 3030 toto 100lOO ieetfeet in diaheter,diameter, althoughalthough somesome largerlarger sizesize sitessites areare known.known.

2.2. TheThe majoritymaioritv of sitessites areare multi-component, multitomponent, often withwith longlong occupationoccupation sequencessequences (Patterion(Patterson 1983),iesl;, indicating frequentfrequent reusereuse ofof sitesite locations'locations.

3. MoStMost siteSsites areare found near a waterwater source, such as a streamstream orOr lakelake edgeedge (Patterson(Patterson le79d).1979d). camps. Most 4. There is littlelittle evidenceevidence of satellitesatellite activityactivity areas and separateseparate basebase camps. Most ' archeological sites simply indicate residential use. -5. SoecializedSpecialized subsistence activitiesactivities dodo notnot generallygenerally occuroccur inin isolationisolation atat senlrateseparate locations'locations. -'il;;";1;;-t;;;i"t;aEvidence for specialized subsistence-activiti6s,subsistence activities, suchsuch asas shellfish gathering,gathering' usuallyusually ;;il6g;rh.;;irtoccurs together with inJl""tionrindications of ot}erother subsistence activitiesactivities atat specificspecific sites, such as hunting.

There is no modelmodel for mobility-settlementmobility-senlement patternspatterns ofof hunter-g:lherershunter-gatherers thatthat isis likelylikely to fit preciselyoreciselv forfor a specificspecific regionregion (Ebert(Ebert andand Kohler Kohler 1988:112). 1988:l 12) However,However, .gle.the aboveabove characteristics5i,ii".tJri.iiJ. iorfor inlandi'rJina-rit.iin sites in Southeast Texas cancan be comparedcompared to-twoto two m.odelsmodels given by Binfordiji"f.iJ ftSSOI(1980) whichwnich representrepresent two extremesexfemes inin thethe spectrum spectrum of of_ mobility-settlement mobility-settlement strategiesi63iliJaE-b;'ft'""a-'ktrir"iisa8:ll3). (Ebert and Kohler 1988:113). InIn one of Binford'sBinfbrd's models,models, thethe-more more mobilemobile hunter-gatherersffii;ffiri;;#'Lir"a;r*"eersl'*itt are called "foragers," with residential bases that are moved freq.uentl^v-andfrequently and other;il|#;;i;;;lil"JairfuriirSristLnce poorly defined diffuse subsistence activity locations. Ebert and KohlerKohler (1988:113)(1988:ll3) note;;; thatfi; "Given;'bir;n au foragingroiueine adaptation, itit is-clearis clear that,tha! inin muchmuch ofof the tlre contempory contempory archeological record, discrete 'sites' will not be appa-rent."apparent." In Binford's other model,model' the less ir-"t air"i.r.aritesi *ill;ioliectors.'; mobilernouil""ofti."I-r".ora, hunter-gatherersnlrt.t-gathirers ,ttare Ltt"acalled "collectors." InIn thisrhis model,m*.el, there are well-definedw:l,l--d.:Ined residential.jii1[i;iJJi,-atiti"f basestii"i"nai"Gffir" and satellite locations that tend to be reused (Ebert 'h"t".iI",andandXohler Kohler 1988:113).1988:1.13.). Collectors are.ie characterizedit uru.t"rir"d by logisticallyiogistically organizedorganized subsistence activities, using speciallyspecially organizedorganized tasktask groups (Binford(Binford 1980:10).1980:l0) the TheThe characteristicscharacteristics of prehistoricprehistoric sites of inlandinland SoutheastSoutheast Texas seem to fall betweenbetween the two extremes for mobilityr*u'iiitv ofoi Binford'ssinforat twotwo models.models. TheThe lacklack ofof visiblevisible satellitesatellite activityacti.vitv t*; #;;;;'l;i model. In locationsio."tioni fits thethi foragerforager'model, model, but the highhigh reusereuse _ofof sitessites fitsfits thethe collector collector model. In SoutheastS;rtha;t Texas,i;*4, thererhereippears appears toto havehave beenbeen employedempJoyed aa_general general foragingforaging strategy,strategy, butbut onon aa highlyfri"nf, scheduledi"i,"ari"a basis.basis. AA singlesinele modelmodel ofof mobility-settlementmobility-settlEment patternpanern shouldshould notnot bebe used.used. Asffi'ai'o,!-iiggoiosi Story (1990:269) notes,not.", "Much"ftuch ofof thethe successsuccess of6f huntershunters andand gatherersgatherers surelysurely restedresled inin theirtneir abilityabiliiy toto implementimplement aa numbernumber ofof differentdifferent economiceconomic responses,responses, toto bebe ableable toto adjustadjust toto thetil goodg;A asa's well well asis thethe bad bad times. times. The The- tendency tendency forfor archeologistsarcheologists toto reducereduce anan economiceconomic system;F6. toi" oneone modelmodel runsruns therhe riskrisk ofof stripping strippin! thethe system system ofof its is main main mechanism mechanism forfor survival".survival".

TheThe degreedegree ofof mobilitymobility ofof hunter-gathererhunter-gatherer groupsgroups cannotcannot bebe determineddetermined byby theth€ typeslypes ofofdaa data inin thethe archeological ircheological record.iecord. MobilityMob-ility isis relatedrElated toto several several independent independent variables,variables,- suchsuch asas distancesdisances ofof moves,mo-ves, frequencyfrequency ofof moves,moves, andand typestypes ofof movementmovement (residential(residential andand logistic).logistic). ThereThere isis no no single single scale scale of 6f mobility mobility (Kelly (Kelly 1995:149). 1995:149). It appearsappears toto bebe time time forfor archeologistsarcheologisb toto movemove awayaway fromfrom attemptsattempts toto preciselyprecisely definedefine hunter-gathererhunter-gatherer mobility,mobility, andand insteadinstead concentrateconcentrate onon more more productive productive subjects. subjecb. TheThe classification classification ofof hunter-gatherer hunter-gatherer *collectors" groupsgroups asas "foragers" "foragers" oror "collectors" inin regardregard toto mobility mobility isis seldom seldom a a useful useful exercise, exercise,

5353 becausebecause most hunter-gatherer groups groups act act as as both "foragers""foragers' andand "collectorsn"collectors" in in their seasonalseasonal rounds.rounds. Jrave TheThe useuse of nutsnuts is aa goodgood example example ofof where where alternatealtemate subsistencesubsisten-ce stralggiqstrategies -wouldwould have beenbeen necessary.necessary. NusNuts ire are a a good'foodgood food sourc€,source, but asas Cabeza d-ede -Vac1 Vaca (ledrick(Hedrick andand RileyRiley 7971974:43) 4:43) noted, goodgood nut cr-opscrops areare notavailablenot available every.year.every year. OtherOther foodfood resourcesresources wouldwould havehave been needed-inneeded in some yearsyeais to take thethe placeplace ofof nuts in the diet.diet.

TheThe reusereuse ofof sites in the inlandinland subregion isis indicated by the quantity ofof artifacts foundfound atat eacheach site (sometimes thousands of of lhhiclithic specimens)-specimens) andand thethe high.high proportionproportion o-fof multi- cornponenicomponent sites.sites. Table l919 shows thatthat 9Oo/o90% oror more ofof sites are multi-component from,thefrom the Paleb-IndianPaleo-Indian throughthrough the the Iate Late Archaic Archaic periods. periods. The The proportionproportion of of single-component single-component sitessites increasesincreases somewhalsomewhat in the Early Ceramic andand l:teLate hehiitoricPrehistoric periods,periods, butbut thethe majoritymajority ofof sites associated with these time periods are still multi-component.multi-component. There areare 4444 published sites inin thisthis regionregion withwith occupationsoccupaiions fromfrom thethe Latelate Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian periodperiod through the.l-atethe Late prehistoricPrehistoric p"r-iod.period. TheThe highhigh riusereuse ofof sites demonstrates schedulingscheduling and restricted mobilitymobility even during the Paleo-Ind-ianPaleo-Indian period,period, which which isis sometimessometimes consideredconsidered toto havehave had aa more mobile lifeway.life-way. ThereThere are somewhat higherhigher. proportions ofof singlesingle comlonentcomponent sites during the EarlyEarlv CeramicCer:amic andand Latelate PrehistoricPrehisroriiperi6ds, periods, showingshowing aa tendency for more dispersion and mobility. There is evidence thatthat IndiansInilians were more mobile inin thethe Latekte PrehistoricPrehistoric period (Patt6rson(Patterson 1976:185),1976:185), withwith lessless use of potterypottery and smaller sites.sites. This tendency may haveirave started in the last partparf of thethe EarlyEarly Ceramic period, perhaps du€due to high population.population. Cohen (1977:83) hashas proposedproposed that people may settle down toto.agriculture. agriculture oror be^comebecome more mobile ioto obtainobtairi food whenwiren populationpopulaiion pressurespressures increase. HigherHigher mobilitymobility ofof Indians in the I-ateLate Prehistoric diddid notnot chin'gechange thethe generalgeneral geographicgeographic settlement pattern,panern, however.however. The same types of sitessites werewere beingbeirU useduseil asas in in previous previous time time periods, periods, butbut sitesite locations locations The. higher degree of apparentlyappar",itiy changedchanged moremore oftenoften indand withwith a moremoie dispersed -panern. pattern. The higher degree of mobilityni.iUitity of6f IndiansIndiins inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas duringduring thethe LateIate PrehistoricPrehistoric periodperiod diddid notnot approachapproach the highhigli degree of mobility of Binford'sBinford's ((1980) I980) foragerforager model.

In Southeast Texas, only a few Paleo-IndianPaleolndian and Early ArchaicArchaic culturescultures showshow evidenceevidence ofaof a very mobilemobite lifeway,lifewjy, includingincluding usersusers of Clovis,Clovis, Folsom,Folsom, Midland,Midland, Scottsbluff,Scottsbluff, Dalton andand BellBeli pointpoint types.types. inI-n' this this region, region, thesethese pointpoint typeslypes areare mainlymain-ly mademade ofof exotic exotic Edwards Plateau flints, and are associated withwith aa limiiedlimited number of of stone tool.tool types.types. With-Edwards thethe Plateiu flin6, and are assoiiated -With possiblepossible exceptionexception of Clovis,Clovis, allall ofof the the highly highly mobile mobile cultures cultures are are outliersoutliers inin Southeast Southeast Texas,texas, withwith concurrentiorcurrent less mobilemobile Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indjan groups well-established in thisthis region,region, possiblypossibly asas earlyearly as 11,000I1,000 B.C.B.c. EvenEven thethe highly mobilemolile Clovisclovis andand FolsomFolsom culturescultures diddid notnot dependdepend'solely solely onon subsistencesubsistence fromfrom extinctextinct typesfpes ofof megafaunamegafauna (Johnson(Johnson 1977).1977). StoryStory andand GuyGJv (1990:426)( l99o:ri2O) seesee various various degreesdegrees ofof mobility niobility of of different different Paleo-Indian Paleo-lndian culturescultures asas degreesdldrels ofof variationvariition inin emphasisemphasis-on on huntinghunting or or gathering, githering, ratherrather thanthan. distinctlydistinctly differentdifferent lifestyles.iiiEstytC ScheduledScheduled subsistencesubsiitence patternspatterns andand ia moremore limitedlimited mobilitymobility ofof Paleo-Indian Paleo-Indian groups;;;6t ini, SoutheastSortt *.t TexasTexas appearsappeari to be relatedrelated to adaptationadaptation toto local resources,resourcp, with nono higherf,igt [i populationp"prt.ii- levels.levels. A'moreA more scheduledsch-eduled. lifewaylifeway occurredoccurred inin. thisthis region re_gion before before significant;l;riddrl't;iliation population increasesincreases laterlater in thettre Archaic period (Figure 10).l0). MostMo^st Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian occupationso&uoationi iniri SoutheastSoutlreast Texas seem to be more relatedrelaied toto aa fairlyfairly settledsettled lifewaylifeway of Paleo-Paleo- Indiansi,iJi"Lr ini" theiiJ's"rtt Southeast *ri Woodlands ratherrafier thanthan the the highly highly mobile mobile lifewaylifeway of western Paleo- Indians.Indians.

WhileWhile muchmuch reusereuse ofof sites sites may may indicate indicate thatthat Indians Indians inin thisthis- region region had had a a scheduled scheduled list of subsistence.rtiiit.n"" pattern,Dattern. details are ndtnot available on seasonal rounds, because a complete list of foodiood,.rouri.. resources isis notnot available,available, andand becausebecause itit isis difficultdifficult toto determine determine inin whichwhrch seasonsseasons sitesJ# were;;;;r;;. occupied. Also,Ai5q; there tl,;; isii notnot a a uniform uniform distributiondistribution ofof foodfood resourcesresources_within within thethe piney w_oods. Specific of region,;;;i"r-;th;iff"renc"s with differences inin areasure"i suchiuch asas coastalcoastal prairiesprairies and,and piney woods. Specific typeslVRes of plantp'ii"i-iooai foods would*"rid havehave beenbeen availableavailable onlyonly onon aa seasonal seasonal basis.basis. SomeSome types types of ot hunting hunttng

5454 activitiesactivities maymay havehave beenbeen more intenseintense duringduring cerlaincertain seasons. seasons. InIn the the SoutheastSoutheast Woodlands,Woodlands, ff-raronHudson f(1976:275) f STi:275) states that "severat"Several aspetS aspects of of thethe deer'sdeer's seasonal seasonal cycle cycle ledled thethe Indians toto hunthunt themthem mostmost ividly avidly andand mostmost successfully successfully in Iatelate fallfall and winter."winter."

StorvStory fl990:177)(1990:177) has noted thattlrat thethe absenceabsence ofof stone hearths inin Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian context context onon thethe CuidGulf io"statCoastal PliinPlain maymay bebe relatedrelated to to fluidityfluidity of of groupfiovement.group movement. At At sitesite 4lWHl9,41WH19, fired clayballs *r"were foundfound aiallat all excavationexcavation levelsflevels, including Paleo-Indian levelslevels (Patterson etal.et al. "f"-r-bafi.isdiilbt"-12i.1987:Table 12). UsiUse ofof clayballclavball hearthshearrlrs forfor roastingroasting food, food, comparablecomparable to to use use ofof stone f,*tttrr.hearths, rni"may d"be another indicationindication thatthat Paleo-IndianiPaleo-Indians in in SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas hadhad somewhat ;;il;d-restricted ;'"";entmovement forfor subsistencesubsistence scheduling,scheduling, comparedcompared to to moremore wide-rangingwide-ranging ClovisClovis andand FolsomFolsom groups.

Coastal marginmargin Indians Indians appear appear to to have have used used a a zone zone about about l5 15 miles miles wid-ewide along the upper ie*.tTexas co".tcoast iPttterson(Patterson I990e,1990e, 1993).1993). ThereThere seems toto bebe aa rather rather sharpsharp toundaryboundary between inland andand cdasUlcoastal marginmargin typetype sitessites inin thethe Galveston EyBay area. Coastal margin t]petype sites ;;;;Xyare usually nungiaRangia -id?"niwirhmiddens with few few lithics,lithics, oysteroyster shellshell iools,tools, largelarge. quantities 9fof pottery, ;;;t"#many bone tools,iooii and with BaytownBapown PlainPlain potterypottery andand no dartdart.poinq points i-nin the Latehte Prehistoric oeri5d.period. RaneiaRangia shell shell"ra middensmiddens can can be be foundfound up up to to 15 miles inland liomfrom the coastlinecoastllne on ffi;;streams ;rliwith rid;itidal no*,flow, which*t i.t causescauses increasedincreased salinity.salinity. .lnlandInland typetypg.s-iles sites areare characterizedcharacterized L,by modest.oa"rt amountsurnornts of ;ottery,pottery, firedfired clayballsclayballs atat somesome sites, much lithic material, no.no shell r&i;,tools, no*-B"y;; Baytown Plainpiai,i pottery,poniry, and concurrentcoicurrent use of the bow and arrow and spear in the Latel-ate Prehistoric period.

Inland andand coastalcoastal marg,inmargin typetype sitessites cancan bebe foundfound withinwithin a a fewfew miles of each otherother on CedarCedar Bayouil;;;;;d and therh. TrinityT;iniiv"tuvti. River. For example,exampte, inin therhe TrinityTrinity RiverRiver Basin,Basin, sitessires 41L13544lLB54 andand 41LB554lii;iiMJ.;Jn6si;r (Nash and Rogers 1992),1992\,and and siiesite 4lLB241LB2 (Aten(Aten 1967)i967) are 16l6 to ?525 miles from the coastline,coastline. and all of thesethie sitessites areare of thethe inlandinland type.type. Closer to thelhe coastline onon thethe TrinityInnlty River,iJ;;;; thererhi; areil ;anymany Rangia midden sites that arCare ofof the coastal margin type.tvpe'

Based on a seasonality correlation by Aten (1981) forfor growthgrowth ringring patternsp?ttePs on Rangia shell, RangiaRaneia collectingcollectine wasurai aa regularlyregularly scheduledscheduled warmwarm weatherwealher activity thatthat began inln latelate springspnng andand-ended ended in mid-summerm-id-summei (Sro:r)'(Story 1990:260). This seasonality modelmodel hashas now.comenow come intotnto question. fii"The actual datesdates fbrfor liielive Rangia simplessamples fromfrom TririityTrinity Bay Bay do do notnot give_agive a goodggod matchi-"i"ii"r"rii*. with*itt datesa.Gi forioi thethe samplessa.ptes calculatedcalcui-ated byby'Aten's Aten's correlationcorrelation (Patterson(Patterson andand GardnerGa.rdner 1993),itdii and;;e itii hastrai beenUeen notednoted thatthat Aten'sAten's correlation isis not suitable for mixed samples of Rangiait"rnll, collected*ttiir"a duringduring differentdifferent months (Patterson, EbersoleEbersole andand KindallKindall l99l).1991). Based on theih;;;;;;;-;;"1 measurement orit"o*tttof growth rings for right-handrighi-hand shlllsshells from live.Rangialive Rangia samplessamples.taken taken inin Trinityiiinit, Bay,g.V, aa late-February late-February sampleslample.gave gave aa mid-July mid-July correlationcorrelation estimate,estimate, aa late-Maylate-\@Y samplesamolt gaveeave aa late-Junelate-June correlationconelation estimate,estiinate, and an eaily-Octoberearly-October sample gave aa mid-Julymid-July- correlationio.rEt.d'on estimate. Thus, Aten's correlation tendstends toto givegive mid-year results, regardless of whenwhen therhe actualactual live RangiaRangia samplesample was taken.taken. StoryStory (1990:267)(1990:2_67) notesnotes thatthat thethe completecomplete annualannual coastal/interiorcoastalfinterior ec--onomic' economic cycle cycle remains remains to to be be identifiedidentified or or atat leastleast toto bebe fullyfully analyzed.analyzed. AA mobility-settlementmobility-settlement patternpaflern model is proposedproposed^ here,here, wherewhere IndiansIndians usedused thethe entireentiri coastalcoastal marginmargiri zonezone overover thelhe entireentire year,year, regardlessregardless of season.season- InlandInland portionsportions of thethe zonezone maymay have have been beEn used used somewhat somewhat moremore often often in in warm warm months months toto harvest}arvesl plantplant materials,materials, whilewhile sitessitls onon the the coastline coastline may may havehave been been used used somewhat somewhat moremore inin coldercolder monthsmonths whenwhen marinemarine foodfood resourcesresources wouldwould havehave beenbeen moremore reliablereliable thanthan inlandinland foodfood resources.resources. AnotherAnother considerationconsideration isis thatfiat IndiansIndians of thethe coastalcoastal marginmargin maymay notnot havehave takentaken manymany tripstrips toto thethe inlandinland subregionsubregion duringduring winter months, asas the climate isis moremore moderatemoderate onon thethe coastal coastal marginmargin duringduring this season. This proposed model is consistent with Ricklis'Ricklis'(1992) (1992) findingsfindings forfor thethe coastalcoastal marginmargin atat CorpusCorpus ChristiChristi Bay, where IndiansIndians did not use eithereither thethe coastlinecoastline oror inlandinland areasareas of thelhe coastalcoastal marginmargin exclusively duringduring singlesingle seasons,seasons, butbut diddid spendspend moremore timetime atat shorelineshoreline sitessites during during thethe winterwinter months.months.

5555 ThereThere isis somesome ethnographicethnographic support support for for use use of of sho-relineshoreline sitessites duringduring the the coldercolder m-o1$s.months. ru"tfi"Ricklis fiS9Z,ZZS) (1992:225) tis has bbr"rudd observed that that "Cabeza "Cabeza de de Vaca Vaca was was clearly clearly describing describing a a fall_ fall toto *i"r"rwinter ..otiriJemphasis dn on shorelineshoreline fishing,fishing, supplemented supplemented by by gathering gathering of of rootsroots that-probablythat probably .r"rii"jsupplied ."iiint--starch a high-starch complement complement 16 to th'e' the protein-rich protein-rich frsh fish diet. diet. He He also also noted noted thatthat thethe islanders moved to the mainland duringduring thlthe spring,spring, wherewhere thevthey consumedconsumed shellfish.andshellfish and i.il;J;;;;Za1o th" r;ihland -amounis ilr.rtterrestrial i"f i"r". fauna andnor"." flora." The The largelarge amountsof of ponerypottery foundfound atat large-Rangialarge Rangia shell middenmidden sitessites onon trethe"na upperupper Texas Texas coast coast implies implies that that this this type type of of site site was was used used tbr for lalrly fairly lolglong ii'ir"time iiit!*"f,intervals, G*uIi because 0," the ,r" use of of potteiypottery would_ would not not bdbe emphasizedemphasized in in aa highlyhighly mobile i.tti"."ntsettlement oatiern.pattern. ManVMany coastalcoastal marginmargin shellshell middensmiddens areare multi-componentmulti-component sites.sites. At.*thAs with i;iffi-;;iei,-ih;inland sites, the i"r."reuse 5fof sitesiites on thethi coastalcoashl marginmargin indicatesindicates scheduling and-restrictedand restricted ;;bili;.'Thrtismobility. There is evidenceevidence tharthat IndiansIndians ofof thethe coastalcoastal marginmargin o[thisof this regionregion may_havemay have beenbeen lessless m6bilemobile thanthan theirtheir inlandinland counterparts,counterparts, but but this this is is a a mattermatter ofof degree ratherrather thanthan aa differentdifferent Iifestyle.lifestyle.

WhileWhile contrasts havehave been given here between mobility-settlement.mobility-settlement pattemspatterns ofof thethe inland and coastal margin subregions,subregions, futurefuture researchresearch maymay generate generate enough-data enough data toto ShOwshow aa ttnerfiner al!li"iti"r'U"t*E"ndistinction between aiff"rEntdifferent .iologicalecological areasareas withinwithin rhethe inlandinland subregion.subregion. TheThe pineypiney w-oodswoods zone in the northernnorthem counties ofof this region should have a settlement pattern thatthat rellectsreflects thatthat fewerfewer locations were occupied duedue Ioto environmental limitations,limitations, comparedcompared toto aa d.enserdenser occupation level of the more open areas olof the inland subregion. ThereThere areare locations in the productivity of food resourtes, in this ecological zone of ;il;;;;d;piney woods of r"f.ti".ivrelatively higlihigh productivity'piney of food resources, in this ecological zone of ;;;r"iitgenerally G;;roductiviiy. low"i productivity. iireThe piney *oodswoods zonezone ofof thethe northemnorthern partpart ofof this regionregion. has ;;inot beenbg; well*"ff '.r*"viasurveyed iomparidcompared to-to the more open areas of coastalcoastal prairiesprairies and mixedmixed woodlands.

The concept of seasonalseasonat aggregation andand dispersal ofof social groups of the coastalcoastal.margin margin has beenbeen consideredtonsidered for somesomE time,time, but but various various investigators investigators havehave reached reached differentdillerent conclusions;;;"i;;il; on *,irthis irUj""t.subject. It isis difficultdillcult toto determinedetermine fromfrom archeologicalarcheological datadata whetherwhether sociali"ilitllli.g"ii"" aggregation occurredoC"ried at a site. A larger sitesite_size size can be due to short-timeshort-time occupationoccupation bytr-; a largehd; group;;ilor or ions-timelong-time occupation biby a small group. storyStory ((1990:268) 1990:268) finds the same typet.i.* ofof"6iificuitv difficulty inin usinguline mortuarymortuary datadata toto determinedetermine socialsocial aggregationaggregation at sitessites versusversus longerii[".ioi."o"ii.in occupation bvby smallsma"ll groups]groups. A cluster of nearby sites might indicateindicate a-villagea village oror seasonal;;;;.i;d;;iioriof aggregation of bands,bandi, butbui datadata are generally notnoiavailable available toio determine if this isis the case.;;:Tilffi;ffii;iv The uncertainty ofofirairia*t individual radiocarbonradiocar-bon datesdat6s is such that it cannot be determined ifif multiplemultiple sitessites werewere reallyr-eally concurrentconcurrent inin occupation.occupation.

TheThe importanceimDortance of waterwater traveltravel forfor IndiansIndians ofof Southeast Southeast TexasTexas cannotcannot bebe determined, determined, becauseb;;;;;;i"; remains of watercraftlrui"r.iuft have not beenbeen preserved.preserved. Use ofof watercraftwatercraft wouldwould havehave facilitatedi.;ilitaie;'ffi;irf,orgt travel thoughout *itt the region,region, includingincluding onon streams,streams, and coastalcoastal lagoonslagoons andand.inlets. inlets. Karankawai[;;"k;;irii"* Indians were*ir" knowntno*nio" to havehive hadhad dugoutd-ugout canoes,canoes, propelledpropelled by!v meansmean; ofo{ polespoles (Newcombiil;;ffif 1961:67).isil ,i?i Therei{*. isir littlet'ittil evidence ofof heavy[eavy woodworkingwoodwbrkins toolstools atat archeologicalarche^ological siteslit"r thatr!,"i would*oufO indicateindicate manufacture.rnui.Ctut."Ua"n.. ofof canoes.canoes. NewcombNewcomb (1961:67)(1961:67) statesstates thatthat "One"One sideside ofli-" a logf"n was*"i trimmedri*ria flat,n"q itsisina end blunted,Uiunted, andand thenthen itit waswas hollowedhillowed out,out, probablyprobably withwith thethe aidaid ofoffrre fire andand muchmuch scraping".scraPing'.

SITESITE STRUCTURESTRUCTURE ANDAND FORMATIONFORMATION PROCESSESPROCESSES There are a numbernumber of of questions questions that that can can be be^asked asked about about the the structure structure- and a-nd.formation formation There are a phvsical lavout processesil-.],,oi"i of sites;;il' ofiI"JrJat. nomadic hunter-gatherers.iir"i.1-gurheren. Questionsquestions includei ncl ude detailsderai ls ofof physical layout andfi;""J;;# use of sites, :il'r. length i;;;il;';;;, of stays, andU"d-';bir number of of people peopre in in an an occupation. occupation Binford Binford (1983:Chapter[i!eiih;#'iihri'?"ta't#'li";;-1fi; 7) has noted that these types ofof questions qu"iioni shouldshould bebe addressed, addressed' butbut the the developmentli;;;i;;;;;i of betteri"tti, analytical.nurvtiJi andii,J-i"t",ipi"ti"e- interpretive methodsmethods is neededneeded forfor thesetlrese types tvpes ofof

5656 studies.studies. TheThe naturenature of of the the archeological archeological record record precludes precludes obvious obvious answers answers to to these these types types of of questions.questions. SiteSite layoutlavout at bothboth inland inland andand coastalcoastal marginmargin hunter-gathererhunter-gatherer sites sites may may havehave been stru.tstructured iea in in use use byby occupants,occupants, butbut archeological archeological remainsremains generallygenerally dodo notnot permit detaileddetailed analysis. Archeoloi,icalArcheological remainsrimains atat thisthis typetype of site areare usually randomly patterned,pattemed, suchsuch asas tf,""rutuiis.the dirfiUrtiondistribution of"hearths, of hearths, lithicslithics andand ceramics.ceramics. LittleLittle datadata is is generallygenerally availableavailable forfor this iieionregion concemingconcerning the relative positionspositions of hearths, shelters,shelters, andand workwork spaces.spaces. ItIt maymay bebe thethe na-tuienature ofof lunter--gtherershunter-gatherers to to use use randomly randomly placed placed _work work areas., areas, where where most most convenient convenient forfor expedientexpedient purposds,purposes, but confinedconfined toto fairlyfairly definitedefinite site boundaries.

