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Impacts of Sediment Burial on Mangroves

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Impacts of Sediment Burial on Mangroves Marine Pollution Bulletin Vol. 37, Nos. 8±12, pp. 420±426, 1998 Ó 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved Printed in Great Britain PII: S0025-326X(98)00122-2 0025-326X/99 $ - see front matter Impacts of Sediment Burial on Mangroves JOANNA C. ELLISON School of Applied Science, University of Tasmania, P.O. Box 1214, Launceston, Tasmania 7250, Australia Aerial roots are a common adaptation of mangrove trees Rates of Mangrove Tidal Swamp Accretion to their saline wetland habitat, allowing root respiration in the anaerobic substrate. While mangroves ¯ourish on First, it is necessary to establish natural rates of sedi- sedimentary shorelines, it is shown here that excess input mentation, for mangroves are known to promote sedi- of sediment to mangroves can cause death of trees owing mentation. Scon (1970) showed that the roots of to root smothering. Descriptions of 26 cases were found in Rhizophora mangle can signi®cantly reduce the velocity the literature or described here, where mangroves have of tidal water, and provide a better sediment binding been adversely aected by sediment burial of roots. The capacity compared with a variety of sea-grasses and impacts ranged from reduced vigour to death, depending algal mats. Furukawa and Wolanski (1996) and Fur- on the amount and type of sedimentation, and the species ukawa et al. (1997) demonstrated that a combination of involved. There are insucient data to establish speci®c vegetational friction on water movement and sediment tolerances. For rehabilitation, where the disturbance was a ¯occulation promotes sedimentation within mangrove past event, the elevation change must be assessed in swamps. Spenceley (1982) from a study of inserted pegs selection of species for replanting, and ®eld trials are in mangroves on Magnetic Island, o Townsville required in areas where rapid accretion is an ongoing (Queensland) found higher sedimentation rates among problem. Ó 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights mangrove roots than in the open. Young and Harvey reserved (1996) used arti®cial pneumatophore roots to show a positive correlation between root density and sediment Keywords: mangrove; sediment; burial; death; rehabilita- accretion. tion. Recent sedimentation rates in mangrove swamps (<100 years) have been measured using iron ®lings (Chapman and Ronaldson, 1958), brickdust (Bird, 1971), stakes (Bird and Barson, 1977; Spenceley, 1977, Mangrove forests occur in the intertidal zone of the 1982) and feldspar clay (Cahoon and Lynch, 1997). 137 210 tropics, with a world mangrove area estimated at Using Cs and Pb , Lynch et al. (1989) and Cahoon 14197635 hectares (Lacerda et al., 1993). The most ex- and Lynch (1997) showed accretion rates of up to 1 tensive areas of mangrove swamp occur on sedimentary 2.2 mm.yÀ at Rookery Bay, Florida, and at Terminos shorelines, where large rivers discharge onto low gradi- Lagoon, Mexico, found accretion rates of 3.2± 1 ent coasts. Despite this, excess input of sediment to 4.4 mm.yÀ at a river dominated site, and up to 1 mangroves can cause death of forest areas. Accounts of 2.0 mm.yÀ at a tidal dominated site. mangrove response to burial by sediment are compiled These short-term records of mangrove sedimentation 1 here, assessing the state of knowledge of impacts, and show that the majority accreted at rates of <5 mm.yÀ , 1 issues of rehabilitation. with a maximum 10 mm.yÀ (Table 1). In these cases, Aerial roots are a major adapation of the majority of the mangrove forests were not adversely aected by mangrove species to the environmental stresses of their sedimentation, indicating rates that are tolerable. intertidal habitat, allowing root respiration in anaero- bic, waterlogged soils. They dier in architecture be- Burial of Mangrove Roots by Sediment tween species, from tall prop roots in Rhizophora, to lower pneumatophores in Avicennia and Sonneratia, There are several accounts, from deltaic areas that knee roots in Bruguiera and Xylocarpus mekongensis, receive massive amounts of sediment, of mangroves that buttresses in Ceriops and plank roots in Heritiera and opportunistically colonise suitable habitats and may get Xylocarpus granatum. The importance of aerial root disrupted by changes in sediment supply and microto- architecture in determining tolerance thresholds of pography. West (1956 p. 117), described deposition of mangrove species to sediment burial is investigated in sand in stands of Rhizophora at the Atrato delta in this review. Colombia killing mature trees. Thom (1967) described 420 Volume 37/Numbers 8±12/August±December 1998 TABLE 1 dying because of excess sedimentation (van Mensvoort, Summary of short-term natural sedimentation rates found in man- 1998). This jeopardised a reforestation eort, with grove swamps. young Rhizophora trees buried by soft mud. Location Rate (mm/y) Reference Similar problems have been demonstrated experi- mentally by Terrados et