InlandInland sitessites inin Southeast TexasTexas usuallyusually havehave fairlyfairly definitedefinite boundaries.boundaries. It It is is notnot clearclear whywhy o""uo.iionsoccupations werewere confined to ratherralher iestrictedrestricted aieasareas of of reuse, whenwhen scheduling practicespractices iori.icould t"r"have involved only thethe returnretum toto generalgeneral areas,areas, withoutwithout relocationrelocation onon thethe samesame exactexact ;ir;.b;"i..ro,site. One reason forfor hilhhigh reuse ofof inlandinlind sites may have beenbeen,the the availability ofof lithiclithic, -rr.ri"ts.materials, such such asas bifacialbifacial thinningthinning flakes, flakes, inin locationslocations thatthat hadhad nono immediate accessaccess to lithiciithi; raw,.il materials.1;1.ii;its. SomeSome of therhe largela-rge coastal margin shellshell midden sites show thatthat various occupation events werewere moremore spreadspread out in space thanlhan at inland sites'sites.

The studystudv of sitesite formation formation processesprocesses couldcould offeroffer anotheranother methodmethod toto addressaddress questionsquestions about;fut;6r,;;h sites, such uras group size and length of stay.!t1y. SiteSite formationformation processes are.seldomare seldom a subject;;i".;';i?;;i"f, of research fr,in tf,irthis region. ThipotentialThe potential forfor significant resuls-from.thisresults from this typetype ofof il;il;;r""tl"study is presently unknown.unt ot*. AirAn example'ofexample of thethe possiblepossibleinterpretation interpretation ofof the site formation processoro"'"rr is forfor largelarce coastalcoashl shell middens.middens. The use of RangiaRangia shell toto pavepave andand repaverepave campsite areas gives the superficial impression ofof occupations by largelarge.groups groups. However, [".riit. ei;;s the superficial rrlailed only;il;;;ll-ffii a small"r."t part oirt"of the totaliorut sitesire areaarea'may may have been in use at a specific time.time. Detailed studiesJirdi* of thert formation processes of large shell midden sitessit^es. are not yet available. Pa'ringPaving of sitessites in"i-in wetlandswetlands"?"rr.1ion andand onoh thethe sticky "black"black gumbo"gumbo" soilssoils ofof the coastal margin wouldwould have given aa betterbetter campsite surface.surface.

Aten (1983b)(l983b) hashas givenqiven resultsresults of excavationsexcavations ofof twotwo smallsmall unstratifiedunstratified shell middenmidden sites ini;ii;"ti.i;iri the Trinity RiverRi;A Delta.O"ta. HeU. observesobserves thatthat eacheach habitationhabitation episode hadhad twotwo features,features, aa hearthhearth and aa shell refuserefuse pile.pile. AtenAten concludesconcludes thatthat therethere isis aa strong strong correlation correlatlon between.between increasingincreasinq hearth area andand correspondingcorresponding increaseincrease inin areaarea asociatedasociated withwith thethe shell refuseretuse pile;ii; forf";;-.;li;ilri.iaain small shell midden sites.sites. AtenAren (1983b:84)(1583b:84) isis not not sure sure of of how how to to interpret interpret habitationhabitation features6-h;;ii"r;;itratified of large stratified shell middenmiddensites. sites. Even at small sites, suchsuch.as.these as these two,two, there6ere isis evidenceeridinc.e ofof exploitatione*lploitation ofof mammalmammal andand fish foods asas well asas RangiaRangia shellfish.

Occasionally,Occasionallv. a largelarse inlandinland site can be found wherewhere different areas ofof the site werewere usedused duringJuring differentaiff6ient ti-metime periods. InIn thisthis case, the largelarge sitelite cannotcannot bebe relatedrelated toto large large occupationoccup"ation groups. Site 41HR2064IHR2O6 (Patterson 1980c:13)1980c:13) isis a-nan exampleexample. of thisthis type,type, withwith dimensionsdimehsions of6f 3003dO by by 500 500 feet, feet, and and a a distinct distinct concentrationconcentration ofof Late late Prehistorichehistoric materialsmaterials onon oneone sideside ofof thethe site.site.

TheThe studystudy ofof site site formation formation processesprocesses includes includes the the study study of of site site disturbance disturbance processes.processes. ManyMany sitessit6s inin thisthis regionregion withwitli longlong occupationoccupation sequencessequences areare totallytotally deflateddeflated byby erosion,erosion, modernmodern construction,construction, and farming practices. SomeSome sites, suchsuch asas 41HR315 4lHR3l5 (Patterson (Patterson 1980a)1980a) areare locatedlocated onon streamstream banks,banks, wherewhere somesome areasareas ofof thethe site site are are disturbed disturbed andand otherother areasareas areare intact.intact. SiteSite disturbancedisturbance byby burrowingbunowing animalsanimals isis anotheranother commoncommon occurrenceoccurrence inin thisthis region.region. CarefulCareful analysis of eacheach excavationexcavation unitunit isis oftenoften sufficientsufficient toto detectdetect locationslocations wherewfiere stratigraphysratigraphy isis notnot intact. inact.

WhenWhen severalseveral typestypes ofof projectile projectile pointspoints areare foundfound inin thethe samesame excavationexcavation level,level, itit shouldshould notnot bebe automaticallyautomatically assumedassumed thatthat therethere hashas beenbeen stratigraphicstratigraphic mixing. This isis especiallyespecially truetrue

575? forfor the I-ateLate Archaic, Early Ceramic,Ceramic, andand lateLate PrehistoricPrehistoric periods, periods, where where severalseveral projectileprojectile the same time period. In many cases, however, sratigraphic point types'can were used duringduiing the same time period. In many cases, however, stratigraphic inixinpimixing can be shown to be likelylikely byby aa mixmix inin artifactartifact types,lypes, for example a_mixturea mixture ofof Middle Archaic dart pointspoints andand posherds.potsherds. Sometimes Sometimes animal animal burrowsburrows are are evident evident by-soilby soil color differences. A singleiingle animalanimal burrowburrow can displace a few artifactsartifacts withoutwithout disturbingdisturbing most of a site.

INTERPRETATION OF SITE ACTIVITIES

One of the goals ofof archeologicalarcheological researchresearch is to reconstruct prehistoric lifewayslifeways in as much detail as poisible.possible. This includesinclu-des the interpretation of of activities activities atat sites. sites. AA site must first be classified as toto generalgeneral type,type, suchsuch asas killkill site,site, mortuary mortuary site,site, quarryquarry site, or campsite.campsite' In Southeast Texas,Texas, the mostmost commoncommon type of site is the campsite.

There are many limitations toto thethe interpretation of of site site activities, activities, because because of of thethe lacklack ofof preservation ofof perishable materials,materials, andand the the diffrculty difficulty inin determininglhedetermining the exactexact functionfunction ofof iomesome artifact types,types,-fairly suchsuch asas ceramicsceramics andand unifacialunifacial tools. tools. SomeSome possible site activities.activities can be assigned a fairly high degree of certainty,certainty, however.however. A A bison killkill site isis sometimessometimes apparent,apparerg suchsuch asas siiesite 4[Fn54141HR541 (McReynolds, Korgel and Ensor 1988). MortuaryMortuary sites are alsoaiso obvious.obvious. ProjectileProjectile pointspoints andand faunalfaunal remainsremains certainlycertainly representrepresent huntinghunting activities. Accumulations ofof lithiclithic flakesflakes represent represent lithiclithic manufacturing, manufacturing, andand hearthshearths generallygenerally represent cooking activities. The few types ofactivities,of activities thatthat can be detected at campsites in cooking -be this region all indicateindicate a generalizedgeneralized hunting andand gatheringgathering lifeway. lifeway. ThereThere is is nono way to describedescrib=e a largelarge number oTof activities at a specific campsite,campsite, however. A somewhatsomewhat moremore detailed picture of thet}e range of activities at campsites can bebe obtainedobtained when datadata from all sites inin aa regionregion areare considered.

These comments on thethe interpretationinterpretation ofof activities at archeological sitessites are not made to discourage detaileddeailed studies,studies, butbut ratherrather to point out thattlrat limitationsIimitations in interpretationinterpretation must be considered.consider6d. In various archeological site reports, investigators maymay oror may not have good reasons for concluding that certaincertain activitiesactivities tooktook placeplace atat thethe site.site. ItIt is notnot alwaysalways clearclear report. whatwhat degreedegree ofof certainty certainty isis represented represented inin conclusionsconclusions inin aa site site report. Therefore,_ Therefore, conclusionsconclusio.-ns onon possiblepossible activitiesaitivities atat archeologicalarcheological sitessites mustmust always bebe regardedregarded with_somewith some degreedegree of caution.cautibn. There is nono reasonreason toto lamentlament thisthis situation,situation, however. It is simplysimply thethe naturenature of archeological research.research.

POPULATIONPOPULATION DYNAMICSDYNAMICS

ItIt isis notnot possible possible to to reconstruct reconstruct aa detailed detailed picturepicture ofof prehistoric prehistoric populationpopulation dynamicsdynamics forfor thisthis region,region, becausebecause preciseprecise temporaltemporal datadata are not available toto showshow short-termshort-term populationpopulation changes.chang6. EvenEven radiocarbonradioiarbon dating, seldom available, has an accuracy of onlyonly aboutabout plusplus oror minus,inL[ 100fOO years.years. SignificantSignificant short-termsho-ri-term population changes due to factors such as disease,disease, droughtdrousht or'foodor food shortagesfi'ortaee cannotcannot bebe assessed isiessed for for available available data. data. Long-term Long-term relative relative population.".rTrtion changeschanses inin SoutheastSoitheast Texas can be studied, however. This is donedone byby calculatingcalculating the[f,C averageru"oge numbernu?rber of sitessites per per year year for for each each- archeological arch-eological time time period. period. Relative Relative populationoooulation" levels forfor thethe inland inland andand coastalcoastal marginmargin subregionssubregions of SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas areare summarizedirfir"ii*a i,in Table 20,20, based on datadata fromfrom therhe midmid 19921992 data data bases. bases. TheThe Relative Relative Populationp".rt"ti., FictorFactor (RPD'is(RPF) is tlrethe number ofof site componentscomponenb ofof a periodperiod divideddivided byby thethe number,uiUii ofof yearsV*rr inin thethe periodpiriod times 100.100. TheseThese datadata areare shown graphically inin FigureFigure 10.10. PopulationPooulation is discusseddiscussed herehere inin termsterms ofof relative relative populationpopulation levelslevels during during variousva.rious timetime periods. Data are.ii not available toto estimate estimate absoluteabsoiut; populationpopulation levels.levels. ArcheologyArcheology isis ;#;;tl-il; ".ilr"it.Ule

5858 essentiallvessentially aa samDlinssampling activitv.activity. ThereThere is is nono wayway toto accurately estimateestimate whatwhat portionportion of of thethe totaltotal poprilationpopulation iiis rep-resentedrepresented byby thethe regionalregional datadata base base for for any any prehistoricprehistoric timetime period.period.

AsAs mavmay be seen in FigureFiqure 10, the population groMhgrowth raterate of of thethe inlandinland subregionsubregion was was lowlow fiomfrom riethe tateLate Paleo-I-ndianPaleo-Indian throughthrough ihethe earlyearly partpart of of thethe lateLate Archaic.Archaic. PopulationPopulation growthgrowth rate accelerates greatlygreatly duringduring the'iaterthe later part part of of ihe the l:te Late Archaic Archaic into into thethe EarlyEarly Ceramic,Ceramic, andand iiiJaccelerates -the o"oJ"tionpopulation then-decli'nes then declines inin the hteLate Piehistoric.Prehistoric. The The decrease decrease in in population population level level of of thethe G[eLate PrehistoricPrehistoric inin inlandinland Southeast Southeast Texas Texas did did not not return return to to a alevel level as as low low asas inin thethe ArchaicArchaic oeiiod.period. rh"r"There waswas no "crash""crash" in in populationpopulation level level inin the LateI:te Prehistoric period, tutbut there iliwas a significantrignifr."nt adjustment in in ioiulationpopulation levet. level. There_seems There seems to to havehave beenbeen aa declinedecline in pofulatio-npopulation" inin CentralCentral TexasTexas duringduring the the same same time time period period (Prewitt (Prewitt 1983:Figure1983:Figure 6)'6). Aten fl983:154)(1983:154) proposedprooosed thatthat therethere was was aa reduction inin population level level inin the EarlyFq4y eii-naicArchaic perioa,period, 'cdmparedcompared toto tbethe PaleolndianPaleo-Indian period,period, because because of of climaticclimatic change-change to drier conditioris.conditions. Subsequent research has shown thatthai this impression is moremore apparentapparent than real,real, ' ir-r""1;-il;-19;o-orlargely due to poor recognitionrecoenition of EarlyEarly ArchaicArchaic ariifactartifact types,types, andand previous lacklack ofof ;;d:Arffiradiocarbon autlo. dates. nt"n Aten itsAf,tSS; (1983:155) diddid note thatthat furtherfurtlrer i-esearchresearch might-change^hismight change his t""J"i]"",conclusion, as ,"wnow shown.'Asshown. As a similar exampleexample ofof previousprevious lacklack ofof data,data, tlallHall (1981:2.69)(1981:269) valley observed-tf,i that "r therethere was was notnot muchmuch evidence evidence ofoccupitionsof occupations inin thethe Iowerlower BrazosBrazos RiverRiver valley U"i"i"before the MiddlertaiaJle Archaic period.period. Data Data now now show show sites sites inin this area y{r_with veryvgrY longlonB occupation r*u.n..r.sequences, startingslartind inin the Paleo-Indian period,period, includingincluding sitesite 4lFB9541FB95 (Patterson(Patt-erson and"".r*ti"" Hudgins 1987c) and site ZtFBlgS41FB198 (Patterson(Patterson and HudginsHudgins l99l),1991), with a variety olof Latel-ate 'Early Houston Paleo-IndianPaleo-InIian andand Early ArchaicArchaic dartdart pointpoint types.types..'et Excavations Excavations - by theqe Houston Archeologicale?"t llli.tv Society ilat sitesite 41FB2234tFB223 (Patterson(Fanersoi et al.al. 1994) have shownstrown thatthat thistli1.s1!e site started""i.-ii.il in-thein the Latehte Paleo-IndianHleoJndian period andand continued throughthrough allall portionsportions ot-lheof the ArchaicArchalc i"iiJJ.period, ilas .noG"i.*r.pl.another example ofof eailvearly occupationsoccupations in in thethe loweiBrazoslower Brazos NverRiver valley' valley. SitesSites ofof all-k;;;'ii;;;;;X';,Airi;;i;;.. prehistoric time periodsoiiiSai have Seenbeen found on high terraces aboveabove the floodplain of the lower Brazos it"iiRiver vuliiv,Valley, butbut fewfew sites are known on thethe floodplain.floodplain Sites on thethe floodplainii;;phi;; in thisthir areaui.. may,"i61 be covered with alluvium or may havehave been destroyed by floods (Hall(Hall 1981:269).l98l:269). p€r year ItIt has previouslypreviously beenbeen estimatedestimaled thatthat thethe populationpopulatigll growthg.roYth raterate was about 0.02%0.02olo- per year duringa;;i;"'ft. the Latet"r"'p;l.o-lndiun, Paleo-Indian, Early Archiic,Archaic, Middle Archaic, and early portion of thethe Latelate Archaic,ei"tr"'ii'""a and thatitat the growthg,rowth'rate rate increased'toincreased to about 0.17o0.1% per year in the laterlater.part part of thethe Latei;6Arth;i; Archaic and ini" thetfi" EarlyEarly CeramicCeramic periodsperiods (Patterson(Panerson 1991f).l99lf). TheThe populationpopulation growthgrowth rate;t ofi 0.02%n.di%"ri perp"i yearv*r forfor'the the earlier earliei time time interval interval isis somewhat somewhat higher higher than than severalseveral estimatesoiiriio oiof upuf, to to'g.Oo3o/o 0.003% per W year y?at for for Pleistocene Pleistocene, population population. growth growth rate rate (Cohen (Cohen 1977:52),lc4i,iit, whichw6iiti mightmigtrt bebe expectedexpLcred forfor aa milder milder post-Pleistocenepost-Pleistocene climate.climate. TheThe population population growthsrowrh rateiite of 0.1%O.lio perper yearyear for the laterlater timetime'interval interval inin this region is veryvery highhigh forfor hunter-gatherers,fiunter-gatherers, andand isis c6mparablecomparable toto the population growth ralerate of thethe moremore sedentarysedentary NeolithicNeolithj"c ofof the the Middle Uidate East Easi (Cohen (Cohen 1977:53). 1977 53\. Fagan Fagan (1991:334) (1991:334) has has noted noted a a "sudden "sudden takeofftakeoffin in populationpopulation densities"densities" inin thetlre easterneastem Woodlands sometime after 4000 B.C.B.C.

SeveralSeveral factorsfactors couldcould bebe considered considered forfor thethe highhigh populationpopulation growthgowth raterate inin thethe LateI-ate ArchaicArchaic andand EarlyEarty CeramicCeramic periods.periods. These factors mightmight include:include: (1)(l) aa wetter wetter high high productive productive climate,climate, jz)(2) increasedincreasid hunting efliciencyefficiency with with earlyearly useuse ofof thethe bowbow andand arrow, arrow, (3)(3) introductionintroduction ofof potterypottery forfor foodfood storage,storage, (4)(4) availabilityavailability andand adaptation adapation toto aa greatergreater rangerange of foodfood resources,resources, andand (5)(5) migrationmigration ofof people people into into the fie region. region. TheThe high high population population growthgrowtlt raterate isis possiblypossibly duedue to to more more thanthan oneone factor. factor. TheThe sharp sharp increaseincrease inin populationpopulation inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas occurredoccurred during thethe samesame period period of of 800 800 B.C B.0 to 800 A.D (Wenke(Wenke 1990:565)1990:565) asas alsoalso happenedhappened throughoutthroughout eastemeastern NorthNorth America,America, andand thethe same factors maymay havehave causedcaused aa populationpopulation boomboom fromfrom CentralCenral Texas to the Atlantic coast. The possible impactimpact ofof earlyearly useuse ofof the the bow bow and and arrow arrow hashas been been discussed discussed above,above, andand StoryStory (1990:244)(1990:244) hashas noted noted that that thethe climateclimate probablyprobably becamebecame moremore moist moist during during thethe Late late ArchaicArchaic andand EarlyEarly CeramicCeramic periodsperiods inin

5959 thisthis region. TheThe introduction ofof potterypottery couldcould bebe considered aa contributing factorfactor for populat-ionpopulation growthgrowth byby allowingallowing foodfood storagestorage toto sustainsustain aa higher population.population.- However, aa iiniilarsimilar increaseincrease inin populationpopulation growth growth rate rate in in CentralCentral Texas Texas at at thethe samesame timetime waswas not accompaniedaccompanied by thethe introduction ofof pottery.pottery.

One explanationexplanation ofof thethe population decreasedecrease fromfrom thethe EarlyEarly CeramicCeramic toto Otethe lateLate PrehistoricPrehistoric isis that ofbf over-population.over-populatiirn. Biological over-populationover-population isis generallygenerally followedfollowed byby aa decline (Gleick 1988:62). Available natualnatural foodfood resourcesresources wouldwould notnot bebe expectedexpected toto sustainsustain aa veryvery (Gleick 1988:6i).'growth Available irighhigh population growth rate.rate. Another explanationexplanation isis that climate deterioration caused a m6re'.bbile,more mobile, diffuse subsistence patternpattern withwith aa lower population level..Storylevel. Story (-1990:246)(1990:246) has noted aa ihiftshift to a drier climate over the last 2000 years. There is evidence forfor aa more mobile lifeway in the Latelate Prehistorichehistoric in inland Southeast Texas.Texas (Patterso.n(Patterson 1976), which could have relultedresulted inin a lowerlower populationpopulation level.level. ItIt has been observed that in hunting-hunting- gathering societies, fertility rateirates are suppressed significantly simplysimply duedue to maternalmatemal "mobilitf(Wenkesocieties, fertility ire mobility (Wenke 1990:262).l'g91:26i). OneOne method usedused by hunter-gathererhunter-gqtlerer .groupsgroups for pop-ulationpopulation control-urascontrol was infanticide. CabezaCabezz deYacade Vaca (Hedrick(Hedrick andand fuleyRiley 1974:76) observedobserved thatthat IndiansIndians of the coastal margin sometimes killed female babies.

It isis shownshown inin FigureFigure 10 I O that fiat population population growthgrowth raterate inin thethe coastal coastal marginmargin subregion.subregion increased rapidlyrapidly lromfrom thethe Late Archaic intointo thethe Early Ceramic periods, similar.similar to^theto the inland subregion-.subregion. However, onon the coastal margin trethe population growthgrowth rate lev.eled-oJfleveled-off in the Late[:te prehistoricpre-historic instead ofof declining asas inin the inlandinland subregion. TheThe levelingleveling offoff of population growth rate for the I:teLate kehistoricPrehistoric period in the coastal margin-margin subrcgionsubregion does notnoi matchmatch Aten'sAten's (1990:Figure(199O:Figure 17.1)l7.l) hypothetical model or Patterson'sPatterson's (1986:Figure 2) model based on an older,older, smaller daadata set. On thethe coastalcoastal margin, the response to overpopulation and climatic deterioration waswas aa leveling-off of .populationpopulation growth rate rather thanihan a decline,decline, probablyprobably becausebecause of good availablity of marinemarine food resources.resources. AccordingAccording to CabezaCabeza de VacaVica (Hedrick(Hedrick and RileyRilEy 1974:40)1974.40) coastal margin Indians were less hungry thantlran inlandinland Indians.

There are veryvery fewfew RangiaRangia shell midden sites on thetle coastal marginmargin-dated dated before-SOObefore 500 B.C. (Aten(Aten 1983:158),1983:138), even thoughihough the sea level is thought to have stabilized about 10001000. yearsyears earlieriarlier at 1500l5OO B.C.B.C. AtenAren (1983:158)(i983:158) states that it isis possiblepossible that significantsignifican_t expansion of thethe coastalcoastal marginmargin population diddid n6tnot occur until the onset of the fully modernmodern-climate climate of thethe Sub-AtlanticSub-Atlanti-c episode.ei;rbae. Climatic change might co-rrespondcorrespond to_to a greatergreater availabilityavailability ofof RangiaRangia shellfish.shellfish. Other environmental factors in the formation of brackishbrackish water wetlands mightmig[t bebe considered.considered. AfterAfter seasea levellevel stabilization,stabilization, some time maymay. havehave elapsedelapsed before_before suitablesuilable environmentalenrironmenral conditions developed for widespreadwidespread establishmentestablishment ofof_ Rangia Rangia colonies,colonies, in termsterms ofof proper proper salinity salinity andand'shallow shallow water water sedimentation. sedimentation. AfterAfter shorelineshoreline stabilizationstaUiti-iion itit maymay taketaki somesome timetime forf6r aa sizeablesizeable RangiaRangia populationpopulation toto becomebecome established.established. Also,Also, thethe formationformati6n ofof barrierbarrier islandsislands afterafter seasea levellevel stabilizationstabilization wouldwould resultresult inin lowerlower salinitysalinity inin baysbays laterlater thanthan thethe timetime ofof seasea level level stabilization. stabilization. ThereThere. maymay tebe anan alternatealternate culturalculturil explanationexplanation forfor lowlow occupationoccupation ofof thethe coastalcoastal marginmargin ofof SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas. forfor aboutabout 10001000 yearsveari afterafler seasea levellevel stabilization.stabilization. The coastal marginmargin of thisthis regionregion maymay havehave beenbeen fullyi"ri, occupied.i"m"a only6niv afterafie.misrution migration toto thethe areaarea ofof peoplespeopleifrom from LouisianaLouisiana whowho alreadyalready hadhad ani, orientation,i,.iirr"fii," toto marine#urini foodrood'r.rources. resources. PossiblePossible migrationsmigrations fromfrom thethe LouisianaLouisiana coastcoast toto thethe upper6;;;-i;;;tiiti Texas coast are discussedait.utt"d further inin thethe sectionsec-iion onon Social Social Organization. organization' TheThe lowlow occupationo![uo"iion ofof thetne coastalcoastal marginmargin fromfrom 1500-500l5OO-5OO B.C.B.C. impliesimplies thatthat thethe coastalcoastal marginmargin maymay notnoi haveti"" hadt.a muchmuch useuse byby earlierearli'er populationspopulations atat earlierearlier coastlinecoastline positions.positions'

6060 BIOARCHEOLOGY

Bioarcheology, thethe studystudy olof humanhuman skeletalskeletal remains,remains, providesprovides evidenceevidence onon thethe health and welfare of prehistoricpi6historic Indians, especially asas anan indicationindication ofof thethe degreedegree of success for local Danemspatterns ofof adaptation. BioarcheologyBioarcheology isis foremostforemost aa studystudy ofof evidence of stress, which can be duedue to catseicauses suchsuch asas disease,disease, highhigh populationpopulation density,density, humanhuman conflict,conflict, andand malnutrition.malnutrition. The actual cause of death is seldom established, exceptexcept wherewhere therethere isis direct evidence of trauma from violence. Bioarcheological studiesstudies areare seldom completecomplete because ofof generally Doorpoor Dreservationpreservation ofof skeletal remains in tlristhis region. There are some exceptions, however, wheriwhere soil conditions have allowed benerbetter preservation ofof bone. Most investigators (Powell 1988, Reinhard, Olive andand Steele 1990) agree-thatagree that bioarcheology in-Southeast-Texas.in Southeast Texas isisstill still in a preliminarypreliminari stage. As will be seen in the following discussion, fewfew general conclusions on thistliis subject are currently possible.

Several bioarcheological studiesstudies havehave beenbeen mademade forfor individual sitessites in this_region,this region, su-chsuch as Vernon (1989), WesolowskyWeilowsky and Malina (1976), Copas (1984),(1984), Powell (1990), and Malina and BramlettBramle$ (1981).(ieAt;. CurrentCunent bioarcheologicalbioarcheological syntheses includeinclude the eastern and westernwestem oarSparts of SoutheastSoutheast Texas. BumettBurnett (1990)(1990) ihowsshows aa generalgeneral paucity ofof data for thethe easterneastern fiirtpart of SoutheastSour]reast Texas, mainly the,piney_woods_the piney woods aiea.area. ThereThere isis aa small data base on this subjectiubject for therhe westernwestern partpart ofolsoutheast Southeast TexasTexas (Reinhard, Olive and SteeleSreele 1990).1990) Most studiesit dies for thisthis regionregion simplysimply itemizeitemize pathologicalpathological conditions found on skeletal specimens. OnlyOniv Powell (1988)(19i8) has attemptedairempted to lntegrat?integrate data to reachreach somesome generalgeneral conclusionsconclusions on the idaotiveadaptive successsuccesi of IndiansIndians'in in the kteLate Prehistoric period. For studies in this region,region, few conclusions havehave beenbeen reachedreached onon the relativerelative success of adaptationsadaptations in variousvarious timetime periods.

Pathologicalpathological conditions mentionedmentioned in various studies include classes of disease tlratthat indicate degenerativeaineneritiu" disease.disease, metabolic disease, infectious disease and dental diseasedisease (Reinhard,(Reinhard, OliveOtir. and,na SteeleSteele 1990:Tables19bo:Tables 128-132).128-132). Degenerative diseasedisease isis thethe result of aging andand stressfulJessfut lifestyle.lifestyle. Metabolic disease is related to nutrition. Infectiouslnfectious disease is mostmost oftenoften relatediaui"A to thethe degreedegree ofofcontact contact between people, with factorsfactors.such. such as population density and socialsocial aggregation.aggregati-on. DentalDental diseasedisease isis rdlat6drelated toto diet and dentalden!41 wearwear fromfrom eatingeating grittyg.ritty pathology can vary greatly at individual sites, from a high materials.mareriali] Iri'dicationsIndications of of pathology can vary -1984)greatly at individual sites, from a high incidenceiniidence ofof pathologypathology (irowell(Powell 1990, 1990, CopisCopas 1984) toto sites withwith littlelittle indicationindication ofof pathology, s,rihsuch a"as 41FB3a-iFB3 (PattersonlPatterson etet al.tl. 1993),1993), showingshowing general good healthhealth ofof individuals.individuals.

Powell (1988) has developeddeveloped a setset ofof modelsmodels describingdescribing aa group'sgroup's successsuccess inin preventingpreventing environmentalenvironmentai stress from affecting its members.members. AsAs aa preliminary preliminary conclusion, conclusion, PowellPowell 1988:262)1988:262) states that "From the tests,teis, it appears that thethe InnerInner andand OuterOuter CoastalCoastal PlainPlain groupsgroups havehave moderatemoderate successsuccess inin bufferingbuffering stress,stress, although they maymay experienceexperience stressstress at randomrandom or duringduring seasonalseasonal intervals".intervals'. LifeLife expectancy is is probablyprobably oneone ofof thethe bestbest measurementsmeasurements of adaptive success. As examples, average life expectancy was 24 yearsyears at thethe CrestmontCrestmont sitesite and 3232 yearsyears at WitteWitte GroupGroup 22 (Vernon(Vemon 1989:37)1989:37) fromfrom thethe LateIate ArchaicArchaic period.period. SomeSome individualsindividuals lived over 5050 yearsyears duringduring thisthis timetime periodperiod (Black,(Black, PattersonPatterson andand StoreyStorey 1992).1992). AtenAten et al. (1976:Table(1976:Table 13)l3) give an average age for adults ofof29 29 yearsyears at thethe Boys'Boys'School School CemeteryCemetery andand 3939 yearsyears atat thethe JamaicaJamaica BeachBeach site on Galveston Island.Island.

EvidenceEvidence of traumatrauma isis mainlymainly inin thethe formform ofof indicationsindications ofof violentviolent deathdeath duedue toto projectileprojectile points,points, suchsuch asas atat sitessites 41AU364lAU36 (HallGlall 1981),l98l), thelhe CrestmontCrestmont site (Vernon(Vemon 1989),t989), therhe PeikertPeikert sitesite (Kindall(Kindall 1980,1980, CopasCopas 1984),1984), andand 41FB4241F842 (Patterson(Patterson et al.al. 1993a).1993a). AtAt sitesiG 41FB42,4tFB42, aa dartlart pointpoint waswas imbeddedimbedded inin aa humanhuman femur,femur, just aboveabove thethe kneeknee joint. AtAt thethe CrestmontCrestmont sitesite (Vernon(Vemon 1989:Figure1989:Figure 6), dart points were found in the right humerus and rib cagecage of aa

6161 skeleton.skeleton. AtAt siresite 4lAU36,41AU36, dartdart poinspoints were were found found imbeddedimbedded inin thethe skeletalskeletal elementselements ofof fivefive inaiuia*t.,individuals, probably probably resulting'in resulting in their their deaths deaths (I{all (Hall l98l:60).1981:60). Possible Possible causes causes of of violenceviolence areare discusseddiscussed inin thethe iectionsection onon socialsocial organization.organization.

PowellPowell (1994)(1994) hashas analyzedanalyzed a a largelarge quantityquantity of of humanhuman skeletalskeletal materialmaterial fromfrom sitesite 4lGV6641GV66 on Galveston Island. TiereThere was-awas a widewide rangerange of disease, dental problems, andand trauma. on Grlr..ton' l.land. -caused ffuthDeath of one I,tiLate prehistoricPrehistoric individualindividual waswas causedby by an an arrowarrow wound.wound. TheThe frequencyfrequency ofof [*r"trauma "a;;; i"ir*r"dincreased fromfrom prehistoricprehistoric toto historichistoric time. time. The The mean mean age age ofof death^wasdeath was 2828 yearsyears forfor orehistoricprehistoric burialsburials andand 2020 Vearsyears forfor historichistoric burials.burials. The The lower lower meanmean age age ofof deathdeath inin historlchistoric i;;;;;time may b;be a;iodue to epideriicepidemic deseases and/orand/or socioeconomicsocioeconomic stress.stress. HeterogeneousHeterogeneous skeletalskeletal ;ttribrt"iattributes suggestsuggest thitthat rhethe historichistoric populationpopulation at at 4lGV6641GV66 waswas notnot typicaltypical ofof otherother groups along drethe Texas coast.coast.

6262 CHAPTERCHAPTER 6 6

SOCIALSOCIAL ORGANIZATION

GENERALGENERAL

MostMost datadata forfor huntershunters and and gatherers gatherers indicate indicate thar that social social organization organization was was on on the the band band levcl, level, ui*it,usually rior"."ntinsrepresenting a a famTly family oror extendedextended family. family. llaydenHayden (1993:l5a)(1993:154) shtesstates that bandband size size can vary b.t*".nbetween Z 6 andand 12li peoplepeople where resources areare scarce,scarce, and and between between 25 25 andand 5050 ""noeoolepeople "iry ivherewhere resources areare morimore plentiful. Band composition of hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers cancan bebe hrl[-fluid, *itt,with a highhieh frequencyfr"qr.n.y of shiftingshifting group affrliationsaffiliations (tre(Lee andand DeVore 1968:153). Si""iSince it isir notnot possibleibssibli toro detectdttect individualindividGl bandsbinds in this region by artifact types-types oror site .rtr"-.patterns ipun"rron (Patterson 1990b), 1990b), discussion discussion here here will will focus focus on on generalgeneral aspectsaspects ofof socialsocial Lrn^nirrtionorganization thatthat mavmay bebe detectable inin the archeological record, such asas trade,trade, mortuarymottuary ffi;iil-.,practices, ;ffidii sporadic 6vidence evidence ofof greater social complexity,complexity, andand perhapsperhaps broadbroad social, affiaffiliation liation within subregions.

Aten's (1983:316) contentioncontention that archeologicalarcheologigul s9tssets shouldshould approximateapproximate_ the spatialspatial aiiiiiirrlt"distribution of ethnici.,i" groupugroups maymay havehave atat leastleast limitedlimited applicationapplication inin Southeast Texas.Texas. The i;i;il;;e.*taiinland and coastal"i"tt ma?gin'subrelionsmargin subregions eacheach havehave some distinctivedlitinctive traits.Eaits. The arch-eologicalarcheological ;;;;;;;;;-.;i;record seems to inai."tE.indicate a retativ-erelative isolationisolation betweenbetween thesethese twotwo subregions, basically.causedbasically caused bybv geographicseoeraohic subsistencesubsistence patterns.patterns. This probably resulted in distinct cultural affiliations, subregions. althoughiirr,?i,gi-r[i the u.S"basic i.r.tlevel ofod organizationorgani4lion remainediemained onon .thethe band level inin bothboth subregions. Therefn"i. "."Vmay t"rihave been some eth-nicethnic differences due,todue to migration ofof clltural^groups.cultural groups. AsAs Aten (1983:297)i iigl:Z}i'l hashas shown,shown, ceramics."ruri"r werewere introducedintroduced into-southeastinto Southeast TexasTexas fiomfrom thethe east. If movementil;#;;i;ftJilrii'tiiti"i.ey of ceramic technology .""rwas a"co.p"niedaccompanied byby movementmovement ofof people fromfiom. thethe wetland;;i;;;-;;;; areas of Louisiana,Guisiana, thethi upperLip'per TexasTexas coaitalcoastal margin may have been at least partiallypartially populatedoooulated bybv ethnicethnic groupsgroups thatthat were distinct from their inland counlerpartscounterparts tnin ceramtcceramic tlmetime periods.b"iioas. TtThe 6 case forfoi IndiansInd'ians from the east moving intointo thethe upperupper Texas coastal marginmargtn isls somewhat[;;h"t supportedsupporred by data thatthat indicateindicate moremore intEnseintense use.use ofof shellfish startingstarting at the same timei-i.r as thett introductionir'f"au"iioi of ceramics. In any event, the relative isolation between inlandinland andand ".r.rics. social organization.as well coastal;;;;;i ;;d;;igroups" was possiblyp&siblv reinforced over over timetime bvby social organization as well-as-.bv as by geographic;;;;rf,i;-Jrbsistenle subsistence andand'settlemenr settlement patterns.patterns. The-geographiCThe geographic areasareas, ofof. historichisroric. IndianIndian groupsE oios'in in SoutheastSourheast Texas (Aten(Aten 1983:Figure 3.1)3.1) are not very helpful in definingdefining anyany geographici"ogi"pt i. areas for prehistoricprehisioric etlrnicethnic gioups,groups, unlikeunlike somesome adjacent areasareas suchsuch as thethe CaddoeadTo toio thethe northnorth and the KarankawaKarankawa on the central Texas coast.

AtenAten (1983)(1983) hashas givengiven a a brief briefdiscussion discussion ofofritual ritual andand cognitioncognition thatthat mightmight bebe appliedapplied toto thisthis region,regiori, butbut hisiris model.idel (AtenlAten 1983:Figure1983:Figure 6.1) seemsseems,to to bebt generallygenerally tootoo abstractabstract toto.apply apply toto archeologicalariheoiogical data.daa. Haydenllayden (1993:163-169) feelsfeels that$a-t ritualritual andand socialsocial aggregationa.ggregation werewere importantimoortan'i features of hunter-gathererhunler-g,atherer societies.societies. Aside fromfrom mortuarymortuary data, however, therethere isis littlelittie inin thethe archeologicalarcheological recordreiord ofof thisthis regionregion toto indicateindicate evidenceevidence ofof ritualritual andand beliefbelief systems.systems. Haydentlayden (1993:213)( 1993:21 3) also notesnotes thatthat materialmaterial aspects ofof lifestyles maymay bete moremore importantimportant thanthin social institutionsinstitutions inin determiningdetermining thethe characteristicscharacteristics ofofa a cultureculture andand culturalcultural changes.chinges. InIn actualacnral practice,practioe, hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers dodo notnot alu/aysalways separate beliefbelief systems fromfrom thethe materialmaterial aspects of culture.culture. ForFor example,example, religiousreligious beliefsbeliefs ofof the the Australian Ausfalian aboriginesaborigines containcontain symbolssymbols thatthat aidaid inin navigationalnavigational andand subsistencesubsistence activities inin thethe desertdesert (Pfeiffer(Pfeiffer 1982:158).I 982: 158). Social Social complexity complexity is is best best considered considered inin terms terms ofof specificspecific aspects.aspects. ForFor example,example, aa hunter-gathererhunter-gatherer societysociety cancan havehave aa relatively simple level ofof technology,technology, subsistence,subsistence, andand socialsocial organization; organization; butbut cancan have a complex beliefbelief system.system.

SocialSocial aggregationaggregation of groupsgroups withinwithin a regionregion isis difficult difficult toto detect detect in in the the archeological archeological record.record. VariousVarious groupsgroups withinwithin aa regionregion dodo notnot usuallyusually havehave distinctively distinctively differentdifferent artifactanifact typestypes thatthat wouldwould indicateindicate thatthat different groups were meeting at a site.site. Also,AIso, asas already already

6363 noted,noted, site site sizesize isis notnot aa reliablereliable indicationindication of of socialsocial aggregation,aggregation, since since sitesite size.may size may bebe aa functionfunction of of lengthlength ofof staystay byby aa group. CoashlCoastal marginmargin potterypottery types. types foundfound at at -sitesjn sites in thethe inlandinland subregioisubregion could could indicite indicate s6ciai social aggregation, aggregation, oi or initead instead could could simply simply be be the the effect effect ofof exchangeexchange of-womenof women oror ofof variationvariation inin settlement-subsistencesettlement-subsistence patterns'patterns.

ThereThere isis anan inlandinland sitesite inin thisthis regionregion withwith evidenceevidence of of aggregation aggregation of of IndiansIndians fromfrom adjacentadjacent regions.regions. SiteSite 4lWHl241WH12 (Patterson (Patterson and and Hudgins Hudgins (-1989a) (1989a) has has artifact artifact typestypes thatthat representrepresent 33 adjacentadjacent regionsregions inin $ithe Latefate Prehistorichehistoric period. These artifact types includeinclude RockportRockport oohervpottery and"aand a CatanCatan dartdart point fromfrom the CentralCenual Texas coast, San Jacinto grog tempered botterypottery fromfrom thethe coastalcoastal inargin,margin, andand lithic artifactartifact typestypes typical ofof the adjacentadjacent. Central texas'region.Texas region. ThisThis sitesite alsoalso hishas ihethe earliest publishedpublished timetime forfor Rockport pottery,ponery, between A.D. 9OO900 +1-80+/-80 (I-15944)(1-15944) andand 990 +1-80+/-80 (I-16221).(1-16221).

The trend toward smallersmaller dartdart pointspoints inin laterlater time may have some social basis. A higher oonulationpopulation densitvdensity mavmay havehave restrictedrestricted movementmovement forfor lithiclithic procurement,procurement, tOto causecause mOremore useuse 6i'..itt"r,of smaller, more iocal'typeslocal types ofof lithic raw materials in later time. Higher population density can have severalieveral sociafsocial tonsequencesconsequences forfor hunter-gatherers,hunter-gatherers, such such as as aa tlendtrend toward more social compexity, lowerlower availiblilityavailablility ofof foodfood resources, andand a generallygenerally moremore stressfulstressful lifestyle.Iifestyle. A'A moremor'e'stressful stressful lifestyle iouldcould inin turn cause more inter-groupinter-group and intra-groupinfa-group conflict.

It should be realizedrealized thatrhat thetlre areaarea ofof SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas isis anan artificialartificial modernmodern designationdesignation with boundaries thatthat dodo notnot specificallyspecifically definedefine anyany limitslimiS of culturalcultural affiliationaffiliation or technological traditions. Also, itit iiis difficulidifficult toto relaterelate many technologicaltechnological tr-aditiorstraditions toto ethnic traditions, as some technological traits can havehave veryvery large |arge geographic geographic distributions, raditioni, as some technological trai6 -disributions, perhapsnerhaos caused bvby broad,broad. ill-definedilldefined interactionsinteractions between bands. Story (1990:256)(1990:256) hashas proposedbropoied aa "Mossy Grove'"Grove" cultural tradition forfor Southeast TexasTexas andand somewhat faflherfarther to theihe'north, north, basedbased on6n thethe distributiondistribution ofof GooseGoose CreekCreek sandysandy pastepaste pottery.pottery. ItIt isis .aa ratherrather tenuoustenuous concept, however, to base a cultural tradition mainly on a single technological trait. AsAs maymay bebe seenseen'from from thethe geographicgeographic distributions of projectile point types,ty.pes, this region isis aa heterogeneoushetero!,eneous interface betweenbe-twien'technological technological traditions-totraditions to the east and west.west. There would seemseem tot-o bebe tootoo manymany differences inin technologicaltechno-logical traits in differentdjfferent parts of SoutheastSoutheast Texas toio defineainn" thethe regionregion asas aa singlesingle culturalcultural tradition,tradition, suchsuch asas Story'sStory's "Mossy"Mossy.Grove" Grove" proposal.proposal. Theffri geographicieograptri[ distributionsdistributio-ns ofof technologicaltechnological tr.ai.Straits cancan far exceedexceed thethe geographic geographic distributionsdistribluti5ns ofof ethnicethnic groupsgroups relatingrelating toto specificspeciFrc social traditions. Inln general,general, detailsdetails ofof socialsocial organization organi,ltion givengiven inin thethe ethnographic ethnographic recordrecord cannotcanlto] beF detecteddetelted archeologically.ircheologically. As As notednoted above, seasonalseasonal socialsocial aggregationaggregation notednoted. inln ethnographic;dr;;gr.p[il;;ior"ns accounts (Aten1At.n 1983:Chapter1983:Chapter 5)5)is. is difficultdif6cult to detectdetect fromfrom archeologicalarcheological.data, data, so;;'rh;?tli;id; that the idea ofoiriUir tribes ofof loosely loosely associatedasdociat6d bandsbands cannotcannot bebe tested.tested. ArcheologicalAr-cheological datadala are;;.;;i;r;iJi, not useful in identifyingiaentifying specificspecidc prehistoricprehistoric ethnicethnic groupsgroups oror inin identifyingidentifying geographicgeographic boundariesborndaries ofof prehistoricprehistori; socialsoliil groupsgroupi inin- thisthis region.region. TheThe ethnographicethnographic recordrecord isis consistentconststent with;ith';;;'h;"ldi..t archeological dataiata concerningconc"mTng SoutheastSoutheas_t TexasTixas.as as an interfaceinteiface betweenbetween traditionstraditions ofof thet"'SorOl,, Southern PlainsFfains andand thethe'south"east Southeast Woodlands.Woodlands. AsAs shownshown byby AtenAten (1983:Figure(1983:Fiqure.3.l), 3.1), Tonkawaionkawa bandsbands associatedassociated withwith CentralCenfal TexasTexas werewere presentpresent inin thelhe westernwestern partpart ofot'Southeast Southeast Texas, and Akokisa and Atakapa groups in the easterneastern partp.art ofof SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas cancan bebe i;;;;, ;A-Ak1rkir. una Auf.uf" -thc associatedassociited inin generalgeneral withwith culturalcultural traditionstraditions ofof thethe easterneastern GulfGulf coastalcoastal plain.plarn.

MORTUARYMORTUARY PRACTICESPRACTICES at DetailsDetails ofof ancientancient culturescultures can often bebe foundfound atat burialburial sitessites thatthat cannotcannot bebe found-found at of trade, social status, campsites.camosites. AtAt somesome mortuary,ort*w sites.itJJ inln Southeast Southeast Texas,Texas, indications^indications of trade, social status, and;li'ftfifi organized burialil;i;f practices;;;;;';;; can beb; found.i"*4. InIn mostmost ofof thisthis region region in in most most time time periods, periods'

6644 mortuary practiceswere were not not org;anized,organized, with with mostly mostly isolatedisolated burialsburials withoutwithout gravegrave goods.goods. mortuary Dractices -monuary Th"reThere ar"'t*oare two major organizedorganized mortuarytraditions traditions in in Southeast Southeast Texas, Texas, inin thethe lateLate ArchaicArchaic oeriodperiod inin rhethe inlaidinland We-srernWestern Znne Zone (lfa[l (Hall l98l)1981) andand inin thethe lateLate PrehistoricPrehistoric period period (Aten (Men etet il.al. 1976:Figuret976:Figure 16)l6) onon thethe coastalcoastal margin.margin. TheseThese twotwo mortuarymortuary traditionstraditions-are are not related culturally,culturally, fiutbut perhapsperhaps there there are are some some common common factors factors in in the the formation formation of of thesethese complexcomplex morruarvmortuary traditions.traditions. ForFor example, example, forfor tlrethe l:teLate PrehistoricPrehistoric mortuarymortuary traditiontradition on on thethe coastalcoastal marsin.'Atenmargin, Aten (Aten(Aten et al.al. 1976:100)19761100) states stales that that "It "lt thereforelherefore appearsappears thatthat technologicaltechnological factirs'couldfactors could havehave resulted inin longerlonger staysstays atat fewerfewer localities within a stable scheduling framework andand inin conjunctionconjunction witlithesewith these longerlonger periodsperiods ofresidenceof residence that burial aggregatesaggregates were created." ItIt isis diificultdifficult to demonstrate fiomfrom archeologicalarcheological data that aa more sedentary lifestvlelifestyle was connectedconnected withwift thethe complexcomplex mortuarymortuary traditionstraditions of of thisthis region.region. InIn anyany event, an affluentifflr"nt subsistence panernpattern is is implied,implied, asas complex cultural traitstraits wouldwould notnot likely "ndivilopdevelop during shortages'ofshortages of foodfood resouices.resources. AA more affluentaffluent s-ubsistencesubsistence patternpattern.does does implyimply a less dispersed,disoerset. less mobilefiobile lifeway.lifew"ay. ThisThis appearsappears toto bebe truetrue forfor thethe Late[:te ArchaicArchaic mortuarymorhBry ttradition aaliion bfof thethe inland WesternWestern ZorieZone inin andand betweenbetween thethe lowerlower Brazos and Colorado RivelRiver valievs.valleys. This geographicseoqraphic area was well-endowed with food resources,resources, such as nuts,nuts, deer,deer, and fa variety oTof otheroihei floral and faunal resources. Late Archaic MortuaryMortuary TraditionTradition The Latelate ArchaicArchaic mortuarymortuary tradition in in thethe western part ofof SoutheastSoutheasl TexasTexas (Austin,(Aus,tin, Wharton,Fort*f,u.tor,fott Bend Bend Counties)Counties) has has sites sites thatthat are are highly highly variablevariable in in size_,size, from 2 individualin-dividual burialstrriaritgtact, (Black, P.n.rronPatterson and and Storey Storey 1992) 1992) to to wellwell overover 100 individualindividtral burials-(FIallburials (Hall 198.1).1981). AllAli of;f theti; sites;i; havehave exoticexotic gravegrare goods, showingshowing long-distancetong-distance trade. AA list of sites of thisthis typeivp" isi. shownit o*, in Table 21, includingin'ctuain-'g a liltlist of 8 sitessiGs tabulatedtabulated !Vby Story ((1990:Table 1990:Table 54) and 31i more?noi" recentri""nt iitesite discoveries. Th1The mostmost commoncommon typestypes ofof exotic grave goods in thisthis mortuary..-rn i, riAitlontradition areare marinemarine shell shell pendanSpendants and and beada.'Other beads. Other exotic exotic gravegrave goodsgoods found at some..rnliir'". sites includei"itrae lithictirtric artifactsarrifacts mademade fromfrom EdwardsEdwards PlateauPlateau flint, and a variety of ground stoneiton" lt"rr,items, suchsuch asas boatstones,boatstones, bannerstones,bannerstones, andand gorgets.gorgets. ItemsItems mademade ofof bone,,bone, such as awls and pinspi* (HalltHali 1981:FigureteAt'figuie 5l),51), are also commonly foundfound as.graveas grave goods of thisthis mortuary;o-ft*;v"*il"rd ti"aitiln.tradition. TheseThese typEstypes of bonebone artifactsartifacts are probablyprobably of locallocal manufacture, manufacture, ratherrather than repiesenting,representing exotic tradetrade goods.

Inln thetlre LateLate ArchaicArchaic mortuarymortuary tradition,tradition, there there is is evidenceevidence ofof violent deathsdeaths from!9m projectileprojectile pointsooints at sitessites 41AU36,4lAU36, 41FB42, 4iFB42,4lWHl4, 41WH14, 41WH39,4lwH39, andand perhaps perhaps 41AUI.4lAUl. Increased Increased violenceiriolence maymav havehave beenbeen the the result result ofof stress stress caused caused by by higher higher population population densitydensity andand increasedincreased socialso6ial complexity.complexity. WhetherWhether or notnot violenceviolence isis due due to to inter-group inter-group or or intra-groupintr-a-_group conflictconflict hashas beenbeen discusseddisiussed byby PattersonPatterson (1988b)(1988b) and Hall (1988b). Hall (1981:308)(198r:308) hashas proposedDroDosed thatthat a gradually hotter, drier climiteclimate atat ttrethe endend of the Latelate Archaic period,period, and/orand/or encroaching bands of bison6ison huntershunters from the SouthernSouthern Plains, may havehave causedcaused anan lncioachine-of baids of expansionexpansion of peoplespeoples from from Central Central TexasTexas into into Southeast Southeast Texas.Texas. ThisThis population population rangerange expansionexiansion resultedresulted inin increasedincreased inter-groupinter-group conflict andand "raiding."'taiding." AsAs a contrastingcontrasting-view, view, PattersonPaiterson 1988b) hashas notednoted thatthat intra-groupintragroup personal conflictconflict is commoncommon amongamong historichistoric hunter-gatherers,hunter-gatherers, such such as as examplesexamples byby BowerBower (1988).(1988). MuchMuch ofof thethe intra-group inra-group violenceviolence seemsseems toto have have revolved revolved aroundaround controlcontrol ofof sexual sexual relations relations (Bower(Bower 1988:91, 1988:91, Chagnon Chagnon 1988:986).1988:986). EvidenceEvidence ofof violent violent death death appears appears dramaticallydramatically among thethe skeletalskeletal remainsremains of moremore complexcomplex foragersforagers (Price and BrownBrown 1985:12).1985:12). BurialBurial groundsgrounds serveserve toto denote denote territorialterritorial claims, andand territorialterritorial behaviorbehavior isis identified by increasedincreased identityidentity signalingsignaling andand boundaryboundary defense (Price and Brown 1985:12). However, intra-groupintra-group conflictconflict isis also well- knownknown amongamong more more hunter-gatherer hunter-gatlrerer groups (Chagnon 1988,1988, PattersonPatterson 1988b,1988b, Steward Steward 1968),1968), soso types types of of violence violence in in complex complex hunter-gatherer hunter-gatherer groupsgroups remainsremains aa goodgood subjectsubject forfor furtherfurther research. Increasinglncreasing population densitydensity atat thethe endend of the LateIate Archaic periodperiod wouldwould havehave possiblypossibly caused caused increasing increasing violence,violence, due due to to both both inter-group inter-group andand infra-group intra-group increasedincreased

6555 stresses.stresses. EthnographicEthnographic data data indicates indicates that that hostilities hostilities between between historic historic Indian Indian groupsgroups waswas frequentfrequent (Covey(Covey l96l:66,1961:66, NewcombNewcomb l96l:323).1961:323).

HallHall (1981)(1981) hashas givengiven thethe mostmost detaileddetailed descriptiondescription of of sites sites inin thethe IateLate ArchaicArchaic mortuarymortuary traditiontradition ofof thethe WestemWestern ZnneZone ofof SoutheastSoutheast Texas.Texas. At At site site 41AU36,41AU36, the the traditiontradition ofof groupgroup burialburial acnrallyactually startedstarted duringduring thethe Middle Archaic. TheThe m_ostmost organized expression ofof organizedorganized burialburial practices,practices, hdwever, however, is-during is during the the l:te Late Archaic_,Archaic, since. since thisthis isis the-the period goods. (lale wfi'enwhen thethe most significanisignificant amounts amounts of of grave grave goodswere were u-sed. used. In In thethe --Group.Group 22 (Late Archaic)Archaic) burialsburials at-siteat site 4lAU36,41AU36, exoticexotic grave,goodsgrave goods includedincluded marinemarine shellshell pendants andand beads,beads, sirarkshark teeth,teeth, stingraystingray spines,spines, boastones,boatstones, largelarge comer-tangcorner-tang knives,knives, stonestone Sorgets,gorgets, andand aa marine shell atlatl weight. Bone andand antlerantler grave goods, suchsuch asas long-bone implements, mavmay havehave beenbeen made loially.locally. ExoticExotic gravegrave goodsgoods inin thisthis mortuarymortuary traditiontradition indicateindicate tradetrade witfiwith severalseveral otlrerother regions,regions, sirchsuch asas CentralCentral Texas,Texas, Arkansas,Arkansas, andand Louisiana.Louisiana.

AtAt site 4lAU36,41AU36, therethere waswas aa MiddleMiddle ArchaicArchaic burialburial GroupGroup I1 ofof anan estimatedestimated 6l61 individualsindividuals ftIall(Hall 1981:54).l98l:54).-Grave Grave goodsgoods were foundfound with seven individuals, including pointed bone irtifactsartifacts and a largelarge PedernalesPe-demales projectile point.point. Thus,-theThus, the conceptconcept ofof using grave.grave goods srarredstarted in the Middle AlchaicArchaic peiiod,period, but reached fullfull elaborationelaboration duringduring thethe l:teLate Archaic period withwith a variety of exotic'graveexotic grave goods.goods. AfterAfter thethe hteLate Archaic,Archaic, smallsmall Burial GroupsGroups 3 andind 4a (10(lO andand 13 13 individuals, individuals, repectively)repectively) that representrepresent the Early CeramicCeramic and-and Latel:te Prehistoric periodsperiods diddid not havehave'signifi&nt significant grave goods, but somesome organizedorganized burialburial practices did continue.