al. (1997). This study showed Magnetic Island 11.0 to 9.0 Spenceley, 1977, 1982 Cairns À 1.0 Furukawa et al., 1997 that sediment burial of 8 cm and above retarded growth Cairns 3.0 to 10.0 Bird and Barson, 1977 and increased mortality of Rhizophora apiculata seed- Melbourne 8.0 Bird and Barson, 1977 lings. They suggested that rapid sediment accretion Auckland, NZ 1.7 Chapman and Ronaldson, 1958 Florida 1.4 to 1.7 Lynch et al., 1989 altered oxygen supply to the hypocotyl root system. Florida 0.6 to 3.7 Cahoon and Lynch, 1997 Sediment deposition in mangroves is also recorded as Mexico (Fluvial) 3.2 to 4.4 Lynch et al., 1989 a result of storms. In Florida, Craighead and Gilbert Mexico (Tidal) 1.0 to 2.0 Lynch et al., 1989 (1962) described the eects of Hurricane Donna on mangroves of southern Florida, particularly Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa and Conocarpus erectus. Widespead death occurred, the distributions of mangroves in the Tabasco delta, averaging 25±75% death over large areas and locally Mexico, as being subject to the sedimentation patterns reaching 90% . This was not due to mechanical damage of the river. Atmadja and Soerojo (1994) observed that and defoliation, since some trees put forth new leaves, some Indonesian mangroves are subject to excessive but was due to deposition of several inches of sediment sedimentation from river ¯oods, causing death of some that caused root damage and oxygen de®ciency. The mangrove species, especially Avicennia and Sonneratia. depth of depostion was up to 5 inches (12.7 cm), and Lugo and Cintron (1975 p. 840), described excess sedi- evidence is presented (pp. 25±26) of death of deeper mentation in Puerto Rican mangroves as a result of roots. ¯oods, leading to interruption of root and soil gas In February 1990, Cyclone Ofa in American Samoa exchange, and eventual death of the trees. killed 1.6 ha of 16 m tall Bruguiera gymnorrhiza at Aoa Other examples have recently been described on the on the east shore, and some 4 ha at Masefau on the Mangrove Research Discussion List. In French Guiana north shore. Fig. 1 shows that aerial knee roots were massive sediment deposition occurs adjacent to river buried in sediment. mouths, causing death of Avicennia germinans (Fro- There are numerous accounts of sedimentation as a mard, 1998). New deposits can be colonised by Lag- result of human disturbance causing problems in man- uncularia racemosa. In the south-east Mekong delta, groves, but generally few quantitative details. Hutchings several locations are described as showing mangroves and Saenger (1987; p. 307) described that if dredge spoil Fig. 1 Bruguiera gymnorrhiza forest at Aoa, American Samoa, that died from sediment burial following Cyclone Ofa. The knee roots are practically buried, a few can be seen in the bottom right of the plate. 421 Marine Pollution Bulletin is discharged over the roots of mangroves, it leads to lished Rhizophora forest, caused by the initiation of a their death. In Trinidad, Ramcharan (1997) described shingle ridge adjacent, and burial of aerial roots. 10±15 cm deposition of marine dredge on Avicennia Chappell and Grindrod (1984) described recent burial of germinans and Laguncularia racemosa as causing death. mangroves by 70 cm of shell adjacent to a chenier ridge. In NW Australia, at King Bay, 2 ha of mangroves were Rhizophora is described as dead, while large Avicennia buried and deteriorated when an adjacent dredge trees seemed to have survived despite pneumatophore stockpile eroded (Gordon, 1988). At Point Samson, burial, perhaps because this was loose gravel. harbour dredge spoil smothered pneumatophores and Degradation of mangroves from sand and silt sedi- killed fringing Avicennia marina (Gordon, 1988). mentation is reported from Guinea-Bissau by Simao In Singapore, Lee et al. (1996; p. 32) described man- (1993). Invasion of sands into mangroves is described as groves adjacent to a reclamation project. `At this loca- a stress by Echevarria and Sarabia (1993) from Peru, tion, the mature individuals of Avicennia spp. and especially in the Tumbes River. In Colombia, Alvarez- Sonneratia alba are either in the moribund state, dying Leon (1993) described mining at Cartagena Bay causing or dead. The most probable cause for this happening is sedimentation in adjacent mangroves, as is the case for the fast accretion of sediments along the embankments, soil erosion from catchment deforestation. Mangroves hence burying or covering the pneumatophores of the are described as `damaged' by such activities, but no breathing roots'. A photograph of the pneumatophores details are given. In Cuba, Padron et al. (1993) de- (p. 30) shows that these still emerge from the sediment scribed sand accumulation over prop roots and by several centimeters, but the burial is sucient to pneumatophores as aecting mangroves, but no details cause oxygen stress to the tree. are given. In the Federated States of Micronesia, Devoe (1992) The author has documented cases of burial causing reported from Yap of sedimentation in mangroves ad- mangrove death.
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