Consistency ofof burial type and positionposition are takenhken asas indicationsindications ofof organizedorganized behaviorbehavior relatedrelared to'ato a specificsoecific tradition.fidition. InIn several ofof the sites inin thethe Late l:te ArchaicArchaic tradition,tradition, a northerlynorrherly head orientation isis common, suchsuch asas atat site 41AU364lAU36 (tlall(Hall 1981:Figurel98l:Figure 53) and 41FB3 (Patterson etet al.al. 1993b).1993b). At sjtesite 41AU36,4lAU36, each burial C,I9uPgroup of a differentdifferent timetime period had aa differentdifferent averageaverage headhead orientationorienlation direction,direction, possiblypossibly indicatingindicating change inin socialiocial preference or belief system.sy-stem. Head orientation forfor Group 1I burialsburials_(Middle (Middle Archaic) was to the southeast, for Group 2 burials (tate(Late Archaic) was north to northeasl,northeast, for Group 33 burials (Early Ceramic) was ioto the northwest, and for Group 4 burialsburials (Late(-l+te Prehistoric)Prehistoric) was toto thethe southeast.s6utheast. DataData from sitessites 41AU364lAU36 and 41FB34lFB3 indicate a shifting direction of head orientation of burials from southeast in the Middle Archaic to north in the later part of thethe Latelate Archaic.Archaic. MiddleMiddle Archaic Group 1I burialsburials at 41AU3641AU36 withwith radiocarbonradiocarbon dates ofof 26102610 +1-140+t-140 B.C. (TX-2453)(TX-2453) andand 1530 +l-9o+/-90 (Tx-2127)(TX-2127) had a predominant head _dire_c-tiondirection toto thethe southeast.soutlreast. AA burialburial atat 41FB34lFB3 withwith aa radiocarbonradiocarbon datedate ofof 1280l28O +/-170+l-170 B.C.B.C. (1-17333)(I-17333) hadilia ai headtr."a directiondirection toto thethe east.east. Laterlater burials of 41AU364lAU36 Group 2 withwi$ radiocarbon dates of 520520 +/-130+l-l3} B.C.B.C. (TX-2451)(TX-245 I ) andand A.D. 360 +/-80+/-80 hadhad headhead directionsdirections from northnorth toto northeast,north"".t, and a burialburial group at 41FB34lFB3 with a radiocarbonradiocarbon date of 630630 +/-130+/-130 B.C.B.c. (I-(l- 16513)ia-sItiili had headhead directionsdirecti[ns toio thethe north.north. BurialBurial orientationorientation.may may have beenbeen relatedrelated. toto thethe positionoositidn ofof thethe risingrisins andand settingsetting sunsun (Hall(Hall 1981:282). l98l:282). WhileWhile predominantpiedominant orientationorientation diddid changeIiiri" fromf-. one burial groupsrorp tot6 anotheranother overover timetime inin thethe AliensAll6ns CreekCreek complex,complex,- culturalcultural preference;;;i;;r;; canil "".-brii.l only beUi noted, n"oted, withoutwirhout beingbeing ableable toto describedescribe anyany associatedassociated beliefbelidsystem. system. Supine5;;i;;;.ril-.'nJi.rin.*.d extended";iy and semi-flexed burials a-reare most common forfoithis this burialburial traditiontradition.(Hall (Hall 1981:Figuresis5i'iiii;i-";-i8-iii.ni 18-23), and someior" bundlebundle burialsburials occuroccur (Hall(Flall 1981:Figure1981:Figure 17).l7). BundleBundle burialburial isir;i;ffi;i;rc.nir6h a form of organized activity,actiuity, wherewhere bonebone defleshingdefleshing isis donedone beforebefore burial.burial. RedRed ochreochre waswas usedusea with*ith burialsUrriits inin thisthis traditiontradifion (Hall(Hall 1981:182,1981 :182, PattersonPatterson etet al.al' 1993b).1993b)'

HigherHisher socialsocial statusstatus ofof somesome individualsindividuals isis indicatedindicated byby thethe selectiveselective useuse ofof gravegrave goodsgo-ods inin burials of;i]1|g the LateGi;-Ar"h;i; Archaic tradition,tradition, suchsuch asas atat sitesite 41AU364iAU36 (Hall(Hall 1981).l98l). AtAt sitesite 41FB424lFB42 ;;ii;i; grave (Patterson(Patlerson etet al.al. 1993c), 1993c). therethere werewere moremore thanthan 44 burials,burials, butbutonly,l only 1 burialburlal hadhad exoticexotlc grave were goods,iooa.- inin the rhe form form of of wrist ivrist and and ankle ankle bracelets bracelets mademade ofof shellshell andand stonestone beads.beads. There I here were 16?i burials#ilir atIiJ,iil'irrsiiirtt"iJn site 41FB3 (Patterson etet al.al. 199b), leeb), butbul onlyo_qly 33 burialsburials hadt4_el.r9 grave goods,soods, inin thethe formi"-#;ii;;;_b;;;l;r;;rG of long-bone implements withwith 1I burialburial andand shellshell pendantsiendants withwith 22 burials. burials. Therhe exactexact

6656 meaningmeaning ofhigherof higher socialsocial sgtusstatus in aa hunter-gathererhunter-gatherer society society isis generally generally notnot clear,clear, a-sas formalformal leaders-areleaders are n6tnot present.present. Higher Higher social social status status may may be be duedue toto group respect of certaincertain individuals,individuals, "big men", or spiritual leadership,leadership, "shamans.""shamans.'

Ilall'sHall's (1981)(1981) burial siressites atat AllensAliens creekCreek andand sitesite 4lFB341FB3 (Patterson et et al.-1993d) al. 1993d) areare alsoalso camDsites.campsites, .,ilttrwith datadata availableavailable onon aa wide range of faunalfaunal remains.remains. These data support the conieptconcept that thethe organizedorganized mortuarymortuary tradition tradition was was connected connected with with a a good good subsistencesubsistence base thatthat maymay havehave alloiedallowed aa moremore sedentarysedentary lifestyle.lifestyle.

Late Prehistoric Mortuary Tradition

Aten et al. (1976) havehave givengiven detailsdetails onon aa Late [:te Prehistorickehistoric mortuarymortuary tradition.oftradition of the coastal margin ofof thisihis region,r6gion, withiith sites havinghaving organizedorganized burial .patterns patterns and and a a widewide varietyvariety ofof graves,rav-e soods.goods. StoryStorv (iggO:Z0t-265)(1990:261-265) has also discusseddiscussed this subject. A summarysummary of LateIlte "nitrisii,ricPrehistoric coastairiargin coastal margin sites sites wiih with grave grave goods goods is is given given inin TableTable 22.22. Story (1990:262)(1990-:262)' , feels that siresite 4lBO241B02 andanl perhapsperhaps 41GV54lGV5 shouldshould bebe putpul into aa burialburial cluster associatedassociated with the westernwestern part of thethe upperupper'Texas Texas coast,coast, separatesepamte fromfrom thethe GalvestonGalveston BayBay mortuary_mornrary tradition. HeiHer opinionopinion isis because of differentdifferent skeletalskeletal characteristics at at 4lBO241B02 (taller(Uller individuals associatedassoiiated with thethe Karankawa bodybody type).type). given et al. A detaileddetailed view of aa cemeterycemetery-Bovs' site for thethe coastalcoastal margin hashas beenbeen given by Aten et al. (1976)irSZ6j forfo. therhe HarrisHarris CounryCounty Boys' SchoolSchool sitesite (4lHR80).(41HR80). A wide variety of grave goods werei"o" found,f*.a, including marinemaririe sh6llshell beads andand pendantpendants, , birdbird bone bone flutes,flutes, bonebone dice,dice, bone awls,awts, fishhooks,fistrtroot

Ricklis (1993,1994) hashas foundfound threethree burialburial groups atat site 41GV664lcv66 onon GalvestonGalveston Island,Island, with."i*, oneoni groupe-tip fromfroir thethe Latel:te PrehistoricPrehistoric periodperlod andind two groupsgroups fromfrom thethe HistoricHistoric Indianln-dian period.oiriod. Giave'eoodsGrave goods here seemseem typicaltypical ofof the the Late t:te Prehistoric Prehistoric mortuarymortuary traditionradition of thethe Galvestonbalvesron BayBay-area, area, includingincluding boneborii andand shellshell beads,beads, birdbird bonebone flutes,flutes,.and and perhapsperhaps aa rattle.ranle. AA varietyvarietv ofof Europeandurooean trade eiodsgoods were found along withwith itemsitems ofof IndianIndian manufacturemanufacture with twott"o ofof thetfie burialburial'groups. groups. RicklisRi;klis (1994)( 1994) presentspresents extensiveeitensive datadata onon burialburial practicespractices in thethe LateI-ate PrehistoricPrehistoric period,p6riod, anaand provides data onon the little known burial practicespractices of the Proto- HistoricHistoric andand HistoricHistoric' Indian hdiin periods.periods. Burials Burials include include primary primary interments, interments, secondary secondary interments,interments, andand cremations.cremations.

OtherOther BurialBurial SitesSites

SomeSome examplesexamples ofof prehistoric prehistoric inland inland burialburial sitessites notnot associated associated with with a a mortuary mortuary tradition tradition are:are: 41HR54lHR5 andand 41HR74lHR7 (Wheat (Wheat 1953), 1953), 411-111.273 411R273 (Ensor (Ensor and and Carlson Carlson l99l),1991), and 4lWHl941WH19 (Patterson(Patterson et al.al. 1987).1987). MortuaryMortuary sites withoutwithout largelarge groupgroup burialsburials are di{ficultdifficult toto discover.discover. SteeleSteele andand OliveOlive (1990:157)(1990:157) estimate estimate that that lessless than than 2%ZYo ofof recordedrecorded sites inin thisthis regionregion havehave documenteddocumented humanhuman skeletal material. They also note that 50% of the numbernumber of sitessites withwith recordedrecorded burials had more than oneone burial, and l6Yo16% hadhad l010 or more. StoryStory (1990:258)(1990:258) observesobserves thatthat forfor EarlyEarly CeramicCeramic andand LateI:te PrehistoricPrehistoric periodperiod burials,burials, inin mostmost casescases thethe burialburial isis an an isolated isolated interment interment or partpart of aa small small aggregate aggregate ofof burials. burials. Steele Steele and and Olive Olive (1990:Table(1990:Table 32) havehave tabulated tabulated burial sites inin thisthis region region from from both both published published andand unpublishedunpublished data.data.

6767 SOCIALSOCIAL COMPLEXITY COMPLEXITY

HigherHigher degreedegree ofof socialsocial complexitycomplexity for for h-unter_-gatherers.ishunter-gatherers is usuallyusually consideredconsidered byby evidenceevidence for organized behavioral patiemspatterns iside aside fromfrom basicbasic subsistence.subsistence. SocialSocial complexitycomplexity among for"organ#ed behavioral 'considered .among hllnG;gatherershunter-gatherers hashas beenbeen considered byby a a variety_ variety of of indicators,-suchindicators, such as: as: populationpopulation density,density, o"rynunlntpermanent sheher.shelter, Dermanentpermanent ceremon-ial ceremonial g,rounds, grounds, art art styles, styles, differences differences in in burials burials due due toto lraregrave *ealttr.wealth, andand Lnergyenergy investedinvested inin grave grave preparationpreparation (Price (Price and and BrownBrown 1985:437).1985:437). locialSocial Eomolexiwcomplexity ofienoften increliesincreases withwith a a molemore affiuent,affluent, sedentarysedentary lifestyle.lifestyle. SofferSoffer (1985:265)(1985:265) hashas obsei-vedobserved flhatthat socialsocial complexitycomplexity ofof hunter-galherershunter-gatherers does does not not usuallyusually followfollow aa continuouscontinuous iuoirtionevolution toto higher comilexity,complexity, butbut instead-instead follows aa fluctuating trajectory.Fajectory Apparently,Ap_parentlY, iocialsocial complex"itycomplexity ofof hunter-giihererhunter-gatherer societiessocieties isis anan adaptive mechanism that flourishes onlvonly under certaincertiin conditioniconditions inin response toto security in subsistencesubsistence (Price and BrownBrown 1985:436). "Decreasedmobility mobility retaids retards flexible flexible response response to to stress a.ndand enS,agesengages more 1985:a36). "Decreased -str-ess- institutional structures asas essentillessential solutions"solutions" (Price(Price andand BrownBrown 1985:438).

Social complexitycomplexity in in SoutheastSoutheast Texas Texas can can bebe srudiedstudied mainlymainly atat mortuarymortuary sites, withwith grave. wealth, of ividinceevidence olof long-distancelongldistance trade,trade,'practices. differencesdifferences in in burialsburials duedue toto grave wealth,.evidence evidence of social violence andand patternedpitterned burial practices. TheThe conceptconcept ofof fluctuating_levelsfluctuating levels ^of of social comolexitvcomplexity is'supportedis supported by thethi archeologicalarcheological record inin Southeast Southeast Texas.Texas. Organizedorganized pru.ii""rpractices ireare not'developednot developed inin allall timetime periods,periods, but appear sporadicallysporadically inin time andand geographic location.Iocation.

It isis probablyprobably an over-simplificationover-simplification toto attribute increaseincrease in_.s-ocialin social complexity only-toonly to an abundanceabuniance o?of food resourcesresouries that allows a more sedentary lifestyle. As Price and BrownBrown (1985:439)(teAS,nfel observe "Increased complexitycomplexity a-ppearsappears inin tootoo many diversediverse and historicallyhistorically- unconnectedir"onn."r6a places to be a result ofiof a single fiitor."factor." For example,example, itit is notnot clearclear in termsterms of indicators,inai".torr, zulhsuch as site numbers and sizessizel and faunalfaunal remains, that thethe lifestylelifestyle associatedassociated 'f"te region with*itf, thetll" Late ArchaicArchaic mortuarymortuary tradition ofof the WesternWestern ZnneZone of thisthis region was-was significantly,igrlf""rtty more affluent oror sedengrysedentary thanthan thethe lifestyle ofof IlteLate Archaic Indians of thethe adjacentad]acent CentralCLntral Zone.Znne. OneOne possibilitypossibili-tr7 isis that food resourcesresources may havehave beenbeen. moremore concentratedco'ncentrated in the WesternWestern Zoneibne thanthai inin adjacentadjacent geographicgeographic areas. ThisThis wouldwould- havehave allowedallowed a moremore sedentarysedentary lifestylelifestyle in thethe WesternWestem Zone,Zone, although not necessarilynecessarily a betterb€tter lifestyleiif*trli inin termst.r.s ofof aa sufficientsrifficieni diet.diet. SomeSome increaseincrease inin socialsocial complexitycomplexity maymay havehave beenbeen caused.i*Lt-Uv by attributesutiiUui"r ofof socialsocial organizationorganization that areare notnot preservedpreserved inin the tlre archeological archeological record.record. in TheThe higherhigher degreedegree ofof socialsocial complexitycomplexity indicatedindicated byby thethe.hte Late ArchaicArchaic motuarymotrEry traditionradition in thetlr;'#i;; western part of inland SoutheastS"rrh&st TexasT6xas.may may notnot beberelated related toto aa moremore sedentarysedenlary lifestyle,lifestyle, f;?;fi;hra resources of area' butUri could stilltiill indicateindi."t markingmarking of territoryterritorli to claimclaim rights to resources of -anan area. Alternately,Alrematelv."oura thisthis higherhis,her degreedegree ofof socialsocial complexitycomplexity maymay simplysimply representrepresent aLDelreI belief system,syslem' possiblypossibly resultingr6iulting fromfiom aa mixmix ofofcultural cultural traditionstraditions ofof CentralCentral andand SoutheastSoutheast Texas.l exas.

The same ideas applyapply toto thefte LateItte Prehistorichehistoric mortuarymortuary traditiontradition ofof thethe coastalcoastal margin inin thethe The same ideas -m-argin in GalvestonGalveston BayBay area.area. Fornor example,e*a.pte,-tfrire there isis nono indication indi-cation thatthat there there were were differences differences in (Aten et al. le76)_rhan in other areas of lifestyleiriJ.",i,il, inii.1 theilJ";;;f area of theth; Boys'ily;1's;il;i School Cemeterya"metery (Aten et al. 1976) than in other areas of Galveston6;k#J'fi'ffi.i" Bay where organizedil-e.',IiJa-6r'l"i burial practicesppcti..s arei'e notnot evident.e"ident Thefrt-.,tq:':91"-,l1ti: sporadic nature ofd in Southeast Texas, an^d the increasedi"ii.iilO-'ro#t social complexitycomple*i"t, ofof hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers-pr."tuO" in Southeast Texas, and the partial-ryrt?J naturellure ofof archeological archeoloeical remains,remains, ;;;--i;seems to preclude an exactexact analysisanalysis ofof causescauses ofof social social complexity.!if;ffi;,:"Iffi;;UJ""f;;;,." In some cases, for a given lifestyle,ri?Liivt", somesomesroups groups ofof peoplepeople maymav tendtend toto becomebecome moremori sociallysociilly organizedorganized thanthan other other similarsimilar groups.groups TheTheAllensCreekarcheologicalcomplex(Halll98l).offersaninterestingsequenceof Allens Creek archeological complex (Hall 1981) offers an interesting sequence of indicatorsirei;ffi'"f of social;;;l.i""r"pf""-i6. complexity. Ase.t',i"iia'i" noted in thett. sections..iion onon mortuary mort*ry practices,prattices, atat this this

6868 locationlocation there were organized burial practicespractices inin thethe MiddleMiddle Archaic, LateLate Archaic, Early Ceramic, andand IateLate PrihistoricPrehistoric periods,periods, unlikeunlike adjacent-adjacent areas areas of of Southeast Texas.Texas. This reflects a long periodperiod ofof greatergreater socialsocial organization,organization, as indicatedindicated _byby thethe organizedorganized burialburial Dractices.practices. Hoiiver, However, the the large-scale large-scale use use of of exoticexotic gravegrave goodsgoods only occurred in the Latelarc itrchaicArchaic period.period. ItIt iiis notnot clearclear whywhy importsimports of of exoticexotic gravegrave goodsgoods intointo thethe WesternWestern ZnneZone ofof SoutheasiSoutheast TexasTexas eitlrereither startedstarted oi or ended ended during during this this time time period. period. tlall Hall (l98l) (1981) has offered some ideasideas onon thisthis subject, subject, basedbased onon external extemil influences.influences. However,However,- bothboth internalintema-l andand external causescauses for chanleschanges in this trade pattempattern cancan bebe proposed,proposed, includingincluding internal changechange inin social practices.

In the discussion here on populationpopulation dynamics, itit has beenbeen notednoted thatthat there are indications of aa moremore mobilemobile settlementsettlemini patternpattern iiin the inland regionregion atat t}ethe end of thethe EarlyEarly CeramicCeramic oeriodperiod andand in the Latelate PrehistoricPrehisioric periodperiod thatthat is is possiblypossibly due to high populationpopulation density. iDooulationPopulation densitvdensity isis one of thelhe majormajor factors toto considerconsider in tlrethe studystudy ofof culruralcultural changechange in thiithis region.reeion. ChangeChanie in settlement patternpinem cancan bebe notednoted directly inin the archeological record.record. Howeier,However, high populationp6pulation densitydensity cancan alsoalso cause a number ofof social stressesstresses thatthat are not easilveasily detecteddeiectEd bybv'archeological archeological data.data. These socialsocial stressesstresses cancan includeinclude limitedlimited territorialtenitorial aiiCis.access, internal c6nflict,conflict, externalext;rnal conflict,conflict, and aa decline in organized socialsocial behavior due to the cumulativeiumulati.,re effect ofof individualindividual stressstress factors.factors. SinceSince hunter-gathererhunter-gatherer societiessocieties are not highly organized, this type of organization may be easily influencedinfluenced by stressstress toto adjustadjust socialsoiiuf organizationor{"ni.ation to aa moremore beneficialbeneficial adaptiveadaptive. pattern.pattern TheThe abilityability^of of hunter-gathereriu.nter-qatherer societiessocieties'to to rapidlyrapidly change adaptiveadaptive patternspatterns is is a a key key to to thethe success_success of.thisof this Jifestylelifestyle over longionetime time periods.peri6ds.in In contrast,con[ast, highlyhighly 6rganizedorganized societiessocieties often lack adaptive abilityability toto sense impendingimo"endine Droblemsproblems andand thenthen reacireact wi-thwith adaptiveadaptive changes. changes. AsAs aa result, there has been a repeatedredeated frirernpattern ofof tlrethe declinedecline ofof civilizations through the ages.

INTER-REGIONALINTER-REGIONAL TRADE

Much of thethe evidenceevidence ofof long-distancelong-distance tradetrade inin prehistoricprehistoric SoutheastSoutlreast TexasTexas is found in the formioi. of exotice*oti" gravegrave goods,goods,-but but somesome evidenceevidence is is also also found found at at campsites. campsites- Inter-regional lnter-regional trade is mostmost evidenteu]dent forIo, thethe Latehte ArchaicArchaic mortuarymortuary tradition in the inlandinland portion of thethe Western Zone of this region. Site 41AU364lAU36 (Hall(Hall 1981)l98l) isis a a prime prime example. example. Large[:rge corner-corner- tangtang knives areare examplesexamplel ofof tradefade withwith CentralCentral Texas. Central Texas was thethe center for thethe manufacture.if,ufacture ofof corner-tangcornir-tang knivesknives (Patterson(Patterson 1936,1936, FlallHall 1981:Figurel98l:Figure- 55). Marinetvlarine shellshell beadsbeads and pendantspendanls may bEbe an example of long-distancelongJistance trade,trade, as nono shell9!9! manufacturingmanufacturing sitessites havehave beenbeen foundfound onon thethe adjacentadiaceni coastal margin. flallHall ((1983:214-222) 1983:214-222) hashas consideredconsidered marinemarine shell itemsitems asas comingcoming intointo SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas fromfrom locationslocations suchsuch asas Corpus Corpus ChristiChristi BayBay andand asas farfar awayaway asas Florida.Flor-ida. Florida is known to have beenbeen aa centercenter forfor long-distancelong-disance tradetrade in marine shell items.items.

GroundGround stone itemsitems areare foundfound atat severalseveral mortuarymortuary sites ofof the the Late Iate Archaic Archaic tradition. tradition. ArtifactsArtifac6 of groundground stonestone includeinclude tubular tubular beadsbeads (Patterson(Patterson et al.al. 1993a), 1993a), bannerstones bannerstones (Duke(Duke 1982b),1982b), stonestone gorgetsgorg,ets (HallGlall 1981),l98l), andand boatstonesboastones (Walley(Walley 1955, Hall 1981).l98l). AsAs previouslypreviously notednoted (Patterson 19899),1989g), all of these$ese artifactartifact types can be foundfound inin therhe PovertyPoverty PointPoint lapidarylapidary industry (Webb 1982), andand participationparticipation ofof Indians of SoutheastSoulheast Texas inin thethe widespreadwidespread exchange system thatthat included Poverty Point may be indicated.indicated. WhileWhile stonestone beadsbeads werewere mademade atat thelhe PovertyPoverty PointPoint sitesite in in northern northern Louisiana,louisiana, thethe tubulartubular stonestone beadsbeads foundfound atat sitesite 41FB424lFB42 havehave a a closest closest match match with with stone stone beads beads manufactured manufactured atat thethe Cad Cad MoundMound sitesite inin East-CentralEasrCentral Louisiana (Gibson 1968).1968). TheThe CadCad MoundMound sitesite hadhad aa familiarityfamiliarity withwitl thethe tradetrade network well established by Poverty Point timestimes (Gibson(Gibson 1968:15). AlthoughAlthough boatstonesboatstones areare anan item of thethe Poverty Poverty PointPoint exchangeexchange system,system,-rhe theythey maymay havehave been been manufacturedmanufactured inin Arkansas (Flall(Hall l98l:Figure1981:Figure 55).55). Much of the materialmateriil ofof groundground stonestone

6969 artifactsartifacts seems seems to to havehave originatedoriginated inin Arkansas,Arkansas, although although manufacturing manufacturing of of finished finished artifactsartifacts couldcould havehave beenbeen atat differentdifferent locationslocations thanthan thethe rawraw materialmaterial source. source.

AsAs FlallHall (1981:Figure(1981:Figure 55)55) hashas shown,shown, IndiansIndians of of SoutheastSoutheast Texas Texas were were involved involved inin severalseveral trrdinntrading ri,h.r.. spheres irithe in the hie Late Archaic Archaic period, period, with with each each trade trade sphere sphere concemed concerned with with a aspecific specific ryp";?dfi"type of goods. The individualindividual tradirigtrading spheres spheres seem seem to to have have been been linked linked !o to I a C31e-r1lly-h-igtt generally high i6iJlevel of trader.a" throughoutrhroughout the the east&n'United eastern United States States in in thp this lim.etime period.period (Webb(Webb 1982). the eastern Wi;6Winters 1tbOA1 (1968) mshas ihownshown that activeactive long-distlncelong-distance tradetrade hadhad developeddeveloped inin the eastern U;iil-dhd.'""inUnited States even earlierearlier inin the LateI:te Archaic than the Poverty Point period.period. Hallllall f(1981:294) f'Slii ,Z9a) hLhas noted rhatthat importsimports intointo thethe westernwestern partpart of of SoutheastSoutheast Texas Texas are are well-well- l;;;;r;ddocumented fot for 111. the rrt"Late ArciraicArchaic period,period, but but exportsexports from from thisthis area are not evident.evident' Th;;;a;r;,Therefore, a completecomplete import-exportimport-export system system cannotcannot bebe defined. defined. Perhaps.thePerhaps the WesternWestern ZoneZone ofof Southeast" TexasTexas was arian intermediate tradetrade point point for for down-theJine down-the-line t trading ading of of goods goods tromfrom r"r.i.iini"o""tingseveral intersecting radetrade spheres. spheres. However, However, tfie the Western Western Zone Zone of of Southeast Southeast Texas Texas doesdoes notnot i""*seem to Uebe eeoeraihicallvgeographically weil-placedwell-placed to aitact usas an intermediate tradetrade point point for for the the types types ofof ;;;er'ir;i;;*'UJregoods that were being traded.tut"a. IrIt tancan bebe concludedconcluded thatthat long-distancelong-distance tradetrade mechanisms,mechanisms, and ir-*.irr"Jassociated U"ii"ibelief iiri"rJ,systems, forfor Southeast Texas Texas inin thethe lateLate ArchaicArchaic period period areare notnot well-well- understood. One One possibilitypossibility is is thatthat perishableperishable types types of of itemsitems were being exportedexported fromtiom S;rha;tSoutheast i";"rTexas i'nin exchanleexchange forfor ex6ticexotic goods from other.other regjons.regions. FlallHall (1988a:Figure(1988a:Figure l)1) s-h-;;shows ;a widewide distributiondistributioi ofof long-bonelong-boie implements in in Texas,Texas, withwith thethe center of manufacture inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas beingbeing aa possibility.possibility.

Hall (1981:299-309) hashas proposed Droposed that that tradet ade betweenbetween SoutheastSoutheast Texas andand easterneastern areas,areas, groups. from such-C;;;;1i*f, asii Povertyio"irtv Point,Poiit, waswai interuptedinierupted atat lhethe endend ofof thethe tateLate ArchaicArchaic byby hostilehostile groups from Central i;;'th.iTexas that i.iur"areduced rhethe rradingtrading spheresphere area, area, or or by by aa similarsimilar type of interruptionintemrption in NortheastN;A;rli;il Texas thatthat blocked trade roritesroutes toto thethe easi.east. Aft6rAfter thethe kteLate ArchaicArchaic period, there is notil much;;d evidence;;id."* forf- inter-regionalinter-regional trade, exceptexcept forfor isolated examplesexamples in thisthis region.region. EvidentlyE"ia."tly mostn]oJof of thern" efforteffort forfor- inter-regional inter-regional trade was.causedwas caused by thethe^demand demand for grave goodseoods andand otherother statusstatus symbols.svmbols. AnAn alternatealtemate to hostile interruptionintem:ption ofof trade would be aa scenarioi"-.#io'*f,"ii where a.rina'fordemand for exoticexotic goods simply decreased duedue toto changeschanges_ in socialsocial organization,oig.rir"tion, rr"hsuch usas a morernor" mobilemobile lifestyle.Tifestyle. Highlyfiiftrty mobilemobile hunter-gatherers hunter-gatherers have littlelittle use forfor manymany non-utilitariannon-utilitarian" items.items.

The detailed patternspatterns of long-distancelong-distance trade are S,enerallygenerally diffrcultdifficult toto.study study. RenfrewRenfrew andand The detailed,l991:i22) BahnB*n (1991:322) havehave summarized sumfiarized 10 l0 different different trade rade patterns, pinerns, includingincluding simplesimple patterns patterns such*iii'ii-iiil.t as direct or6r down-the-line down-the-line trading, trading, and and more more complex iomplex redistribution redjstribution processes. processes. RedistributionneJirtriUution processes probably dodo nofapplynot apply to tradetrade. practices of Indianslndians inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas,i;;;';d;;; where loiiuisocial organizationo'g.ni-ti6n *u. was ai'tlie at the bandband ldvellevel. rheThe band level ofof social social organizationn*"ni-tion usuallyusullv doesdoeinoi.tio* not allow individualsindi"id*ls toto accumulateaccumulate wealthwealth thatthat couldcould bebe usedused forfor redistribution.;;3i#6;,;;;*rt It i;',.rp"iiurriis especially difficultaimcult toto analyzeanatyze aa tradetrade patternpattern where imports o!:*!i:of exotic goods;;;;;;;r appear inin anan isolated isolated-location, location, ratherrather thantl\an inin aa continuous continuous geographicgeograPhic distribution distrrbutron fromF,:,,",i'rllii[uri, a possible trade source. ThisThi;-iA'ui"ly is certainly truetrue ofof thethe Later:te ArchaicArchiic mortuarymoriuarv traditionradition ofof the Western Zone"il,;ffi;;;. of Southeast Texas. Here,Here,'possibte.sources possible sources of exoticexotic goodssoods areare locatedlocated atat iil;'w.fi;a;;iilffi;i;;. to distances;i;,;;;;r of;,f several [lifui hundredr,"rai.A miles,,iiiei,."ittrout'iirrermediate without intermediate geographicgeographic areasareas thatthat havehave datadata to showshow a a specific specific type type of of trade trade pattern. pattern. period. There is somesome evidence evidence of of long-distance long-distance trade trade during during the the Late l2te Prehistoric Prehistoric period. Gahagan9ahagan There is qrpxss (Mcclurkan te68) in Polk bifaces6ii;;;;;i;G;iixos at sites 41PK69 (Ensorts"ioiu:nd and Carlsonc.ii"r-is8sl 1988) andafrd 41PK88 (McClurkan 1968) in Polk County possibly showriri,*-da. trade withilii-l'LiJo Caddo Indiansrrii"nr on6n thetrre northernnorthern edgeedse ofof SoutheastSoutheast Texas,Texas, L;il;;;;tbii artifaEt ty-pe. Long.-distance oror trade trade withwith Central Cenrral Texas,..** locationsioiltfiiof of manufacturer*rri."tur" ofof thisthis artifact type. Long-distance trade,;;j.;;;i;iy possibly with;il with*irh Caddo i.l-i;'lifi*,.i, Indians, is shown.r,o* at at.site site 411-IR273 4 I HR273 (Ensor (Ensor and and Carlson carlson 1991)lggl) in in Harris flarris County county by uv a I Gahagan cir,-"i", biface,uir.L", copper .opp"r beadsteads andand galena. galena. Contact contact.between between Southeasti'"',if.ilirlii". Texas Indiansi"ai'iil and Caddo Indians to thethiiiorth north duringduring thethE Late tate PrehistoricPrehistoric periodpiriod wasffiffi;;fiGhl;;;1. not at a high level. Although Ald;ch"ilicii;;T;l;;;; Caddo ffiil;t;rylsiometi.eicited pottery is sometimes cited asas a a trade trade item item (Suhm (Suhm

7070 andand Jelks]elks 1962:95),1962:95),it it isis doubtfuldoubful thatthat the rare examplesexamples ofof Ca-ddoCaddo potsherds fo-undfound veryvery far fromfrom thethe Caddo areaarea areare duedue loto trade.trade. PotteryPottery is is heavy heavy andand bulky,bulky, andand notnot suitedsuited toto transport overover long distances.distances. TwoTwo possible caddoCaddo typetype sherds-_foundsherds found atat sitesite 41HR61641L61.6. (Moore iese,rig-ur"1989:Figure 16)l6) and aa caddbCaddo typetype sherdsherd found found ct at site site 4lHR8l 41HR81 (Brewington (Brewington 1990) in Harris CountvCounty ire are moiemore likelvlikely toto bebe du-edue toto exchangeexchange ofof women betweenbetween socialsocial groupsgroups ratherrather than ttrade. ia".'frrron Larson (1980:228) (1980:228) hashas concludedconcluded thitthat the the bandband of of pineypiney woods along thethe.Eastern Eastern Gulf coastal plainoiain restricted cultural contact.contact. This This appearsappears to to applyapply toto contacts between C.aaoCaddo lnai"niIndians northnorth of of the the piney piney woods woods beltbelt andand IndianIndian groups groups south south of of the the piney piney woods woods in SoudreastSoutheast Texas.

Most sravegrave eoodsgoods found in sites on thelhe coastalcoastal marginmargin of thisthis regionregion duringduring the LateI-ate netPrehistoric isioric pEriodperiod seem seem toto be of locallocal manufacture.manufacture. PossiblePossible exceptions are.are marine shellshell ;;;d;;Gpendants un'dand b*d.,beads, withwith manufacturing locationslocations yetyet to be determined, and inter-regional Ladetrade remainingremaining aa possibilitY.possibility.

SinsleSingle specimenssoecimens of galenaqalena andand quartzquartz at site 41WH24lWH2 (Patterson(Patlerson andand HudginsHudgins 1980) init1 Wf,7no"'Cor"tyWharton County posriblypossibly indicate small amounlsamounts of tradetrade between SoutheastSoutheast andand CentralCentral (Flartman fe*sTexas beforeUifore thett e Latetate Archaicerchuic period. Bannerstones (Puke(Duke 1989)1989).and. and boatstonesboatst^ones (Hartman 1963)iS63i foundiila atat campsitescamDsites inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas areare additionaladditional indications of long-distancelong-distance traAe'ontrade on anan occasionaloccasional basis,basis, notnot directlydirectly connectedconnected withwith thethe Late l:te Archaic Archaic mortuary mortuary tradition.t6Jit;"". prfe*i"al"nPaleo-Indian andand EailyEarly ArchaicArchaic projectileprojectile pointspoints foundfound inin Southeast Texas made of;iEd;;;dii;reau Edwards Plateau ninrflint mightmight-be be examplesexampies ofof inter-regionalintei-Legional trade,ttade, or maymay.have have enteredentered this*ir region*"i", with*iG-banas bands tarin!having a .rreryvery mobile-oliile lifestyle.lifestyle. ThereThere areare fewfew datadata onon inter-regionalinter-regional traderade iiin Texas during these time periods.

There is a possibleoossible exampleexample ofof veryvery long-distancelong-distance tradetrade that might be relatedr-elated- to the.the Latel:rc Archaiceiii,.ii mortuary;6,tur, rradiridntradition discuss6d discussed heie. here. A A largelarge surfacesurface collectioncollection from thethe SmithersSmithers Lakei;k;;il area ;fof Forti;,i BendBind CountyCountv contains a ground stonestone bar amuletamulet ofof aa type made in the mid-west.ia-*.rt duringduring the same time periodperiod as the Late Archaic in SoutheastSoutheast Texas (Patterson(Patterson et al.;i:]g-9lfiild 1995:Figures 29,30).z's,i-oj- Perhapsperhais thisrhis artifactartifact representsrepresents down-t6e-linedown-the-line tradefade from as farfar away as Illinois.Illinois.

INTRA-REGIONALINTRA-REGIONAL TRADE

ThereThere are not many archeological data to show relationships between thethe inlandinland and coastal margin subregions of SoutheastSouth-east Texas.Texas. AtenAten (1983:Table(1983:Table 5.2) has nolednoted some items of margin subregioni of -5.2) _has -some. tradetradE between-thebetween the two subregions, but evidenceevidence isis seldom found at archeological sites, asas manymany ofof thesethese items items must must have h;ve been been perishable perishable materials,materials, suchsuch asas fish,fish, bird bird feathers,feathers, andand sinew.sinei. Aten'sAten's tabulationrabulation of tradetrade items between the two subregionssubregions is mainlymainly basedbased onon ethnographicethnographic references.references. ItIt is notnot known howhow wellwell ethnographicethnographic datadata- cancan bebe extrapolatedextrapolated toto prehistoricprehis'ioric periods. Lithic materialsmaterials were probablyprobably lhethe main importimport into thethe coastalcoastal marginmargin fromirom inland,inland, includingincluding chert,chert, petrifiedpetrified wood,wood, redred ochre,ochre, andand sandstone.sandstone. ItemsItems exportedexported fromfrom thethe coastalcoastal marginmargin subregionsubregion that are visible inin thethe archeologicalarcheological recordrecord includeinclude asphaltasphalt pieces,pieces, sharkshark teethteCih andand stingraystingray spines. MarineMarine shell beadsbeads andand pendantspendants found inin thethe inland subregioniubregion maymay bebe fromfrom intra-regionalintra-regional or inter-regionalinter-regional trade.rade. The small amounts of lithiclithic materialsmaterials foundfound atat coastal margin sites may indicate a low level ofoftrade trade betweenbetween thethe coastalcoastal marginmargin andand inlandinland subregions, oror thatthat odrerother types ofradeof trade materials were involved.

EthnographicEthnographic evidenceevidence demonstratesdemonstrates somesome aspectsaspects ofof prehistoric prehistoric tradetrade patterns. patterns. CabezaCabeza dede VacaVaca (Covey(Covey 1961:66) 196l:66) became became a a trader trader between between coastal coastal margin margin andand inland inland Indians.Indians. HeHe tradedtraded marinemarine shells andand mesquitemesquite beansbeans from thethe coastalcoastal marginmargin toto inland inland IndiansIndians inin exchangeexchange forfor animalanimal skins, skins, red red ochre,ochre, deerdeer tailtail tassels,hssels, andand materials materials forfor arrows,arrows, includingincluding cane,cane, flint,flint, sinew,sinew, and and cement. cement. CabezaCabeza dede Vaca Vaca (Covey (Covey 1961:66) 196l:66) observed observed that that trade trade

717L between Indian groupsgroups inin this region in protohistoricprotohistoric timetime was not frequentfrequent because of continuing hostilities.

There is aa possibilitypossibility thatthat finishedfinished dartdarr points were tradedtraded from the inland subregion to the coastal marginma;gin subiegionsubregion duringduring thethe lateLate Archaic andand Early CeramicCeramic periods.periods. AtAt some coastal marginmar[in sites havingh-aving dartdart-points, points, suchsuch asas 411-11k744lHR74 (th]ke (Duke l98la), 1981a), fewfew lithic flakes were found, and 0rosethose found were not large enough toto indicateindicate thatthat dart points were being manufactured Iocally.locally.

72 CHEPTERCHAPTER 7

SUMMARY ANDAND FUTUREFUTURE RESEARCH

SUMMARY

This volume hashas attemptedattempted to provide a currentcurrent summary ofof information on thethe materialmaterial remains and relatedrelated cuituralcultural asiecS aspects of of prehistoricprehistoric Indians Indians of of SoutheastSoutheast Texas.Texas. ItIt hashas been well establishedestablished thatthat the basic lifestyle waswas thatthat ofof nomadicnomadic hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers for the entire Drehistoricprehistoric Deriod.period. TraitsTraits ofa of a conservativeconservative lifewaylifeway usually associated withwith hunter-gatherershunter-Satherers ireare shown in thethe prehistoricprehistoric archeologicalarcheological recordrecord ofof thisthis region-region. lnIn general, technological chanseschanges occurred onon a gradualgradual basis, a highly scheduled,scheduled, stableshble subsistencesubsistence patternpattern was mairitainedmaintained overover aa veryvery l-onglong time period, andand lherethere werewere onlyonly sporadic.sporadic changeschanges inin social sequences, indicating sche.duled, complexity. ManyMany siiessites havehive veryveiy long long-of occupation occupation sequences, indicating scheduled subsistence panems.patterns. While While scheduling scheduling of resourceresource exploitation exploitation is is shown,shown, detailsdetails of subsistence patternsfanems areare notnot well-known,well-known, because thethe complete prehistoric .dietdiet cannot be reconstructed. ItIt can be demonstrated byby thethe geographicgeographic distributions ofof artifact typestypes- thatthat Southeast Texas was an interfaceinterface betweenbetw6en technologicalte-hnological traditions ofof the SouthernSouthem Plains and the Southeast Woodlands. Some of thethe differencesdifferences inin culturalcultural traits between inlandinland and coastalcoastat margin sites may reflectreflect development tiedtied tolo restrictedrestricted_ territorial usagesusages. Population levellevel seemsseems-to to havehave peaked peiked duringduring thethi EarlyEarly CeramicCeramic period inin.the the inlandinla-nd. subregionsub-region andand then declined duringduring thethe Latelate Prehistoric.kehistoric. On the coastal margin,margin, population leveled-out during the Late Prehistoric.PreEistoric In botlrboth subregions, there there waswas a.a rapidra.pid- increase inin populationpopulation growthsrow6 rate duringduring, the Late Archaic and Early Ceramic periods. [nIn summary, In{iansIndians of thisfii. regionr.eion seem tot;have have hadhad a successful adaptationadaptition overover aa longlong time period. Inln fact, before the adventadient of modernmodern medicinemedicine andand farmingfarming practices,practices, hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers had about the same average lifespan as more civilized populationspopulations of the same time periods.

PrehistoricPrehistoric humanhuman occupation occupation of of Sout}eastSoutheast Texas Texas covers covers a a timespantimespan ofof aboutabout 1.1.,00011,000 to 12,00012.000 years.vears. ThereThere areare'data, data, inin varying degreedegree ofof detail, for all timetime periodsperiods withinwithin thisthis longlong prehistoricprehistoric time interval.interval. OccupitionOccupation sequencessequences cancan bebe followedfollowed on a continuouscontinuous basisbasis inin thistf,ii region.region. TheThe lacklack ofof artifactartifact typestypes thatthat can be used toto definedefine narrownarrow timetime intervalsintervals inin this regionregio,-n isis lamentedlamented by manymany archeologists. However,However, dristhis isis not a realreal obstacle in thethe study ofoif manymany-a topicstopics relatedrelaied toto hunter-gatherers,hunter-gathtrers, becausebecause cultural andand technologicaltechnological change occurredoccuned onon a graduallradual basis. As shownshown inin this this publication, publication, SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas has anan archeologicalarcheological data base thatthat cancan contributecontribute to thethe generalgeneral interpretation interpretation of thethe hunter- hunter- gatherergatherer lifeway.

ThisThis synthesis isis largelylargely historichistoric and descriptive. The generalgeneral aspectsaspects ofof lifeways ofof hunter-hunter- gatherersgatherers can be describeddesciibed inin considerableconsiderable detail,deail, basedbased onon availableavailable archeologicalarcheological andand ethnographicethnographic daadata (Hayden(Hayden l993:Chapters1993:Chapters 5,6). 5,6). However, However, "It"It is is veryvery difficultdiflicult toto makemake universaluniversal lawslaws aboutabout humanhuman behaviorbehavior thatthat are notnot eithereither veryvery trivial,trivial, oror untrue"untrue' (Renfrew(Renfrew andand BahnBahn 1991:416).l99l:416). BecauseBecause ofof the the apparent apparent simplicitysimplicity ofof hunter-gatherer hunter-gattrerer lifeways, thethe generalgeneral publicpublic andand manymany archeologists are usually more interested in more complex formsforms ofof prehistoricprehistoric society.society. SinceSince thethe hunter-gathererhunter-gatherer lifewaylifeway was practicedpracticed for severalseveral millionmillion years,years, while moremore complex lifeways developeddeveloped over the last 10,00010,000 years,years, itit wouldwould seemseem thattlat thethe studystudy ofof hunter-gatherershunter-gatherers is is aa basic consideration in in studystudy ofof the evolutionevolution ofof mankind.mankind.

HaydenIlayden (1993:210)(1993:210).has has proposedproposed thatthat only twotwo majormajor forcesforces havehave beenbeen responsible responsible forfor directionaldirectional changeschanges in in human human adaptations,adaptations, "resource'tesource stress"itress" andand "competition.""competition."'Refrew Refrew andand BahnBahn (1991:406) note,no1e, however, however, thatdrat descriptionsdescriptions ofofspecific specific patternspatterns ofdfevents events areare commoncommon inin archeology,archeology, whilewhile generalization generalization is rare.rare. InIn thisthis synthesis synthesis of of regional regional prehistory, prehistory,

7373 descriptive considerationconsideration of of cultural cultural and and technological technological change change is is given given in in terms terms -of of s-pecific specific descriptive ;;il;;.patterns. in; The Uarii basic r-eeionat regional 1ifeway lifeway ias was establishedturing established during the the Paleo-Indian Paleo-Indian period, period, and and iemainedremained rhe the same same unt-il until historic historic time. time. There There are are few few indications indications of of sudden sudden technologtcal technological or or ;;i;;;i;fi;;.cultural change. ail;;;t Changes in in artifact artifact styles, styles, such such as as dart dart point point tvpes' types, were were not not accompanjed accompanied bvby detectable-detectable chanseichanges inin basicbasic lifeway.lifeway. EvenEven introductionsintroductions of of majormajor newnew technologtes,technologies, ;;;i;;;;;ceramics andir;#; the bow .na and i.to*, arrow, wer6 were gradual gradual and and had had little little effeit effect on on ogterother aspectsaspects ofof regionalregional adapation.adaptation.

PooulationPopulation chanp,e change can can be be studiedstudied with with archeologicalarcheological site site daa data for for thisthis regionregion. -Populalion Population i#ril;;;;i;;3-ro.,density remained low Gtougtoutthroughout thethe Paleo-Indian,Paleo-Indian, larlvEarly Archaic,.andArchaic, and MiddleMiddle ArchaicArchaic ;;;il'r.-Th;;r;eiperiods. The causes ofof rapid"populalionrapid population increaseincrease in in thethe l:teLate ArchaicArchaic and and Early.Early Ceramic IJii"J.periods ri."i,remain io-u. to be explained. PossiblePossible causes causes ofof thisthis rapidrapid population growthgrowth include ;li;;ii"-;i,;il;climatic change una-intr'oductionand introduction"*phinia.' of of the the bowbow andand arrowarrow duringduring the.latethe Late Archaic.period.Archaic period. iooulationPopulation deireasedecrease oror Ieveling-outleveling-out inin subregionssubregions ofof SoulheastSoutheast TexasTexas inin thethe IlteLate PrehrstorrcPrehistoric ;#;i;6;;;iir1"period also remain to U.be eiplfinedexplained inin morideuilmore detail thanthan simplysimply notingnoting thatthat aa patterncxists.pattern exists. iheThe hishhigh oooulationpopulation levellevel ofof thethe EarlyEarly CeramicCeramic periodperiod isis anan importantimportant indicator.ol'adaptrveindicator of adaptive ;;;;.'Sl"rtir.q,;!nisuccess. Subsequent .h.rrreffects ofof overpopulation,overpopulation, iuch such as as change change to to aa moremore mobilemobile 1ifestyle,lifestyle, are lhenthen seen in'thein the lateLate Prehistoric'Prehistoric.

Throuehouttheprehistoryofthisregiontherewereextemalinfluencesontechnology-fromThroughout the prehistory of this region there were external influences on technology from 11;the a;-rr|g-Southern Plainsplfins and theihe SoutheastSouthea-st Woodlands. InIn thethe westemwestern part of Southeast Texas, ;;;;-"fsome of thei;;;;Eiit" projectile pointp"i"t chronologicalChronological sequence forfor Central TeiasTexas cancan bebe seen,seen, startingstarting iri6with lanceolatefrirJ."6ii'a;;;;'"f forms of Paleo-Indianpaleo-lndia-n points,pointi, and progressingprogressing through severalseveral stemmedstemmed r""*types .ia"iiof dart points,iiinL. followedfbtto*ea by thettre ScallornScallom arrowirrow point.jroint. ThroughoutThroughouiSoutheast Southeast Texas,Texas,in in decreasing;1'.;il"s';;;unG amounts iJtt" to the *esl,west, dartdart pointpoint stylesstyles cln.becan be found thatthat are shared with the SoutheastSliiri*iiW""at"ndr. Woodlands. forFor the SoutheastSouthedst WooilandsWoodlands dartdart point styles fou.nd.infound in SoutheastSoutheast Texas,i;;;;. ti;*there is a chronologicalchronolos,icai sequence from side-notched to corner-notched to stemmed types,*il*-'flfii,*"a followed byW AlbaAiU..-"i and CatahoulaCauiroula anowarrow points. In contrast to projectileprojectile point stylesstyles thatiili-i,,,il'[i..ij may have beenud"n-'i"ttoir.ii introduced intointo SoutheastSoutheasi TexasTexas fromfrom adjacent regions,regions,.,the the PerdizPerdiz arrowarro* pointp6int seemssee.s to have started first in SoutheastSoutheast Texas, and then spread to otherolher regionsreglons ofof Texas. Texa: SomeSome lithiclithic artifactarrifact typestypes thatrhat areare associated with traditionstraditions of Centralcentral Texas persist longer !-"lt]:llolc.tI exas lrom inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas.Texas. ItIi'appears appears that a few lithiclithic traitstrais introducedintroduced intointo SoutheastSoutheast Texas from Centralb;;;l Texasi;;;. remained;;;ined'iopulailn popular in Southeast Texas after the end of use of thettre artifact typestvpes in; Central6;ft;ii;;;;. Texas. UseUie ofof'tr,i the ScallornSiallom arrow pointpoint terminatedterminated inin CentralCentral TexasTexas atat aboutabout A.D.A.D. 1200iiod'ti;;;;a (Turner and Hesterij"it"r 1993:230),rsgJ:zjol, Uutbut continuediontinued.in in use inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas untiluntil thethe Historic Indian period. Corner-tangCo11.r-ung bifaces6ifu."t are placedplaced inin thethe Latetate ArchaicArchaic inin CentralCentral TexasTexas Hi;;r);;;iilpoioA'. in the (Turnerii;;; andr"-a HesterriJ.ilirSgg,Ziol 1993:250), U"rit*i-Uienbut have been foundlounA inin Latel:te PrehistoricPrehistoric contextcontext in the WesternWestern ZoneZone ofof SoutheastSoutheast Texas.Texas. from the east PotteryPotterv waswas introducedinroduced intointo SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas. at aboutabout.A A.D. D' 100,100' mainlymainly from the east, rhe norrh. Ii m a y have taken although bone#" J tempered pottery was probably introduceduced fromfrom the north. It may have taken i",ri'Ii,,*r, i!il:-,![ ;;ii.ii;;;;;b"bitl.u"d this region in a western upuo to to 300 3OO years vears for for the t,e use use of irr pottery plftery to to'diffuse. diffuse throughout throughout this region in a western direction,iir#iJr". with the slowri"*iiffrlrii-, diffusion ofbf potterypotl"ty continuingcontinuing downdoiln thethe CentralCentral TexasTexas coast.coast' TheThe functionsfunctioni ofof",it',ir. pottery pottery in in this this regionregion areare notnot wellwell understood.understood' inter-regional long-distance Intra-regionallntra-reeional traderade isis not not well well defineddefined forfor SoutheastSoutheast Texas,Texas, butbut inter-regional long-distance trade can be described in some;#;"irii. detail. Inter-regionall"t.'""e._r,al traderade isis mostmost evidentevident inin the the Late l-ate il:;';?ffi#;i'6#i; Eiotic grave goods were impofled ArchaicArchaic period oeriod in in the rr,. Western w.rt.,ii%,i.-;i Zone of thistffi-;;'gt".i. region. Exotic grave goods were imported from^from several other regions, including corner-tangcorner-tangf bifacesbifaces fromfrom Central Central Texas,Texas, ground sround stone stone ;'rffiijt;r;;i-":i-r,'ii-.i-,iJi,g and marine shell ornaments from objectsobiects fromfrom Arkansas Arkansas and una'io"ftiiru Louisiana tott thetJ northeast,notttt."rt, and marine shell ornaments from unknown][';;# sources.,*i|;]!"*"'Jrfi',ii Some of this long-distanceronE-airt"niJ traderude maymay bebe connected connected withwith the the Poverty Povertv

7474 Point exchangeexchange system. WhileWlrile importsimporS into Southeast Texas can be listed, it isis notnot apparentapparent what exportexport itemsitems werewere involved.involved.

Differences inin adaptationadaptation patternspanerns cancan bebe seenseen forfor the inland and coastal.margincoastal margin subregionssubregions of SoutheastSoutheast Texas.Texai. SimilarSimilir terrestrial faunalfaunal resourcesresources were were exploitedexploited inin both subregions, but different aouaticaquatic faunalfaunal resourcesresources were were utilizedutilized inin the two areas. Coastal margin sites are especially characterizediharacterized by by RangiaRangia shellshell middens,middens, withwith fewfew lithiclithic artifactsartifacs and much Donerv.pottery. Inla;dInland sitessites are charicterizedcharacterized by by manymany lithiclithic artifac6artifacts andand modest amounts ofof botte.vpottery forfor the same time periods.periods. The mobility-settlementmobility-settlement pattern ofof the coastal marginmargin i..r.'toseems to be largely confinehconfined to aa zone about I515 toto 20 miles wide alongalong thethe coastalcoastal margin.margin. Seasonal subsistence rounds are notnot well-defined.well-defined.

Increases inin social complexity occur in this region in aa-sporadic sporadic mannermann-er overover time, largely defined bybv organizedoreanized burial practices. ChangesChanges inin beliefbelief systems and socialsocial organizationorganization ionnecled'*i6connected with greater socialsocial complexity cannot be determined with.availablewith available data. Highly , organizedoig"nir"O buriaTburial practicespractices are are orily only evidentevident in in the.the Latetate ArchaicArchaic in thethe westernwestern inlandinland subregion,iuEi.gion, and inin'the the Latehte Prehistoric,Prehistoric, Proto-Historic, andand HistoricHistoric lndianIndian periodsperiods onon the coastalcoaslal margin in the Galveston Bay area. It isis likelylikely thatthat mostmost culturalcultural and technologicaltechnological ctangeschanges inin this reg.ionregion had.ahad a positivepositive adaptiveui.otir" advantage.u"drantuge. Hunter-gatherer groups groups te-nd tend to to bebe conservativeconservative andand adoptadopt changechange only iittiereif there isis anin advantage.ad""antage. ManyMa-ny raiStraits ofof c6mplexcomplex societiessocieties would have no valuevalue toto hunter-hunter- complex societies, gatherers.g"tt Whil.While hunter-gathererhrni.r-g"therer groups groups are are more more -conservative conservative thanthan complex societies, hunter-gathererf;iniei-gattrerer"r"o. groups groups ari are more more flixibie flexible to to makemake ad-aptiveadaptive changechange thanthan complex complex societies,societies, because6".r*""t hunter-gatherer urt"r-fattrirer groups groups do do notnot maintainmaintain sophisticated sophisticated logistic logistic systemssystems or multiple levels ofof management.management.

Certain Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian and and Early Early Archaic Archaic projectile projectile point point types types made made of of exotic lithiclithic materials appearappear to to bebe outliersoutliers- in this regionregion fromfrom adjacentadjacent .regions-regions. TheseThese. pointq9i1t typestlPJs include Clovis, Folsom,Folsom, Midland,Midland, and Dalton ofof the Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indiqn pgrr,gd,period, and.Bell^ofand Bell of thethe EarlyEarlv Archaic period.beriod. TheseThese point typestypes may represent groups groups with with highly highly mobilemobile lifewayslifeways occasionallyoccaiionallv enteringeriterins SoutheastSoutheast Texas,Teiis, inter-regionalinter-regional trade, oror individuals from one bandband iriningjoining anoiheranother band.band. ItIt isis significantsignificant thatthat mostmost projectileprojectile poinspoints mademade ofof exoti-cexotic materials,materials,- iuchsuch asis EdwardsEdwards Plateau chert,chert, havehave beenbeen foundfound atat sitessites that alsoalso contain other types of points made of moremore locallocal materials,materials, althoughalthough possiblepossible culturalcultural contacts are not clear. It is especiallyLspecially notnot clearclear whatwhat significancesignificance thethe geographicgeographic distribution ofof Clovis pointspoins hashas inin thisthis region.region. ThereThere isis aa largelarge concentration of ClovisClovis pointspoints inin thethe McFaddinMcFaddin BeachBeach areaarea nearnear Beaumont,Beaumont, and only a few ClovisClovis pointspoints atat otherother sites, mainlymainly inin thethe CentralCentral Zone of thisthis region.region. No ClovisClovis pointspoins havehave beenbeen foundfound soso farfar inin thedre WesternWestern Zone of SoutheastSoutheast Texas.

AA broad-basedbroad-based huntinghunting and gathering lifewaylifeway started veryvery early in thisthis region,region, normallynormally withwith aa scheduledscheduled subsistencesubsistence patternpattem and restrictedresricted mobility, compared to concurrent highly mobilemobile Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian groups of thethe SouthernSouthern Plains, such as FolsomFolsom andand Midland.Midland. PresentPresent datadata indicatesindicates thatthat the broad-basedbroad-based hunting andand gatheringgathering lifewaylifeway startedstaned in thisthis regionregion betweenbetween 11,00011,000 andand 10,00010,000 yearsyears ago,ago, withwith aa varietyvariety ofofside-notched side-notched projectileprojectile pointspoins beingbeing associatedassociated withwith thisthis typetype ofof adaptation.adaptation. With the possible exception of thethe McFaddinMcFaddin BeachBeach area,area, there is littlelittle evidenceevidence thatthat hunting ofof nownow extinctextinct typestypes ofof megafauna, megafauna, suchsuch asas mammoth,mammoth, was everever a principalprincipal subsistence pattern inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas.Texas. SomeSome evidence forfor huntinghunting extinct megafauna may may nownow be underwater,underwater, due due toto risingrising seasea level afterafter thethe Pleistocene,Pleistocene, butbut therethere is littlelittle evidenceevidence forfor thisthis typetype ofof hunting hunting inin the lhe currentcurrent landland areaarea of SoutheastSoutheast Texas.Texas.

DeterminingDetermining details of thisthis lifewaylifeway cancan bebe rather rather complex,complex, duedue toto thethe partialpartial naturenature of thethe data,data, andand therethere areare seldomseldom conclusiveconclusive answers. answers. Archeological Archeological researchreseaich hashas made made rapid rapid

7575 progressprogress inin Southeast TexasTexas inin thethe lastlast 2020 yers,years, fromfrom aa smallsmall archeologicalarcheological da.a data basebase toto bec6mingbecoming oneone of the best reported andand publishedpublished regions regions of of Texas.Texas. Hopefully, Hopefully, thethe present raterate of of siGsite publicationpublication willwill continue.continue.

FUTUREFUTURE RESEARCHRESEARCH

ThereThere areare severalseveral areasareas forfor futurefuture researchresearch that that are are obvious. obvious. NotNot allall areasareas ofof this region areare well-surveyed,well-surveyed, andand thisthis subjectsubject shouldshould bebe givengiven priority. AA more representativerepresentative sample sample of of atlall archeol6giialarcheological resources in in this region iiis needed. Survey should include recordingrecording and pubtishinepublishing 1f of moremore surface surface collectionscollections (Story(Story 1990:365).1990:365). Unfortunately,Unfortunately, manymany ircheolog'istsarcheologists are not interested in lhethe researchresearch potentialpotential of of surfacesurface collections.collections. One major excavati;nexcavation reportreport for for a a sitesite in thisthis regionregion diddid notnot eveneven referencereference previouslypreviolsly publishedpublished surface colleitionscollections for for thethe site.site. More sites should be publishedpublished asas well asas recorded. recorded. Unpublished site site reportsreports areare seldomseldom adequateadequate for for researchresearch use. use. MoreMore excavations ofof stratified sites,sites, andand ielatedrelated radiocarbonradiocarbon daies dates are are needed needed to to refine refine thethe chronologieschronologies ofof artifact types.types. The explanatoryexplanatory frameworkframework (theory) (theory) of of archeological daa-data shouldshould be continuousiycontinuously refined.refined. unfortunately,Unfortunately, there there does does not not seem seem toto be.much.be much generalgeneral. interest in regional synthesis, which should bebe aa basicbasic goal. goal. It maymay bebe seenseen inin variousvarious sectionssections ofof this regional synthesis, which should -It re[ortreport thaithat therethere aieare manymany subjectsubject ar"fsareas openopen toto futurefuture research.research. Archeological Archeological research in SoutheastSdutheast TexasTexas has thethe- potentialpotential'societies, of makingmaking basicbasic contributionscontributions to thethe descriptiondescription and theory of hunter-gathererhunter-gatherer societies,including including lifeways.and- lifeways and culturalcultural change. change. The The goal goal ofof processual archeologyarcheology toto explain why technological and cultural changeschanges occuroccur iSis seldom possible,bossible, however.-Explanitionhowever. Explanation and and theory theory building building should should be be closely closely tiedtied toto thethe archeologicalircheotogical datadata basebase or6r the effort can be a futile gesture. In regard toto researchresearch onon specificspecific subjects,subiects,-priority priority shouldshould be given toto subjectssubjects where suitablesuiable data are available, instead of simplysim-ply usingusing aa "laundry"laundry list" ofof topics.

Traditionally,Traditionallv. archeolosicalarcheological researchresearch inin Texas has beenbeen divideddivided alongalong arbitrary arbitrary regionalregional lines,lines, forfor conveniencec5nvenience indand becausebecause each regionregion does havehave somesome culturalcultural differences.differences. At somesomi pointpoint in in time, time, archeological archeological researchresearch in!n Texas T9xa,s should should concentrate concentrate onon- larger larger geographicseosraohic areas,areas. such as Story (1990) hashas done forfor all of EastEast Texas.Texas. ManyMany researchresearch topics canil"tni, only bebe addressedaddrlssed inin anan adequateadequate mannermanner if largelarge landland areasareas are considered, surpassingsurpassing regionsi.eioni'within within aa state state and and even ev;n state state boundaries. boundaries. ArcheologicalArcheological synthesessyntheses forfor largelarge geographicn""."*OtriC areas remains aa futurefuture goal, becausebecause datadata gapsgaps areare present,present, and becausebecause datadata for regionsiegiioni areare not"r*sremains often well-organized..well-organized..

ThroughoutThroushout this svnthesis.synthesis, topics for future research havehave beenbeen mentioned-mentioned. AA few examples include:h;i;;!, betterffi;i;ufr-ivJoi'rt"'piney surveys of the piney woodswoods andand allall ofof thethe EasternEastern ZoneZone toto definedefine adaptationsadaplations toi;;i,il;;;Gi"ai various ecological areas,ai*as, developmentd'eveiopment of aa betterbetter definitiondefinition of thethe mobility-settlementmobility-settlement patterns.rti"-. of thetf," coastalt margin,,urein, moremore datadata to develop models on trade and socialsocial complexity,complexity, andfi;i;';il;;tGd a more"f detailed""-.rt picture;i;tf; of6f thethe earliestearliest Paleo-Indianpaleo-indian adaptationsadaprations in thisrhis region.region..while While increasingi""r*rinn thett. archeologicalarcheoiogical datadaa basebase isis stillstill important,important, moremore attentionanention shouldshould bebe givengrv€n toto explicit problem orientediriirlEJii,r*i.h research related toto asiectsaspects oi,regionalof regional synthesis. The resultsresults ofof #ili;';r;6i; prehrstory. individuali"ii"iarii sitesite reportsreports mustmust besg integratedintegrated to obtain aa goodgood view ofof regionalregional prehistory. Much of thethe archeological archeological workwork inin thethe U.S., U.S., including including Texas, isis currently fundedfunded and Much of .Texas, ^currently, 'and controlled bybv culturalcultural resourcerisour"e lawslaws andand regulationsregulations forfor clearanceclearance ofof construction construction projectsProjects onII'ffii[il'tt.'ffit"""ilti"a private lands. This isil;;i;;;itv primarily a bureaucraticurt&u"t"tic processprocess orientedoriented towardtoward locationslocations ofof modern;;iil;";fi;ii",i'ii,-"i1Js, construction projects, ratheri"tt dr than" oriertedoriented toward archeologicalarcheological research Soals-goals. AsAs 'Sil*'?l canied o^ut to Story (1990:365)S9O,3OS) observes obsirves "Intensive ';int"t siue archeologicalarcheological surveyssurv-eys andand.tesS tests carried out to meet-meet CRM laws and mandates, on thett* whole,*hol., are producingpro-ducing relativelyrelatively littlelittle usefuluseful information."information.' aiifr i.*;J;.-"aut"i, lrnoe GovernmentGou"-,,"rt directiondirection isii an",an inadequate inadequate"r. wayway toJo conduct c-onduct archeological archeologlcal research. research' Since archeologicali',Itii,iiillir.r*rini. clearance isi onlyonrir"quired required forfor federallyfederally permittedpermitted projectsprojecs onon private private lands, lands,

7676 only a small portionportion of archeologicalarcheological resourcesresources on privateprivate lands is addressed byby the CRM proless.process. FutureFuture regionalregional research research could could be be improvedimproved by: by: (l)(1) establishingestablishing aa goodgood ircheologicalarcheological survey group, independent ofof the culturalcultural resourceresource clearance process _andand directed byby acadeririCacademic institutions,institutions, and and (2) (2) byby developing aa larger body of.seriousof serious avocationaiavocational archeologists who do researchresearch on privateprivate lands not addressedaddressed otherwise, ,andand who dodo muchmuch sitesite discovery, discovery, andand mostmost ofof the lhe recording recording andand publishing publishing of surfacesurface collections. Establishment ofof horemore locallocal archeological societies should be promoted.promoted' The Texas Archeological StewardshipStewardship Network Network of of the the Office Office of of Orethe StateState ArcheologistArcheolo-8ist is another methodmethod ofof obUiningobtaining increased coveragecoverage ofof archeological resources. ArcheologicalArcheological resources onon private lands areare being rapidly destroyed byby erosion and modern activities, and all availableavaila[le resources of both professionalpiofessional and avocational archeologists are needed to minimize this loss. PreservationPreservation of archeological site datadata cannot be accomplished by more laws and regulationsregulations that restrict landland use.use. Only activeactive archeological researchresearch and survey programs arEare appropriateappropriate to to obain obtain the the best best possible possible sample sample ofarcheologicalof archeological resources.

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1976bl9?6b The The Catahoula calahogla Projectile Projectile Point, Poing A A Distributional Dstributiorul Study.Study. LouisianaLouisiaru ArchaeologyArchaeology 3:217-2233:217-223

1977l9Z7 A DiscussionA Discussion of PossibleofPossible Asiatic Asiatic Influences Inlluences on on Texas Texas Pleistocene Pleistocene Lithic Li0fc Technology. Technology. Bulletin Bullctin of of the the TexasTexas Archeological Archcological Society Society 48:27-45 48:27-45

87a7 1979a1979a AA ReviewReview ofof therhe PrehistoryPrehistory of the Upper TexasTexas Coasl Coast BulletinBulletin ofof tlrethe Texas Texas tucheoloS,ical Archeological Society Society 50:103-12350:103-123 l9?9b1979b LithicLithic ProcurementProcurernent StrategiesSFalcBies inin HarrisHarris Co., Co., Texas. Texas. Horston Houston Archeological Archeological Society Society Newsletler Newsletter 64:2-s64:2-5 l9?9c1979c ExperimentalExperimenul HeatHeat Treating ofof FlintFlint LaIa TiermTierra 6( 6(1):11-13 I ): I l- 13

1979d1979d ArcheologicalArcheological SurveysSurveys andand SettlementSettlemcnt PatternsPatlerns onon lhethe Upper Upper Texas Texas Coast Coast Houslon Houston ArcheoloS,icalArcheological SocietySociety NewslenerNewsletter 65:2'665:2-8

1979e Limitations LimitatioN inin UsesUses ofofllrge Large PrismaticPrismatic Blades.Blades. LithicLithic Technology Technology E(l):3-5 8(1):3-5

1980a The The Owen Owen Site, Site,4lHR3l5: 41HR315: AA Long lrng Occupation Occupation SequenceSequence inin HarrisHanis County'County, Texas.Texas. HotlstonHouston Archeological Society, Report No.No. 3

I98Ob1980b Significance Significance of of Dart Dafl PointPoint StemStem Breakage.Brekagc. BulletinBulletin ofof thethe Texas Texas Archcological Archeological Society Society 5l 51:309-316 :309-316

(eds.), 1980c 41HR206, 4 tHR206, A A Major Major Site Sire in in Harris Hanis County,county, Texas.Texas. inin L.L. Highley andand T.R. Hester (eds.), Papers onon the ArchaeologyArchaeology of the Texas coasl,Coast, pp.pp. l3-27,13-27, SpecialSp€cial Report No.No. 11,I l, Center forfor Archaeological ResearctLResearch, University ofTexasof Texas at San Antonio

1981al9Ela Fracture Fracture ForceForce Changeschanges fromfrom HeatHeat Treating and EdgcEdge Grinding.Grinding. FtintknappclsFlintknappees Exchange Exchange 4(3):6-94(3):6-9

1981blgElb A A Cheri. Chen CobbleCobble FlakingFlaking ExperimentExperiment Lah Tierra 8(4):29-348(4):29-34

1981cl98lc OCS OCS Prehistoric Prehistoric SiteSite DiscoveryDscovery Difficulties.Dfficulties. JournalJounral of FicldField ArchaeologyArchaeology a:231'2328:231-232

1981dlgEld Paleoindian Paleoindian LithicLithic TechnologyTechnology andand NewNew AssociatedAssociated DatesDaEs forfor SiteSitc 41ME3.4lME3. Lata Tierra E(l):23'268(1):23-26

1982l gE2 Initial Initial Employment Employment of of the the Bow Bow and and Arrow Arrow in in Southern Southem NorthNoflh America.America. LaLa TierraTiena 9(2):l9(2):18-26 E-26

19831983 Prehistoric Prehistoric Settlement Settlemcnt and and Technological Technological Patterns Pattcrns inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas. Bulletin of thelhe Texas ArcheologicalArcheological Society 54:253-26954:253-269

19841984 Experimental Experimental Meat Meat Cutting Cutting withwith StoneStone Tools.Tools Latl TierraTierra 11(3):17-20I l(3):17-20

1985a1985a A A Long Long Occupation Occupation Sequence Sequcnce at at Site Site 41HR182, 4lHRl82, HarrisHaris Co.,Co., Texas.Texas. HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological SocietySociety JournalJounal El:81:11-20 I t-20

1985b1985b Distinguishing Distinguishing Between Berwe€n Arrow Arrow and and Spear Spear Points PoinS onon the the UpperUpper TexasTexas Coast.Coast LithicLithic TechnologyTechnolory I4(2):81-89l4(2):El-89

1986al986a Site Site 41HR571, 4lHR57l, A ALong Long Prehistoric Prehistoric Sequence Sequence in in Harris Harris Co.,Co., TexasTexas HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological SocietySociety JournalJoumal 85:15-1885:I5-l E

1986b1986b Fired Fned Clayballs Clayballs in in Southeast Soulheast Texas. Texas. La I: TierraTierra 13(4):20-2213(4):20'22

1986c1986c Prehistoric prehistoric Population Poputation Dynamics Dynamics of of Southeast Southeast Texas. Texas. BulletinBulletin ofof thethe TexasTexas ArcheologicalArcheological SocietySociety 57:117-12157:117-l2l

for 198719E7 Problems Problems in inthe fhe Current Currenf Policy Policy and and Administration Administration ofof Cultural Cultural Resources.Resources. AmericanAmerican SocietySociety for ConservationCorservation ArchaeologyArchaeolory ReportRepo( 14(1):9-19l4( I ):9-19

8888 l98Ea1988a RadiocarbonRadiocarbon DatesDatcs fromfrom 41FB37,4 I F837, FortFort BcrdBend County, Texas.Texas. HoustonHouston ArcheologicatArcheological SocietySociety Jouma.lJournal 9t:2G21 91:20-21 lgtEb1988b IntergroupIntergroup ConflictConllid inin PrehistoricPrehistoric Texas.Texas. HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological SocietySociety Journal 90:8- 90:8-10 10 l9t9a1989a A A Data Dala BaseBase for for Inland Inland SoutheastSouthsst Texas Archeolory.Archeology. Houston ArcheologicalArcheological Society, Report No.No. 66 l9E9b1989b An An Archeological Archeological DataData Base Base for for the the Southeastern Southeastern Texas Coastal Margin. HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological Society, Report No.No. 77 l9E9c1989c Determination Determination ofof Central Central Texas Prehistoric TimcTime Periods.Periods. Texas Texas Archcology Archeology 33(2):7-t33(2):7-8

1989dl9E9d Early Early Notched Notched ProjectileProjectite PointsPoins inin Texas.Texas. CurrentCunent ResearchResearch inin hethe Pleistocenc Pleistocene 6:34-366:34-36

1989el9t9e Early Early Dates Date.s forfor thethe PedernalesPederna.les PointPoint hLa Ticrra Tierra l6( 16(0:28-30 I ):2t-30

1989f1969f Chronological Chronological Placement Placement of of Late l-ale Archaic Alchaic and and Early Early CeramicCerdmic DartDafl Points in SoutheastSoutEast Texas. Houston Archeological Society JournalJourul 9494:14-15 : I 4- I 5

1989gl9E9g Additional Additional Comments coruncnts onon Fired Fired Clayballs.clayballs. Houston Archeological Societysociety Journal)owral94:24-26 94:24-26

I989h1989h Evidence Evidence in in Southeast southest Texas Texas of of the the Poverty Poverty PointPoint ExchangeEichanS,c System.syslem. LouisianaLouisiana ArchaeologicalArchacological Society Newsletter 16(1):10-12I 6(l ): lGl 2

1990a Interactions Interactions Between Between Indians Indians of of the tlre Southern Southem PlainsPlains andand thethe SoutheastSoutheast Woodlands.Woodlands. Lala TierraTierp 17(3):26-3117(3r:2631

1990b Relationships Retatiorships of of Certain certain Dart Dan PointPoint TypesTyPes inin SoutheastsouthcastTexas. Texas. Houston Archeological Society JournalJounul96:l-4 96:1-4

1990cl99Oc Characteristics Characteristics ofof Bifacial Bifacial ReductionRcduction FlakeFlake SizeSizc Distribution.Dstribution. AmericanArncrican Antiquity 55(3):55G55t55(3):550-558

1990d1990d Excavations Excavations at at the rhe J.D. J.D. Wellswells Sitesite (41HR639),(41HR639), HarrisHarris Co.,co., Texas.Tcxas. HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological Societysociety JournalJournal 97:97:1-7 l -7

1990e1990e The The Distribution Dstribution of of Coastal CoasU.l Margin Margin Pottery Pottcry TypesTyPes inin SoutheastSouthcast Texas. HoustonHouston ArcheologicalAlcheological SocietySociety JournalJournal 97:97:14-19 14-19

1990fl99of The The Seaberg Seaberg Collection Collection (41HR641,642), (41t1R641,642), Harris Haris Co.,Co., Texas. Texas. Houston Houslon ArcheologicalArcheological SocietySociety JournalJounul 98:12-2198:12-21

1990g19909 Additional Additional Data Dara from from Site Site 41111U 4lHRl82, 82, HarrisHarris Co.,Co., Texas.Texas. HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological SocietySociety Journal Jounul 96:15-2096:15-20

1990h1990h The The Archeology Archeology of of Inland lnland Southeast Southeast Texas: Texas: A A Quantitative Quantilative Study.Study. BulletinBulletin ofof thethe TexasTexas ArcheologicalArcheological SocietySociety 61:255-2806l :255-2E0

199IaI 99 I a Relationships Relationships of of Early Early Notched Notched Point Point Types Types in in Southeast Southeast Texas Texas and and the 0rc Greater Greater SoutheastSoutheast Woodlands.Woodlands. HoustonHouslon ArcheologicalArcheological SocietySociety JournalJounal 100:14-20

1991bl99lb Dart Dafl Point Point Chronologies Chronologies in in Southeast Southeast Texas.Texas. HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological SocietySociety JournalJounal 101:1-5l0l:l-5

1991cl99lc Arrow Arrow Point Point Chronologies Chronologies in in Southeast Souiheast Texas. Texas. Houston Houston ArcheologicalArcheological Society Society Journal Jounal 101:6-11l0l:6-l I

8989 l99ld1991d TheTlrc Albany-EdgefieldAtbany-Edgeficld HaftedItafted Scraper. The The Chcsopiean Chesopiean 29(2):7-13 29(2):7-13

l99le1991e Mobility-SettlementMobility-setuement PatternsPatGrns and Popu.lationPopulation Dynami6Dynamics ofof InlandInland soulhezstSoutheast Texas. Texas. Houslon Houston Archeologica.lArcheological SocietySociety JounalJournal 99:1621 99:16-21

l99lf1991f TheThe RoleRole ofof the fie AvocationalAvocational inin RegionalRegional Archeology. Houston ArchcologicalArcheological Society JournalJoumal 100:100:1-5 I -5

1992a CurrentCurrent DataData on Early Use of the Bow andand ArrowArow in SouthernSouthem North America.America. LaLa Tierra Tierra l9(4):615 19(4):6-15

1992b1992b Prehistorickehistoric BisonBison inin Southeastsoutheast Texas. Houston ArchcologicalArcheological SocietySociety Journal 102:14-19102:14-19

1992c The The Tucker Tucker Collection,Collection, Prehistorichehistoric Sites inin Nacogdoches,Nacogdoches, Texas.Texas. HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological SocietySociety Jouma.lJournal 103:16-23103:16-23

1993 The The Boundary Boundary Between Betueen Inland Inland and and Coastal Coastal MarginMargin SettlementSettlement PatternsPattems inin Southeast Texas.Texas. HoustonHouston ArcheologiArcheological cal Society Journal 107:107:14-18 l4-l t

1994a Identification Identificatjon ofof UnifacialUnifacial ArrowAnow Points.Points. Houston Archeological Society JoumalJournal 108:19-24108:19-24

1994bI994b Prismatic prismatic BladesBlades andand UnifacialUnifacial Arrow Points from 4lHRl84.41HR184. Houston ArcheologicalArcheological Society Journal I110 l0

1994c A A Proto-Historic proto-Historic Date Dale atat 41HR206,4IHR2O6, HarrisHarris Co., Texas. Houston Archeological Society JournalJounal I110 l0

1995a Bibliography Bibliogmphy of of the the Prehistory Prchistory ofof thethe UpperUpper Texas Coast, No. 9. Houston Archeological Society, SpecialSpccial Publication

1995b1995b The The Archeology Archeology ofof Southeast Southcast Texas.Texas. BulletinBulletin ofof thethe Texas Archeologica.lArcheological socletySociety 66:.239-26y'i66:239-264

Patterson,Pattersol! L.W.L.W. andand W.M.W.M Black 1991l99l Prehistoric hchistoric Site Site 41FI390, 4lFB9O, Fort Fort Bend Bend Co.,Co., Texas.Texas. HoustonHouston ArcheologicalAlcheological SocietySociety JournalJounal 99:22-24

Patterson,Patterson, L.W., W.M. Black,Blaclq W.L.W.L. McClure,Mcclure, R.R. Storey,Storcy, S.S. PatrickParick 1993b1993b Excavations Excavations atat the the Bowser Bowscr Site,Site, 41FB3, 4l FB3, Fort Fort BendBcrd County,County, Texas.Texas. ReportReport No. 9, HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological SocietySociety

Patterson,Panenoq L.W. andand C.R.C.R. EbersoleEbersole 19921992 Site Site 41CH290, 41cH290, A AMulti-Component Mulri-component Shell shell Midden, Middcrr Chambers chambers Co.,co., Texas.Tcxas. HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological SocietySociety JournalJournal 102:25-29102:25'29

Patterson,Pa[ersoq L.W.L.W. andand K.M.KIU. GardnerGarfuer 19931993 Additional Additional Rangia Rangia Seasonality seasonality Studies. studies. Houston Houslon ArcheologicalfucheoloSical Societysociety JournalJoumal 105:28-30105:28-30

Patterson,Parerso& L.W., RL. Gregg,Gregg, andand J.D.J.D. HudginsHudgins Betd 1995t995 The The Buller iuller and and McDole McDole Archeological Archeological Collections, Collectiom, Fort Fort Bend Bend County, County, Texas. Texas. Fort Fort Bend ArcheologicalArcheological Society,Society, ReportRePo( No,No, 1 I

Patterson,Pattenorl L.W.L.W. andand J.D.J.D. HudginsHudgins Archcological Society 1980l9E0 Precerarnic Preceramic Sites Sites 41WH2 4lwH2 and and 41WH7, 4lWH7, Wharton Wharton Co.,Co., Texas. Texas. HoustonHouston Archeological Society NewsletterNewsletter 66:34-3966:34-39

Archeological Society 1985l9E5 Paleoindian Patcoindian Occupations Occupations in in Wharton Wlurton County, County' Texas. Texas Bulletin Bu'llctin ofof the the TexasTexas Archeological Society 56:155-17056:155-170

9090 l9E61986 Test Test Excavations Excavations atat Sitesite 41FB34,4l F834, Fort Fort BendBend Co.,co., Texas.Texas. Houston archeological cheological Society JounulJournal t5:85:1-7 l-7

1987a1987a TestTest ExcavationsExcavations atat Site 41FB37,4lFB3?, FortFon BendB€nd Co., Texas. Houston ArcheologicalArcheological Society JourrulJournal 88:l-t88:1-8

l9E7b1987b TestTesr ExcavationsExcavations atal Sitesile 41FB32,4lFB32, FortFon Bend Co.,co., Texas. HorElonHouston ArchcologicalArcheological Society JournalJourul 87:12-1987:12-19

l9E7c1987c The The KonvickaKonvicka CollectionCollection (41FB95),(4lFB95), Fort Foa BendBerd Co.,Co., Texas.Texas. Houston ArcheologicalArchcological Society JournalJoumd 89:l89:11-18 l-lE

lgEt1988 Archeological Archeological Sites Sires in in the the Damon, Damo4 TexasTexas Area.Arca HoustonHouslon ArcheologicalArchcological Society Jounal92:lGI4Journal 92:10-14

1989a Excavations E(cavations atat SiteSiE 41WH12,4lWHl2, WhartonWharton Co., Texas.Tcxas. Houston Archeological Society JournalJoumal95:l-l 95:1-11 I

l9Egb1989b Indian Indian ComponentComponent ofof Sitesile 41WH40,4lwH40, Whartonwhaflon Co.,co., Texas. HoustonHouslon Archeological SocietySociety JournalJournal 95:lE-2295:18-22

1989cI989c A A Late tlE Prehistoric Prehistoric Sitesire (41FB43),(4lFB43), Fort Fort BendBend Co.,Co., Texas.Texas. HoustonHouston Archeological Societysociety JournalJounal 93:25-26

1989d Prehistoric Prehistoric SiteSite 4IWH36,4lWH36, Wharton Whaflon Co.,Co., Texas.Texas. HoustonHouston Archeologicalfucheological Society JournalJounal 94:16-1994:16-19

1990 An An Additional Additional Radiocarbon R diocarbon Date Date for for 41WH12.4lwHl2. HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological Society JournalJoumal9t:29-30 98:29-30

1991l99l The The George George S. S. Rhemann Rhemann Collection,collectioq 41FB198,4lFBl98, Fort Fon BendBend Co.,co., Texas.Texas. HoustonHouston ArcheologicalAlcheoloSical Society JournalJournal 99:25'2999:25-29

19921992 Excavations Excavations at at Site Sile 41WH73, 4lWH73, Wharton WlEIton Co.,Co., Texas.Texas. HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological SocietySocicty JournalJoumal 104:1-104:l' I0t0

Patterson,PattersorL L.W.,LW., J.D.J.D. Hudgins,Hudgins, R.L.R.L. Gregg,Grcgg, andand W.L.W.L. McClureMcClure 1987l9E? Excavations Excavations at at Site Site 41WH19, 4l WH 19, Wharton Wharton County, County, Texas.Texas. HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological Society,Society, ReportRepo( No. 44

Patterson,Patlerson, L.W., J.D. Hudgins,Hudgirs, R.L. Gregg,Grcgg, S.M.S.M. Kindall,Kindall, W.L.W.L. McClure,McClue, and R.W. NeckNeck 1993a1993a Excavations Excavations at at the the Ferguson Ferguson Site,Sile, 41FB42,4lFB42, FortFort BendBend County,County, Texas.Texas. HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArchcological Society,Society, ReportReport No. 10l0

Patterson,Patterson, LW.,L.W., J.D.J.D. Hudgins,Hudgins, W.L.W.L. McClure,McClure, S.M.S.M. Kindall,Kinda.lt andand R.L.RL. GreggGregg 19941994 Excavations Excavations at atthe the Joe Joe Davis Davis Site, Site, 41FB223, 41F8223, Fort Fort Bend Bend County, County, Texas.Texas. HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological Society,Society, Report Report No.No. 11 I I

Patterson,PattersorL L.W.,L.W., J.D.J.D. Hudgins,Hudgins, andand S.S. SebesiaSebesla 19941994 The The Kochi KoeN Site, Site, 41CD127, 4lCDl27, Colorado Colorado Co., Co., Texas. Texas. Houston Houston Archeological Archeological SocietySociety Journal Jounal 108:10-17106:lGl7

Patterson,Patt€Eorr LW.,L.W., C.R. C.R. Ebersole Ebersole andard S.M.S.M. Kindall Kindal 1991l99l Rangia Rangia Shellfish Shelllish Utilization: Utiliz:ation: Experimental Expcrirnenlal Studies. Studies. Houston Houston Archeological Archeological Society Society Journal Journal 101:26-l0l:26. 2929

9191 PattccoLPatterson, L.W., L.W., J.D. J.D. Lockwood, Lockwood, R.L.R.L. GreggGregg andand S.M. S.M. KindatlKindall I 1992a992a TheThe LockwoodLockwood CollectionCollection (4111R343),(4 I HR34 3), HarrisHarris Co.,Co., Texas.Texas. HoustonHouston ArchcologicalArcheological Society JounalJournal lO4:16-24104:16-24

1992b1992b PrehistoricPrehistoric Sitessiles 41HR354,41HR354,739 730, 731,731,732, 732, HarrisHarris Co., Texas. HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological SocietySociety Jouma.lJournal 104:25-30 104:25-30

Pattcno&Patterson, L.w.,L.W., K. MarriotlMarriott andand L. MarioEMarriott ' l99O1990 Site Site 41HR624, 4l HR624, Another Another Long Long Sequence Sequence inin HarrisHarris Co., Texas. Houston ArcheologicalArcheological SocietySociety JoumalJournal 96:21-26 96:21-26

Patrcrson,Patterson, L.W.L.W. andand IU.A.M.A. MaEhallMarshall 19891989 Some Some Archeological Archeologica.l Sites Sites on on Upper Upper San San Jacinto Jacinto Bay.Bay. HoustonHouston Archeological Society JournalJoumal 94:l-t94:1-8

Pa[eEor\Patterson, L.W.L.W. andand J.B.J.B. SollbergerSollberger l97E1978 Replication Replication and and Classification Classification ofofsmall Small SizeSizE LithicLithic Debitage.Dcbita8e. Plains AnttuoPologisl23(80):103-lAnthropologist 23(80):103-112 l2

Pearsor!Pearson, C.EC.E. lgtE1988 Evaluation Evaluation of ofPrehistoric Prehistoric Site Sire Preservation Preservation onon the the Outer Ouler ContinentalContincntal Shelf: Sabine Riverfuvcr Area,Are4 Offshore Texas. in P. Wheat andand R.L. R.L. Gregg Gregg (eds.)' (eds.), AA CotlectionCollection ofof PapcrsPapers ReviewingReviewing the ArcheologSrArcheology of SoutheastSoutheast Texas. HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological Society'Society, ReportReport No No. 5,pp'26-345, pp. 26-34

Perlman,Perlnuq S. 1980l98O An An Optimum Optimum Diet Diet Model, Model, Coastal CoasEl Variability, Variability, and and Hunter-Gatherer Hunter-Gatherer Behavior. In M. SchilferSchiffer (ed'),(ed.), AdvancesAdvanccs in ArchaeologicalArchaeological Theory and Mcthod,Method, Vol.Vol. 3, AcademicAcadcmic Press

Perttula,Pertn a T. 1992 The The Early Early 19th lgth Century Century Archeology Archeology of of the the Alabama-Coushatta Atabama-Coushatla Indianslndiaff in Texas. Heritage l0(2):2G10(2):20- 24

Pfeiffer,PfeilIer, J.E.J.E. 19821982 The The Creative Cretive Explosion. Explosion. Harper Harper andand Row, New YorkYork

Pope,Popc, S.T.S.T. 19741974 Bows Bows and and Arrows. Arrows. University UniveBity of of California Califomia Press, Prcss, BerkelyBerkely

Powell,Powell, J.F.J.F. Bulletin of the Texas 1988lggg Stress Stress and and Survival: Suvival: Models Models of of Adaptive Adaptive Success Success in in the the Texas Texas Late llte Prehistoric. Prehistoric. Bulletin of the Texas ArcheologicalArcheological SocietySociety 249-266249'26

19901990 Health Healft Status sratus and and Medical Medical Disorders Dsorders atat the the Caplencaplen Sitesile (41GV1),(4lGvl), GalvestonGalveston County,county, Texas.Texas. HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheologicat SocietySociety JournalJoumal 98:22-28

19941994 Bioarchaeological Bioarchaeological Analyses Analyses of ofHuman Human Skeletal Skeletal remains remairu fromfrom thethe MitchellMitchell RidgeRid8e Site.site. in RA.RA' Ridge Ricklis,Ricktis, AboriginalAboiginal LifeLife andand CultureCutture on the Upper Texas Coast ArchaeologyArchaeology atat thethe MitchellMilcheU Ridge Inc' Site,Sile,4icv66, 4IGV66, Galveston Galveston Island,Island, pp.pp. 287-405,287-405, Coastal Coasral Archaeological Archaeological Research,Researclq Inc.

Prewitt,Prewiu, E.R.ER - -198i Society 52:65-89 1981 CulturalCultural Chronology Chronology in in Central Central Texas.Texas. Bulletin B,Iletin ofof thethe TexasTexas ArcheologicalArcheological Society 52:65-89

1983lg83FromCirclevilletoToyah:CommentsonCentralTexasChronologyBulletinoftheTexas From Circleville to Toyah: Comments on Central Texas Chronology. Bulletin of the Texas ArcheologicalA rcheol ogical SocietySociety 54:201-23854:201-23E

9292 Price,Price, T.D T.D andand J. J. A. A. Brown Brown (eds.) (eds.) l9E51985 Prehistoric Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers: Hunter-Ga0erers: TheThe EmergcnceEmergence ofof SocialSocial Complexity.Complexity. AcademicAcademic PressPress

Purdy,Purdy, B.A. B.A. and and H.K H.K BrooksBrooks l97l1971 Thermal Thcrmat Alteration Alteration ofof SilicaSitica Minerals:Min€rals: AnAn ArcheologicalArcheological ApproachApproach. Science Science I73:322-325 173:322-325

Redder,Redder, A.J.A.J. ' l9t51985 Horn Horn Shelter Shelter No. No. 2: 2: the the South South End,End, aa PreliminaryPreliminary ReponReport Cenu'alCentral Texas Texas Archeologist Archeologist 10:37{510:37-65

Reinhar4Reinhard, K.J.,K.J., B.W.B.W. OliveOlive ardand D.G.D.G. SleeleSteele l99O1990 The The Bioarcheological Bioarcheological Synthesis Synthesis of of the lhe Western weslem PortionPonion ofof thethe GulfGulf Coastalcoaslal Plain.Plair in D.A. Storystory et al.al. The Archeology and BioarcheoloryBioarcheology of the Gulf Coastal PlaiLPlain, Volurne Volume 2,2, PP.419-424,pp. 419-424, Arkansastukansas Archeological Survey RescarchResearch SeriesSeries No.No. 3E38

RenfreuRenfrew, C. and P. Bahn l99l1991 Archaeology:Theories, Archaeology:Theorics, Method Method and and Practice. Practice. ThamesThames and Hudso4Hudson, NewNew York

tucklis,Ricklis, R.A. 1992 Aboriginal Aboriginal Karankawan Karankawan Adaptation Adaptation andand ColonialColonial PeriodPeriod Acculturation:Acculturation: Archeological and EthriohistoricalEthnohistorical Evidence. Evidence. Bu.lletin Bulletin of of the the Texas Texas Archcological Archeological Society Society 63:21 63:211-243 I -243

1993 Investigations Investigations at at the the Mitchell Mitchell RidgeRidge Site,Sile,4lGV66. 41GV66. CRM News and Views 5(1):4-5,5(l):4-5, Texas Historical ConunissiCommission, on, Austin

1994 Aboriginal Aboriginal Life Life and and Culture Culhue onon the the UpperUpper Texas Coast ArchaeologyArchacology atat thethc MitchellMirchett Ridgetudge Site,iite, 41GV66,4lGV66, GalvestonGalveston Island.Islard. CoastalCoasal ArchaeologicalArctEeolos'ical Research,Res4'cL Inc.Inc'

Ring,Ring E.R,ER, Jr.Jr. 1994iSsn The ihe Galena Caena Sites Sires (41HR61-41HR70): (4tHR6l-41HR70): A Alate lale Archaic Arcluic to to Late LIE Prehistoric Prchistoric ComplexComplex inin Harris Hanis County, Texas.Tcxas. BulletinBulletin of thethe TcxasTexas ArchcologicalArcheological SocictySociety 65:257-30065:257-300

Sassarnan,Sassarnar! KE KE 19931993 Early Early Pottery Pottcry in in the lhe Southeast. Southeasl University University ofof Alabama Alabama Press,Press, TuscaloosaTuscaloosa

Schultz,SchulB J.M.J.lvt 19921992 The The Use-Wear Use-Wear Generated Generated by by Processing Processing BisonBison Hides.Hides. PlainsPlairs AnthropologistAnthropologist 37(l4l):333-35137(141):333-351

Sellards,Sellards, E.H.EH. 19401940 Pleistocene Pleistocene Artifacts Artifacls and and Associated Associated FossilsFossils from from BeeBee County, County, Texas.Texas. BulletinBtllletin ofof thethe GeologicalGeological SocietySociety ofof AmericaAmerica 51:1628-16575l:1628-1657

Shafer,Shafer, H.J.H.J. 19661966 An An Archeological Archeologicat Survey Survey of ofWallisville Wallisville Reservoir, Reservoir, Chambers Charnbers County, County, Texas.Texas. UniversityUniversity ofofTexas Texas atat Austin,Austig TexasTexas ArcheologicalArclreological SalvageSalvage Project,Projecl ReportRepon No. 22

1968l96E Archeological Archeological Investigations Investigations in inthe the San San Jacinto Jacinto River River Basin, Basi4 Montgomery Monlgomery County,County, Texas.Texas. UniversityUnivenity ofofTexas Texas atat Austin,AustitL TexasTexas ArcheologicalArcheologica.l SalvageSalvage Project,Projecl, PaperPaper No. 13l3

19721972 An An Assessment Assessment of ofthe the Archeological Archeological Resources Resources to to be be Affected AJTected by by the Ihe Cedar Cedar BayouBayou NavigationNavigation Project,Projec! University ofofTexas Texas atat Austin,Austi4 Texas. Texas Archeologicalfucheological SalvageSalvage Project,Project ReportReport No. 66

19751975 Comments Comrnenls on on Woodland Woodland Cultures Cultues of of East East Texas. Texas. Bulletin Bulletin ofof the the TexasTexas ArcheologicalArcheological SocietySociety 46:249-25446:249-254

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9695 Table 1

SITES IN SOUTHEAST TEXAS DATA BASESBASES (mid 1995) TARL no. of no. of coastaLcoastal recorded County inland sites margin sites siteEsites Austin 9 N.A. 80 BraBrazoria zoria 4 12t2 183 Chambers 0 148 3563s6 Fort Bend 22 N.A. 223 Galveston 0 6 137 GrimesGr lmes 13 N.A. 403 HardinHa rd in 5 N.N.A. A. 16 HarrisHarr i s 127L27 31 75175L JeffersonJe f fers on 2 0 67 Jasper 6 N.A.N. A. 123L23 Liberty 17l7 2 8685 Montgomery 32 N.A. 127127 Newton 00 00 8888 Orange 2 22 8484 PolkPoI k 1111 N.A. 173173 San Jacinto 55 N.A. 154.154, TylerTyl er 22 N.A. 3939 Walkerwalker 55 N.A. 123L23 Wallerwaller 55 N.A. 212l Washingtonvlashington 44 N.A. 6464 Wharton!{harton 2727 N.A. 8888 totaltota I 298298 201201 33863386 N.A.-N.A. - notnot applicableapplicable

TableTable 22

RADIOCARBONRADIOCARBON DATESDATES FORFOR INLANDINLAND SITESSITES ININ SOUTHEASTSOUTHEAST TEXASTEXAS radradiocarbon iocarbon llaboratory aboratory sitesite yearsyears B.B.P. P. numbernumber 4lAUl41AU1 4530+/-804530+/-80 SheIShell-8205 I-82 05 41AU3641AU36 L650+1650+/-70 / -7 0 TX-2452TX-2452 41AU3541AU36 2460+/2460+/-70 -70 TX-245LTX-2451 41AU36 327O+/-7O3270+/-70 TX-2127 41AU36 4120+/-1004t2O+ / -LOO TX-2453TX-2453 41AU37 440+/-70440+ / -7 O TX-2L26TX-2126 41AU37 1070+/-601070+1-60 ,rx-2L25TX-2125 41AU38 450+1-7045O+ / -7 0 TX-2065 41F8341FB3 2580+/-1302580+/ -r30 r-165131-16513 41F8341FB3 3230+/-170 1-17333r-17333 41FB34 5210+/-11052LO+ / -lLo 1-15510r-15510 441FB35 tFB35 3030+/-903O3O+/-90 1-16965r-16965 41r'83741FB37 6490+/-1206490+ / -L20 1-15333r-15333 41FB37 6690+/-1206690+ / -L20 1-15206r-15206 41GM1664lcMl66 8660+/-708660+ / -7 0 BETA-BETA-63144 6 314 4 41GM16641cM166 7100+/-60 BETA-66040 41GM1664lcM165 2840+/-902840+ / -90 BETA-63145BETA-6 3145 41GM1664lcM155 2080+/-602O8O+ / -60 BETA-74553BETA-7 4 553 41GM2244TGM224 1450+1-801450+/-80 BETA-62676 41GM2244 LGM224 1750+/-70t750+/-70 BETA-62675 41GM2244LGM224 1240+/-70t240+ / -7 0 BETA-63182 41GM2244LGvt224 2470+/-70247O+/-7O BETA-63181BETA- 6 3181 41GM28141GM281 640+/-60640+ / - 60 BETA-70755BETA-7 O7 55 41GM28141cM281 610+/-60610+/ - 6 0 BETA-70756BETA-7 O7 56 41GM28141GM281 600+/-60600+/-60 BETA-70757BETA-70757 41GM2814 1cM2 81 710+/-607L0+/-60 BETA-69002BETA- 6 9 OO2 41GM28141GM281 910+/-60910+/ - 6 0 BETA-69003BETA-69003 41GM2824TGM282 970+/-8097 O+ / -80 BETA-64928BETA-64928 41GM28241GM282 700+/-100700+/-100 BETA-64929BETA-64929 41GM2824tcu282 1100+/-901100+/-90 BETA-64930BETA-64930 41GM2824LGM282 2740+/-6027 40+ / -60 BETA-64931BETA-64931 41GM2824TGM282 620+/-60620+/ -60 BETA-64932BETA-64932 41GM28241cM282 130+/-50130+/-50 BETA-64933BETA-64933 41GM2824LGM282 540+/-11054 0+/ - 110 BETA-64934BETA-64 9 34 41HR20641HR206 280+/-80280+ / -80 1-18006r-18005 41HR27341HR273 1070+/-901070+/-90 BETA-28092BETA-28092 41HR27341HR273 1280+/-70t280+ / -7 o BETA-27535BETA-27 5 35 41HR27341HR273 1380+/-801380+/-80 BETA-17072BETA- I7 O7 2 41HR27341HR273 1400+/-901400+/-90 BETA-27536BETA-27536 41HR27341HR27 3 1480+1-120L48O+ / -L2O BETA-17566BETA-17566 41HR53041HR5 30 680+/-350680+./-350 TX-5900TX-5900 41HR53041HR530 1291+/-455t29l+/ -455 SMU-1506sMU- 1506 41HR53041HR530 1460+/-601460+/-60 (A)(A) 41HR53041HR530 1460+/-801450+/-80 (A)(A) 41HR54141HR541 640+/-100640+/- 100 BETA-25927BE'IA_25927 41HR54141HR541 680+/-80680+/-80 BETA-17073BETA- 17 O7 3

TableTable 2,2, continuedcontinued 1

radiocarbon Iaboratorylaboratory ssite ite yearsyears B.B.P. P. numbernumber 41HR644 1440+,/-1801440+/-180 BETA-33693 41PK8 390+,/-100390+/-100 TX-330 41PK8 810+/-80 TX-335 41PK8 970+/-120970+/-L20 rx-325TX-325 41PK8 1410+/-190 TX-336 41PK69 4000+/-110 BETA (A) 441PK69 1PK6 9 6240+/-806240+/-8O BETA (A) 41PK88 1070+/-70LO70+/-70 TX-TX-539 539 41WH124lWH12 1050+/-80 1-15944r-15944 441WH12 lViH 12 960+/-80 1-16221r-1622L 41WH124 lVrH 12 1930+/-80 1-15954r-15954 41WH1941vrH19 9920+/-5309920+/-53O AA-298 41WH194lWH19 365+/-80365+,/-80 SI-6455Sr-6455 (A)-(A) - labIab number not publishedpubl ished

TabLeTable 3

RADIOCARBONRADIOCARBON DATESDATES FORFOR THETHE COASTALCOASTAL MARGINMARGIN OFOF SOUTHEASTSOUTHEAST TEXASTEXAS

radiradiocarbon ocarbon Ilaboratory aboratory ssite ite yearsyears B.B.P. P. number 41BO1541B015 180+/-60180+,/-60 TX-11168TX-1116B 41B01541BO15 860+/-50 TX-TX-1116A 1116A 41E035418035 1250+/-70t25O+ / -7 0 TX-TX-1115 1115 41B035418O35 1330+/-50 TX-TX-1205 12 05 41B035418O35 1680+1-70L68O+ / -7 0 TX-1167 41B035418O35 1830+/-8018 30+/ - 80 TX-1117 41B035418O35 2360+1-602360+ / -60 TX-1066 41B03541BO35 2370+1-80237 0+ / -80 TX-1057TX-1067 41B0504lBO50 1650+/-90 TX-1259A 41B050418O50 1870+1-70L87O+/-7O TX-TX-1259B 1259B 41B079418O79 600+/-80600+/-80 BETA-32024BETA- 32024 41B0814 18O81 910+/-709LO+l-7O BETA-31709BETA- 3 17 O9 41B0814 18081 990+/-70990+ / -7 0 BETA-31710 41B012641BO126 1440+/-60L440+/-60 TX-2785 411301264180126 1450+/-60L450+ / - 60 TX-2783 41B0126418O125 1800+/-601800+/-50 TX-2784 41B01594180159 1080+/-451080+/-45 UGA-5507ucA- 5 5 07 41B016041BO160 950+1-40950+/-40 UGA-5508UGA-s508 41CH941CH9 1650+/-70L650+ / -7 0 TX-1050TX- 105 0 41CH134lCH13 2280+/-902280+/ -90 TX-345 41CH134lcH13 1890+/-1001890+/-100 TX-343TX- 34 3 41CH134lCH13 1840+/-901840+,/-90 TX-342 41CH1341CH13 1560+/-1001s60+/-100 TX-344 41CH134lCH13 1990+1-1001990+/-100 TX-341Tx- 34 1 41CH1341CH13 2070+/-1102O7O+/-LLO TX-346TX-346 41CH1641CH16 2020+/-802020+ / -80 TX-450TX-450 41CH1641cH16 2180+/-902L80+ / -90 TX-457TX-457 41CH164lCH15 2540+/-100254O+/ -lOO TX-397TX-397 41CH164ICH16 2240+/-902240+/ -90 TX-389TX-389 41CH1641CH16 1900+/-901900+./-90 TX-396TX-395 41CH164lCH16 2040+/-902040+ / -90 TX-392TX-392 41CH164lCH16 1890+/-901890+/-90 TX-393Tx-393 41CH164lCH16 1780+/-1001780+/-100 TX-401Tx- 4 01 41CH164lCH16 1400+/-1101400+/-110 TX-402TX-4 02 41CH164lcH16 1880+/-901880+/-90 TX-400TX-400 41CH164 lCH 16 1810+/-901810+/ - 9 0 TX-394TX-394 41CH1641CH16 1950+11950+/-80-80 TX-449TX-449 41CH164lCH15 2150+/-602L50+ / -60 TX-388TX-388 41CH164lCH16 1740+/-1001740+/-100 TX-399TX-399 41CH164lCH16 1890+/-1501890+/- 1s0 TX-398rx-398 41CH164lCH16 1950+/-70L950+ / -7 0 TX-455TX-455 TableTable 3,3, contlnuedcontinued 1 radradiocarbon i ocarbon llaboratory aboratory sitesite yearsyears B.B.P. P. numbernumber 4lCH1641CH16 2260+2260+/-110 / -lro TX-395TX-395 4lCH1541CH16 20r0+2010+/-90 / -90 TX-455TX-456 41CH16 20to+2010+/-90 / -90 TX-390 4lCH1641CH16 2220+/-802220+ / -80 TX-460 41CH20 820+/-60820+ / - 60 TX-52ITX-528 441CH20 1CH2 0 840+/-60 TX-527 441CH20 1CH2 0 1550+/-60 TX-529 41CH244LCH24 1560+/-801560:f/-80 TX-TX-1051 1051 41CH324LCH32 2880+/-110 TX-TX-1892 1892 41CH32 1870+/-80 TX-TX-1893 1893 41CH364lCH36 720+/-90720+ / -9O TX-945BTX-946B 41CH36 1300+/-70 TX-947A 41CH36 1100+/-701100+,/-70 TX-946A 41CH364lCH36 1470+/-70r47O+/-7O TX-948 41CH364lcH35 1120+/-1101 12 0+,/ - 110 TX-9478TX-947B 41CH464 1CH4 6 1120+/-70tL2O+ / -7 0 TX-949BTx-9498 41CH464 1CH4 6 1740+/-70L740+/-7O TX-949A 41CH46 1070+/-70LOTO+/-7O TX-1891TX- 1891 41CH474 1CH4 7 1480+/-801480+/-80 TX-1894 41CH47 2230+/-1102230+ / - lL0 TX-1895TX- 1895 41CH53 290+/-80290+ / -80 TX-458 41CH56 2665+/-602665+ / - 60 UGA-5536 41CH5641CH56 2665+1-552665+ / -55 UGA-5537ucA- 5 5 37 41CH5641CH55 2800+/-502800+,/-50 UGA-5538ucA-5538 41CH5641CH56 2780+/-5027 80+ / -50 UGA-5539UGA- 5 5 39 41CH5641CH55 2680+1-502680+/ -50 UGA-5540UGA- 5 54 0 41CH5641CHs6 2640+/-502640+ / -50 UGA-5554 41CH5641CH56 2605+/-502605+/-50 UGA-5555ucA- 5 55 5 41CH5741CH57 3670+/-90367 O+ / -9O TX-1113TX-1113 41CH624LCH62 1529+/-58t529+ / -58 UGA-5849UGA- 5 84 9 41CH624LCH62 1866+/-481866+/-48 UGA-5850ucA-5850 41CH634 1CH6 3 3007+/-533007 + / -53 UGA-5846UGA- 584 6 41CH6341CH63 2909+12909+ / --5454 UGA-5845UGA-5845 41CH6341CH63 2732+/-672732+/-67 UGA-5844UGA-5844 41CH634lCH63 1155+/-74rt55+ / -7 4 UGA-5848UGA-5848 41CH6341CH63 1524+/-64L524+/ -64 UGA-5847UGA-5847 41CH6341CH63 2902+/-622902+/ -62 UGA-5843UGA- 5 84 3 41CH7041CH70 1140+/-501 14 0+,/ _ 50 BETA-72721BETA-7272L 41CH7041CH70 640+1-70640+/ -7 0 BETA-72719BETA-7 2719 41CH704 1CH7 0 939+/-50939+ / -50 BETA-72722BETA-72722 41CH9841CH98 1310+/-601310+/ - 6 0 TX-951BTX-9518 41CH984 1CH9I 1060+/-901050+/-90 TX-951ATX-951A TableTable 3, contlnuedcontinued 22 radiocarbon Iaboratorylaboratory site yearsyears B.P.B.P. nunPsrnumber 41CH110 880+/-60 TX-2029 4lCH11041CH110 560+/-50 TX-2TX-2030 030 4lCH11041CH110 800+/-80800+1-80 TX-2024 4lCH11041CH110 620+/-60620+ / - 60 TX-2031 4lCH11041CH110 740+/-7O740+1-70 TX-2027 41CH110 7760+/-60 60+ / -60 TX-2025 441CH110 1CH 110 500+/-60 TX-2022 41CH110 390+/-50 TX-2023 41CH1104 rcH110 410+1-604LO+ / -60 TX-2026 41CH161 1660+/-80 1-17532r-L7532 4lCH16141CH161 700+/-80 1-17614r-17614 41CH1654ICH165 1510+/-80 TX-TX-1057 1057 41CH1704ICH17 0 1110+/-501110+/-50 TX-953 41CH1724tcHL7 2 3270+1-80327 0+ / -80 TX-1058 41CH2524LCH252 2250+1-602250+/ -60 BETA-72713 41CH2524tCH252 1800+/-601800+,/-50 BETA-72715 41CH2524lcH252 959+/-50959+ / -50 BETA-72712BETA-? 2712 41CH2734LCH273 1041+/-45to4L+ / -45 UGA-5802ucA- 5 8 02 41CH2734rcH273 1427+/-51t427 + / -51 UGA-5803 41CH2734LCH273 1120+/-60L12O+ / - 60 BETA-49768 41CH2734LCH27 3 750+/-60750+ / -60 BETA-49769 41CH2734tcH273 780+/-40780+/-40 BETA-49770 41CH2744LCH2? 4 2530+/-502530+ / -50 BETA-49771BETA-49771 41CH2744LCH27 4 2640+/-502640+ / -50 BETA-49772BETA-49772 41CH2744tcH27 4 2768+1-5727 68+ / -57 UGA-5804ucA-5804 41CH3574lCH357 900+/-60900+/-60 BETA-72725BETA-72725 41CH35741CH357 930+/-50930+/-50 BETA-72726BETA-72726 41CH3574lCH357 1140+/-601140+/-60 BETA-72727BETA-72727 41CH35741CH357 750+/-50750+/ -5O BETA-72728BETA-72728 41CH35741CH357 1030+/-601030+/-60 BETA-72729BErA-72729 41CH3574lCH357 920+/-8092O+ / -80 BETA-72723BEAA-72723 41CH3574lCH357 670+/-6067O+/-60 BETA-72724BE tA- 7 27 24 41GV14lGVl 380+1-140380+/-140 TX-6100TX-6100 41GV141cV1 810+/-120810+/ - 12 0 TX-6101rx-6101 41GV541cV5 430+/-150430+/-1s0 ShellSheIl Dev.Dev. NA103NA1O3 41GV541cV5 490+/-100490+/-100 ShellSheII Dev.Dev. ?? 41GV541cV5 450+/-110450+/-110 ShellShell Dev.Dev. SB108sB108 41GV541GV5 670+/-12067O+/-L20 ShellShell Dev.Dev. SB108s8108 41GV541cV5 830+/-120830+,/-t20 Shellshell Dev,Dev. SB108SB 108 41GV104lcv10 2450+/-702450+ / -7 O TX-691TX-691 41GV104lcv10 740+/-70740+/-70 TX-690TX-690 41GV6641GV66 780+1-150780+/-150 TX-2605TX-2605 41GV664 1cV6 5 230+/-70230+/ -7 0 TX-2598TX-2598 41GV664 1cV6 5 510+/-50510+/-50 TX-2606TX-2 506 41GV664 r.GV65 980+/-60980+/-60 BETA-64565BETA-54565 41GV6641cV66 870+/-9087 0+ / -90 BETA-58747BETA-58747 41GV6641cV55 570+/-5057 0+ / -50 BETA-64564BETA-64564 41GV6641cv66 280+/-50280+/ -50 BETA-55867BETA- 5 5 867 Tab1eTable 3, continuedcontinued 3

radiradiocarbon ocarbon Ilaboratory aboratory ssite ite yearsyears B.B.P. P. number 41cv6541GV66 650+/-90 BETA-55863 41cV6641GV66 440+1-70440+/-7O BETA-58746 41cV6641GV66 430+/-110 BETA-64563 41Gv6641GV66 650+/-170650+/-L7O BETA-55862 41GV66 610+/-80 BETA-53673 41Gv6641GV66 380+/-70380+ / -7 0 BETA-53672 441GV66 1GV6 6 220+/-50220+ / -50 BETA-64566 441GV66 1GV6 5 190+/t9o+/-7o-70 BETA-55870 41cv6641GV66 150+/-80150+/ - I0 BETA-55865 41GV82 895+/895+/-60-60 ucA-5389UGA-5389 41GV8241cv82 666+/-83666+ / -83 UGA-6227 41GV82 551+/-80551+/ - I0 ucA-6228UGA-6228 41GV8241cv82 332+/-43332+ / - 43 ucA-6229UGA-6229 41GV8241cv82 659+/-89659+ / -89 ucA-6230UGA-6230 41GV824 1cV8 2 516+/-905t6+ / -9O UGA-6231ucA- 6 2 31 41GV8241cV82 1032+/-88t032+ / -88 UGA-6232UGA- 6 2 32 41GV82 614+/-456L4+/-45 UGA-6233 41GV8241cv82 623+/-84623+ / -84 UGA-6234ucA-6234 41GV8241cV82 942+/-91942+ / -9L UGA-6235UGA- 6 2 35 41GV8241cV82 940+1-88940+/ -88 UGA-6236 41HR50 1510+/-601510+/-60 TX-532TX-5 32 41HR50 850+/-60850+/-60 TX-530 41HR5641HR56 950+1-50950+/-50 TX-533 41HR5641HR55 1840+1-50184 0+/ - 50 TX-535 41HR5641HR56 1190+/-501190+/-50 TX-534TX-5 34 41HR6141HR61 1900+1-10519 00+/ - 10 5 0-911o-911 41HR614 1HR61 3350+/-1153350+/-11s 0-912o-912 41HR8041HR80 640+/-130540+/-130 TX-1059TX- 1059 41HR8041HR80 2140+/-380214O+ / -380 TX-1060TX- 106 0 41HR8541HR85 2170+/-1802L7 0+ / -180 TX-968ATX-968A 41HR8541HR85 3670+/-803670+/-80 TX-969TX-969 41HR8541HR85 1500+/-701500+/-70 TX-968BTX-968B 41HR61841HR618 450+/-804 50+/- 80 1-15275r- L527 5 41LB441L84 760+/-507 60+ / -50 BETA-72735BETA-72735 41LB441L84 660+/-50660+/-50 BETA-72736BETA-7 2 7 36 41LB441L84 490+/-5049O+/ -50 BETA-72737BEAA-727 37 41LB441LB4 210+/-502to+ / -50 BETA-72738BETA-72738 41LB441L84 300+/-50300+/-50 BETA-72730BETA-72730 41LB44lLB{ 680+/-70680+/-70 BETA-72731BETA-72731 41LB441L84 780+/-60780+/-60 BETA-72732BETA-727 32 41LB441L84 1340+/-60L34O+ / - 60 BETA-72733BETA-72733 41LB441L84 790+/-607 9O+ / -60 BETA-72734BETA_?27 34 41LB5441L854 705+/-557 05+ / -55 UGA-5806ucA-5806 41LB5441L854 1159+/-1981159+,/-198 UGA-5808ucA-5808 41LB5441L854 1000+/-1301000+/-130 BETA-40936BETA-4 O9 36 410R494 10R4 9 500+1-150500+/- 150 DuPontDuPont ?? 410R58410R58 2260+/-1002260+ / - t00 BETA-42415BETA-4 2415 410R58410R58 2180+/-802L80+/ -80 BETA-42656BETA-4 2 656 TableTable 3,3, continuedcontinued 44

radlocarbonradiocarbon Iaboratorylaboratory ssite ite yearsyears B.B.P. P. numbernumber 410R58 1530+/-70 BETA-42553BETA-42653 4loR58410R58 2300+/-70 BETA-42416 410R58 2L70+/-IOO2170+/-100 BETA-42654 410R58 1570+/-90 BErA-424L7BETA-42417

TableTable 4 ,l PROJECTILE PROJECTILE POINTPOINT CHRONOLOGIES CHRONOLOGIES IN IN SOUTHEASTSOIITHEAST TEXAS TEXAS

EarlyEarly LateLate E.E. M. L. Early Late polnt type paleo M. L. Early Late point type PaleoPaIeo Paleo ArchArch ArchArch ArchArch Ceramic Ceramic PrehistPrehlst ClovisClovls Xx FolsomFolsom Xx MidlandMldland Xx EarlyEarly Side-NotchedSlde-Notched Xx Xx DaltonDalton Xx Xx BigBig SandySandy Xx Xx SanSan PatricePatrice Xx Xx PlainviewPlalnvlew Xx ScottsbluffScottsblu!f Xx AngosturaAngostura Xx MeserveMeserve Xx EarlyEarly Corner-NotchedCorner-Notched Xx EarlyEarly StemmedStemned Xxx X BellBeI I Xx TrinityTrinlty Xxx X Wellstle I 1s Xxx X Carrollton Xxx X MorrillMorriIl Xxx X Bulverde Xx Lange Xx Pedernales Xxx X lliWilliams I I lams xxX X TravlsTravis xxX X large caryGary xxX x largeIarge Kent .xxX X MorhlssMorhiss xxX X PonchartralnPonchartrain xX small cary X small xentGary xX xX x DarIsmall Kent xX xX xX Darl xX xX YarbroughYarbrough Ensor xX xX EIllsEnsor xX xX FairlandEllis xX xX Fairland xX xX PalmlPalmillas I Ias Marcos xX xX Marcos xX xX unlfaclalunifacial arrowarrow polpoints nts bifaclal arrow p-oints xX xX xX bifacial arrow points xX TabITable e 5

UNIFACIALUNIFACIAL ARROWARROW POINTSPOINTS IN SOUTHEASTSOUTHEAST TEXASTEXAS

no.no. of site work(A)work(A) time period(s),period(s), (B)(B) points 41AU7 sS mixedmixed LA,LA, EC,EC, LP 1 41FB2234TEB223 E MA-LAMA-LA 2 41HR182 sS mixedmixed LA,LA, EC, LP 2 4lHR18341HR183 sS mixed EC, LPLP 4 41HR184 S Mixed MA,MA, LA,LA, EC, LP 64 41HR185 sS mixed LA. EC, LP 7 41HR241HR206 06 S mixed LA, EC, LP 24 4lHR20841HR208 S LP 1 41HR209 Ss mixed LA, EC, LP 8 41HR210 S mixed LA, EC, LP 14L4 41HR215 Ss mixed Ec,EC, LP 1 41HR2234LHR223 Ss mixed LA, EC 8 41HR244 S mixed LA, EC, LP 13 41HR245 Ss mixed EC, LP 2 41HR248 S LP 3 41HR2504lHR250 Ss LA 2 41HR255 S LP 7 41HR2674 LHR267 S ECEC 1I 41HR273 E LP 55 41HR29341HR2 93 S LP 33 41HR3154 1HR315 E MA, LA, EC,EC, LP 5454 41HR52541HR525 SS mixed LA, EC, LPLP 11 41PK8841PK88 EE LPLP 77 41WH124 lVrH 12 EE! LPLP 11 41WH194lVrH19 EE LPLP 22 41WH3741WH37 Ss mixed LA, EC,EC, LPLP 11 41WH3841VrH38 EE ECEC 11 41WH734 lWH? 3 EE ECEC 22 totaltotal 24124t (A)(A) S=S= surfacesurface collectioncollection E=E= excavatedexcavated (B)(B) LP=LP= LateLate PrehistoricPrehistorlc EC=EC= EarlyEarIY Ceramicceramic LA=LA= LateLate ArchaicArchaic MA=MA= MiddleMiddle ArchaicArchaic Table 6

INLAND ARROYIARROW POINT TYPETYPE DISTRIBUTIONDISTRIBUTION Western Central Eastern Polntpoint type sIEessites poin-Gpoints fiEessites poin-Cpoints sites points PerdlPerdiz z 34 2112tL 50 342 37 440 ScalScallorn lorn 28 88 24 62 5 9 CaCatahoula tahou 1a 3 4 27 114 26 128L28 AIbaAlba 5 6 212L 39 31 280 uniunifacial faclal 7 10 20 224 1I 7 Fresno 3 343A 3 4 1 1 Cuney 4 35 0 0 2 3 leafleaf shaped 2 2 0 0 0 0 Edwards 5 5 2 2 0 0 Bonham 0 0 1 1 3 35 Bulbar Stem 4 12L2 0 0 00 0 Bassett 00 0 3 5 7 25 FrileyFri Iey 00 0 11 1 1111 30 Colbertco lbert 00 00 00 00 4 1414 Livermore-like 00 00 00 00 11 17L7 washiWashita ta 00 00 00 00 11 1I Maud 00 00 00 00 11 ''1 1 Guerrero 22 3737 22 22 00 00 gar scale 11 1I 00 00 00 00 TableTable 77 INLAND PALEO-INDIANPALEO-INDIAN ANDAND EARLIEREARLIER ARCHAICARCHAIC DARTDART POINTSPOINTS

wesWestern tern CentraCentral I EasternEastern point type sites - polnEspoints sites poInEEpoints ;IEessites points point tyPe .IEs =IEes FoInEE Clovis 0 0 6 7 1 60+ FoIsomFolsom 1 1 2 2 1 1 Midland 0 0 3 7 0 0 DaDalton I ton 0 0 3 L212 1 9 BlgBig Sandy 1 I1 2 3 1 5 EarfyEarly Notched 13 51 20 102LO2 4 13 Early Stemmed 7 24 9 25 1 3 San PatricePatrlce 5 15 212L 88 13 51 Plainview 13 28 12t2 43 1 7 AngoAngostura s tu ra 11 17L7 13 27 2 2 Scottsbluff 3 3 3 4 2 13 MeserveMes erve 1 1I 3 8I 1 1 BellBEI I 4 4 10 16 0 0 Trinity 2 3 9 212L 0 0 Carrollton 7 8 15 44 4 20 vleWells 11s 55 66 88 1616 2 5 MorrillMorri II 11 1I 00 00 00 00 BulverdeBu lverde 1818 3635 2020 7070 1919 4545 Lange 4 44 00 00 1I 2828 Bulverde-like*Bu lverde - I ike r 7 2929 66 1010 00 00 Pedernales*Pederna I es * 2323 6666 1616 2222 22 22 Williams*vlilliams* 12T2 1515 1818 3232 1010 2929 Travis*Travi s * 66 12t2 11 11 00 00 Morhiss*Morhiss * 22 22 22 22 22 22 HoxieHoxie 00 00 1t 11 00 00 *-*- occuroccur inin bothboth Middle andand LateLate ArchaicArchaic periodsperlods TableTable 8 INLAND LATELATE ARCHAICARCHAIC ANDAND LATERLATER DARTDART POINTSPOINTS

VlesWestern tern CentraCentral I EaEastern s tern point type ;isites te-;- points-points sIEE-}dnEsites points sI-tessites poffiEspoints Gary* 36 148 6656 1153115 3 37 1112 Kent* 36 168 44 s55566 35 696 EIIIsEllis 22 36 19 61 22 135 Ensor 17l7 41 11 24 19 69 PalmillasPaImi IIas 9 23 20 96 25 124L24 Yarbrough 19 49 26 717L 20 147t4? DarDarl I 12L2 23 10 26 12L2 56 triangulartr ia ngu l ar 6 13 7 14 3 3 leaf shaped 2 3 13 22 2 3 Marcos 65 7 3 4 00 0 FairlandFa irl a nd 4 10 1 1 0 0 PonchartrainPonchartra i n 2 22 3 66 6 12L2 Evans 0 0 0 0 2 44 Motley 00 00 00 00 22 44 MarshallMarsha I1 2 2 00 00 00 00 Catancatan 11 11 00 00 00 00 *-*- also occur inin MiddleMidd1e Archaic periodPeriod TableTable 99

COASTALCOASTAL MARGINMARGIN ARROWARROW POINTPOINT DISTRIBUTIONSDISTRIBUTIONS

VlesWestern tern CentraCentral I EaEastern s tern point type sites points sites points sites polntspoints Point type =Tte=-ForiE PerdlPerdiz z 3 7 20 267 2L21 58 ScaIScallorn Iorn 3 7 3 5 I1 1 CatahouCatahoula I a 0 0 6 7 3 3 Alba 0 0 8I 27 3 5 Bassett 0 0,0. 2 2 0 0 FresFresno no 0 0 0 0 1 1I leaf shaped 0 0 0 0 2 2 Bonham 0 0 4 5 0 0 Bulbar Stem 0 0 1 1I 1 1 Edwards 0 0 2 2 0 00 uniunifacial facial 0 0 0 0 2 6 gar scale 0 0 0 0 1 1 Cuney 0 0 1 1 0 00

Table 1010

COASTAL MARGIN DART POINT DISTRIBUTIONS

Westernwe s tern CentralCentra I EasternEa stern point typetype sitessites points sitessites points sitessites points GaryGary 00 00 1414 8585 77 88 KentKent 11 33 1818 172L72 99 1515 bonebone 22 55 8I 3434 44 8I YarbroughYarbrough 11 22 4545 12L2 00 00 MorhissMorhi s s 00 00 22 33 00 00 EnsorEns or 00 00 55 88 11 11 PalmillasPaImil las 00 00 33 99 00 00 Dar].DarI 00 00 55 65 00 00 EllisEIIIs 00 00 44 88 00 00 triangulartrl angu I ar 00 00 22 22 00 00 leafleaf shapedshaped 00 00 55 55 00 00 0 FairlandFa i rI and 00 00 11 11 00 0 TableTabte 11l1 COASTALCOASTAL MARGINMARGIN CERAMICCERAI.IIC TYPE DISTRIBUTIONS

Westerntlestern CentralCentral EasternEastern typetvpe sitessltes sherdssherds sitessltes sherdssherds sitessltes sherdssherds

Goosecoose Creekcreek PlainPlain 1111 20622062 2424 36747367 47 9090 1554115541 GooseGoose Creekcreek IncisedI nclsed 33 65 1717 21642 t64 3939 413413 GooseGoose CreekCreek StampedStamped 00 00 33 1111 55 55 asphaltasphalt coatedcoated 11 1I 1I -, 186186 22 467467 ' shellsheII temperedtempered 1I 22 11 65 1111 6858 SanSan JacintoJaclnto Plain 77 238238 1818 1050710507 646{ 48324A32 SanSan JacintoJaclnto IncisedIncised 22 22 11II 22542254 3434 29129L TchefuncteTchefuncte 00 00 55 8181 1515 742742 bone temperedtempered 22 55 99 1427t427 2222 145145 MandevilleMandevlIle PlainPl a1n 00 00 33 1313 65 120120 ConwayCon$ray 00 00 -'2 2 2727 1111 7676 MarksvilleMarksvi I le 00 00 00 00 1I 22 Caddo 00 ' 00 1I 1I 00 00

Table 1212

INLANDINLAND CERAMIC TYPE DISTRIBUTIONS

Westerntlestern Central Eastern type sitessltes sherds sitessites sherds sitessltes sherds Goose Creek Plain 5151 35863585 , 107 13022t3022 19l9 13141131{1 Goose Creek IncisedIncised 12t2 43 2626 264 1010 183183 Goose Creek Stamped 0 0 5 99 1I 1I Conway 6 27 26 201 11 1 Rockport PlainPlaln 3 . 48364835 2 2 1 5 Rockport Decorated 65 3223 1I 1 0 0 bone tempered 17L7 2582s8 23 181 9 209 San JacintoJaclnto PlainPlaln 8 134r34 24 150 14l4 849 San Jacinto Incised 2 2 '0 2 5 12L2 9 138 TcheTchefuncte functe - 0 0 6 23 2 9 Marksville 0 0 0 0 1I 5 caddoCaddo 4 1021 6 212l 6 229 TableTable 1313 INLANDI NLAND SUBREGIONSUBREGION LITHICSLITHICS

WesternWestern CentralCentra I EasternEastern tyPe type sitessites itemsltems sitessltes itemsltems --___sitessltes itemsLtems scraperscraper 3131 4174L? 43{3 4584s8 4/t 5252 notchednotched tooltool 224 4 1414 5050. 22 33 denticulatedentlculate 88 1414 1111 3030 00 00 bifacialblfaclal knifeknl fe 1615 414l 1313 274274 22 5858 graver9raver 2020 7575 353s 269269 33 2222 scraper-graverscraper-graver 22tl 11 333 3 00 00 uniface.uniface. perforator 99 4040 1919 143143 11 11 biface.biface. perforator 1414 7676 1414 6969 8 47 stefluned I 47 stemmed scraperscraper 666 6 000 0 1I 55 chopperchopper 77 5050 55 7979 1 3 gouge I 3 gouge 222 2 000 0 1I 11 cornercorner tangtang 44s 5 000 0 00 00 insetlnset blade 000 0 99 146146 11 55 cuttingcuttlng tooltool 000 0 000 0 11 22 AlbanyAIbany scraperscraper 223 3 77 1818 00 00 smallsmall flakesflakes 414l 4745547 455 7070 745177 4517 33 13062r3062 largelarge flakesflakes 4747 806158 0615 7474 3762531625 66 2206722067 largelarge blades 55 6060 1818 112112 00 00 smallsmall bladesblades 99 51sl 3838 16951695 1I 22 blade cores 558 8 2020 166165 00 00 misc.mlsc. cores 23 527527 27 318 4tl 138138 exoticexotlc chert 65 7? 00 hammerstones 22 170170 23 174t74 4 3232 chert cobbles 1111 221 11ll 104 1I 3

Table 1414 COASTAL MARGIN SUBREGION LITHICSLITHICS

VlesternWestern Central Eastern tyPetype sites itemsltems 6ltessites items sltessites itemsltems

scraPerscraper 1 1 111l 40 20 71 unLface.uniface. perforatorperforator 0 0 4 9 222 2 biface.biface. perforatorperforator I1 1 10 53 7207 20 bifaclalbifacial knlknife fe 0 0 I8 L212 353 5 mlsc,misc. bibiface. tace. tooltool 0 0 I1 6 14 2L21 flake 5 304 20 605s6055 58 4903 core 0 0 3 2526 000 0 gravergraver 0 0 5 L212 L21 2 TableTable 15 CLAYBALLSCLAYBALLS AT INLANDI NLAND SITES

site number a41AU1 IAUT- 1 41FB3241F832 100 41F83441FB34 688 41F83741FB37 100 441FB42 1FB4 2 15188 41FB434 1FBA 3 24 41FB95 100 41FB2234LFB223 28842 41HR64IHR6 212L 41HR89 50 41HR1394lHR139 10 41HR1844lHR184 572 41HR185 140140 41HR206 113113 41HR208 1 41HR210 8I 41HR21441HR214 1 41HR215 5 41HR22341HR22 3 108108 41HR2264tHR226 1010 41HR244 2929 41HR24641HR246 33 41HR26741HR2 67 33 41HR27341HR273 55 41HR27941HR27 9 22 41HR3154 1HR3 15 11441144 41LB24ILB2 1100011000 41SJ1641SJ16 1515 41SJ16041SJ160 1615 41WH124lWH12 212L 41WH194lVrH19 44434443 41WH2041WH20 157157 41WH2141VlH21 71347 t34 41WH254 1WH2 5 99 41WH3641WH36 484484 41WH5041WH50 100100 41WH7241WH72 11451145 41WH734 1VrH7 3 4661466L 41WH774twE77 234234 41WL154 lYlL 15 2020 Table 16

SUMMARY OF TERRESTRIAL FAUNALFAUNAL REMAINSREMAINS

coastal inlandi nl and mamargin rgi n speciesspec i es sites sites deer 49 41 landIand turtle 46 15 snakes nake 16t6 13 rat 15 9 land bird 1615 1272 bison 212L 10 rabbitrabbi t 24 14 gopher 1616 5 skunk 33 4 mouse 11 4 raccoon 11 10 opossum 1515 88 badger 2 00 antelopeante l ope 5 00 squirrel 4 4 beaver 55 00 bear 11 22 minkmi nk 11 00 muskratmu s krat 00 33 TableTable 17

STJMMARYSUMMARY OFOF AQUATICAQUATIC FAUNALFAUNAL REMAINSREMAINS coascoastal ta I inland margmargin i n sPecspecies i es sites ssites ites musselmussel 27 0 alligator L212 15 waterwater bird 7 11 waterwater turtle 16 23 gar 24 27 misc fish 15 2526 frog 12t2 4 catfish 15 18 drum 15 17l7 bass 65 0 bowfin 10 6 sunfish 7 0 RangiaRangi a 0 200+ OysterOys ter 0 24 sharks hark 0 2 redfish 00 2 sea trout 00 66 sheepsheads heeps head 00 66 TableTable 18 BISON REIiIAINSREMAINS IN SOUTHEAST TEXAS

site and zone time perlodperiod(s) ( s ) I{esternWestern Inland 41AU4 not determined 441FB37 1FB3 7 Early Archaic 441FB43 1FB4 3 Late PrehistoricPrehl,storic 41FB95 not determined 41FB2234LF8223 ArchaArchaic ic 41WH124lwH12 Late Prehistoric 41WH14 not determined 41WH194 lWHl9 Late Paleo, Archaic, EarlyEarIy Ceramic, Late PrehistoricPrehistorlc 41WH364lwH36 Late Prehistoric 41WH724 tw}l7 2 Late Prehistoric 41WH744LWH7 4 Late Prehistoric Central InlandInland 41HR5 Middle Archaic, Early Ceramic, Late PrehistoricPrehistoric 41HR6 Late PrehistoricPrehistoric 41HR7 Late PrehistoricPrehistoric 41HR182 not determined 41HR27341HR273 Early Ceramic 41HR27841HR278 notnot determined 41HR27941HR27 9 not determined 41HR28141HR281 not determined 41HR29241HR292 LateLate ArchaicArchaic 41HR54141HR541 LateLate PrehistoricPrehistoric EasternEastern InlandInland nono sitessites Western Coastal 41B0794 1BO7 9 LateLate PrehistoricPrehistoric CentralCentral CoastalCoastal 41HR3941HR39 notnot determineddetermlned 41HR5041HRs0 LateLate PrehistoricPrehistoric 41HR8241HR82 LateLate PrehistoricPrehistorlc 41GV6641cv66 LateLate PrehistoricPrehistoric EasternEastern CoastalCoastal 41CH1641CH15 EarlyEarly CeramicCeramic 41CH314 1CH31 LateLate PrehistoricPrehistoric 41CH1104lCH110 LateLate PrehistoricPrehistorlc 41CH16141CH161 LateLate PrehistoricPrehistoric 41CH1724tcEl?2 LateLate ArchaicArchaic

TableTable 1919

SUMMARYSUT.'MARY OFOF SITE SITE OCCUPATIONOCCUPATION SEQUENCESSEQUENCES

inland subregion coastal margin subregion single single periodperlod totaltotal componentcomponent single slngle totaltotal component single

LateLate PaleoPaleo 7878 99 12L2 00 00 00 EarlyEarly ArchaicArchalc 4747 1I 22 00 00 00 MiddleMiddle Archaic 9292 33 33 00 00 00 LateLate ArchaicArchaic 1401{0 1313 99 3737 1111 3030 EarlyEar]y CeramicCeramlc 175175 313I 113l8 717L 12L2 17l7 LateLate Prehist.Prehlst. 183183 4848 2625 132132 7575 5757

.TableTable 2020

SUMMARYSI'MMARY OFOF SITESITE COMPONENTSCOMPONETfTS AND POPULATION LEVELS

inland coastal length,Iength, no. of no. of periodperlod years sitessites RPF sitess i. tes RPF Late Paleo 30003000 78 2.6 Early ArchalcArchaic 2000 47 2.4 Middle Archaic 15001500 92 6.15.1 Late Archaic 1600 140140 B.88.8 37 2.3 Early Ceramic 500 175175 35.0 717l 14.2L4 .2 Late PrehistoricPrehlstorlc 900 183I83 20.3 132132 14.714 .7

TableTabte 2121

SITESSITES ININ LATELATE ARCHAICARCHAIC MORTUARYMORTUARY TRADITIONTRADITION

no.no. of slte of site burialsburials reference(s)reference( s ) 1.l. GoebelGoebel (41AU1)({rAUf) 4242 DukeDuke 198119 8I 2.2. BrandesBrandes (41AU55)( 41AU55 ) 33 HighleyHighley etet al.al. 19881988 3.3. ErnestErnest WitteWltte (41AU36)(41AU35) 145145 HallHaIl 19811981 4.4, LeonardLeonard KK (41AU37)( 4 fAU37 ) 99 HallHaIl 198119 81 5.5. AlbertA]bert GeorgeGeorge (41FB13)( 41F813 ) 15+15+ WalleyWaIley 19551955 6.5. BigBlg Creekcreek (41FB2)( 41FB2 ) 75+75+ TARLTARL archivesarchives 7.7. PiekertPiekert (41WH14)( 4llrH14 ) 11l1 KindallX1ndalI 1980,19 80, CopasCopas 1984l984 8.8. CrestmontCrestmont (41WH39)(4lwH39) 39+39+ Vernonvernon 19891989 9.9. 41WH4441wlt44 22 Black,BIack, Patterson,Patterson, andand StoreyStorey 199219 92 10. Bowser ( 10. Bowser (41FB3)41F83 ) 16t6 PattersonPatterson etet al.aI. 1993b1993b 11.11. FergusonFerguson (41FB42)( 4 tFB42 ) 4+4+ PattersonPatterson etet al.al. 1993algg3a

Table 2222

LATE PREHISTORICPREHISTORIC COASTAL MARGIN MORTUARYMORTUARY SITES

no. of s siteite burialsburia 1s reference(s)reference ( s ) 1. Harris County Boys' 34 Aten et al.al, 1976 School (41HR80)( 4 fHR80 ) 2. caplenCaplen (41GV1)( 41cvl ) 65 ' CampbellCampbelI 1957, Aten et al. 19761976 3. Jamaica Beach (41GV5)( 41cV5 ) 19 Aten et aI.al. 1976 4.4 . 4lcH1341CH13 4 AnblerAmbler 1973 5.5.4lCH15 41CH16 3 Ambler 1973 6.6 . 41CH32 1(A)r (A) Aten et aI.al. 1976:Table1975:Table 10 7.4ICH1l07. 41CH110 2 Gilmore 1974 8.4lCH1728. 41CH172 r1(A) (A) Aten etet al. 1976:77 9.4lBO29. 41B02 8 HoIeHole and WilktnsonWilkinson 1973 10.41HR8110. 41HR81 r1(A) (A) O'BrlenO'Brien 1970 11. 41BO1341B013 1(A) HamlltonHamilton 1987:88 12.41cv6612. 41GV66 1t+11+ Ricklis 1993, 1994 (A) - no grave goods

FIGUREFIGI'RE 1I

SOUTHEASTSOITTEEAST TEXASTETAS STUDYSTSDY AREAA.R,EA

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x;"_\ ./ '.. ,- EASTERN

WESTERN - Figure 2 VEGETATION ZONES OF SOUTHEAST TEXAS

"-lrlY"d \;m

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Adapted fromfron StoryStorl/ et al.aI. 1990:199O: FigureFigure 1111 FigureFigure 33

EARLYEARLY PROJECTILEPROJECTILE POINTSPOINTS

0O 55cm c m lltltt

. I . A B C

IJ KLK L

A-A- C!-ovis,Clovis, B-B- Fol-soE,Folsom, C-C- P]-ainviey,Plainview, D-D- Angostura,Angostura, E- EarlyEarly Side-NotchedSide-Notched,, E-F- EarlyEarly Corner-Notched,Corner-Notched, G-G- BigBig Sandy,Sandy, E-A- San Patrice,Patrice, I-I- EarlyEarly Stemed,.Stemmed, iI-J- Carrollton,Carrollton, K- WeIWells,ls, L-L- Bulverde,Bulverde, dotsdots shovshow groundground edgesedges FigurePigure 44

LATERLATER PROJECTILEPROJECTILE POINTSPOINTS

0o ltt 55cm c m I i____.i I

A B C Do

E F G H

# I J K LL

A-A- Pedernales,Pedernales, B-B- Gary,Gary, C-C- Kent,Kent, D-D- Yarbrough,Yarbrough, E-E- DarlDarl, , F-F- Ensor,Ensor, c-G- E].lis,Ellis, H-H- PatEilras,Palmillas, I- Perdiz,Perdiz, J-J- catahoula,Catahoula, x-K- scallorn,Scallorn, L-L- AIbaAlba Figure 5

T]NIFACIALUNIFACIAL ARROTIARROW POTNTS,POINTS, 4lnR41HR184 184

,/,A \\

0 @ & btu E A B C D E F

Orttllt 55cm cm () ( $4& G H J L A A ffi MM N 0o pP o

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POLYHEDRAL BLADE CORES, 41HR184 Nlq q m

A B Cc

0o! -1i , , , , 5fcm cm D@ D E F G

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ru 0 A 0 A B Cc DD E

ft G J

I • 0 0000CI L 0 M a

U D T U v w x

• FigureFigure Z7 SI{ALLSMALL PRISUATICPRISMATIC BLADES,BLADES, 4lrIRI8441HR184

AA toto R-R- unmodifiedunmodified blades,blades, SS toto X-X- Dodifiedmodified bladesblades FigureFigurc 8t FlakeFleto SizeSizc byby Excavation Ercavation LevelLcvcl --41—* underunder 1515 ----f-A-- 15-2015-20 mm mm --# I— overovet 2020 FlakeFlafc SizeSizc

••11 11o 80to o )FI4 70 -

CI a Mil .... 6050 to6 0o sa 50 ••• .-4asqt k 40 ••• o 30 d o (, 20 L o tr. lo

0o 0 100 200 300

ExcavationExoavetion Depth,Dcpth, cmoE o xd H H Ero { FI H oD o ti2 q 2 4 . FIx 2 o ?h l-{ tr

•

FigurcFigure 10l0 Regional PopulationPopulation DynamicsDynamics *— ID— inlandinland -'#---A— coastalcosstal

$4L 0 ....o 0o 44,9ea 3030 oc 0o 4. osc ; 20 MP 0a20q 0o a4F{ 0o 4.• 10 iroes 7)o gil • f 1 0 O 1 2 3 4 55 6 7 8 t 9 910 lo (Thousands)(Thousendr) YearsYcars B.P.B.P.