This article was downloaded by: 10.3.98.104 On: 03 Oct 2021 Access details: subscription number Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: 5 Howick Place, London SW1P 1WG, UK

The Andean World

Linda J. Seligmann, Kathleen S. Fine-Dare

Water and power in the Peruvian

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315621715-4 Barbara Deutsch Lynch Published online on: 28 Nov 2018

How to cite :- Barbara Deutsch Lynch. 28 Nov 2018, Water and power in the Peruvian Andes from: The Andean World Routledge Accessed on: 03 Oct 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315621715-4

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR DOCUMENT

Full terms and conditions of use: https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/legal-notices/terms

This Document PDF may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproductions, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 06:14 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315621715, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315621715-4 Sierra, receives less than Amazon basin.ThePacificdrainage,whichincludesthe aridcoastandmuchofthe American nation(Olson, tial andtemporalvariation.PeruhasmorefreshwaterperpersonthananyotherSouth disaster prevention,andallocationtocompetingwaterusersinthefaceofextremespa carefully governed.Thisentailsprotectionofwaterbodiesandaqueousecosystems, Andean waterscapes(Arguedas,1985). people, places,cultures,andeconomicactivitiesinhydrosocialsystemsshaping by itsverynaturewaterissimultaneouslysocialandphysical,connectingecosystems, that arevitaltothelivelihoodsofhighlandcommunities. Arguedas alsoshowsthat institutions, energyproducersandagribusinessenterprisesseektocontrolwaters acters haschanged,butthestrugglecontinuesasgovernmentagencies,international out since Europeans arrived in the Americas, and very likely earlier. The cast of char- community grazinglands.TheconflictthatArguedasdramatizedhasplayeditself arable lands,butdependforirrigationonwaterfromspringsthatdothighaltitude more powerfulmistis(non-indigenousPeruvians,inthiscontext)whoholdvaluable over water high in the mountains of Ayacucho becomes a source of leverage over the In hisnovelYawarFiesta,JoseMariaArguedastellshowindigenouspeoples’control cochas. Theserangefromhand-dug earthstructurestoformidableengineeringworks diverted intoelaboratenetworks ofditchesor contributes toglacialmeltingandgreatervariabilityin watersupply. ing pastureforthousandsofgoats,anddryoutafewweeks later.Climatechangealso rain andfloodingonthecoast.NorthernPeru’scoastal deserts mayturngreen,provid and fromoneyeartothenext.DuringElNiñoevents,Sierra droughtsarecoupledwith flowing throughnarrowcanyonsorquebradas.Watersupplyvarieswidelyseasonally location withrespecttosprings,streams,andrivers,which areoftendeeplyentrenched, and most of its agriculture and industry. Access to water also varies with altitude and In the Andes, water gives life and destroys it. It must be respected, placated, and In theAndes,watergiveslifeanddestroysit.Itmustberespected,placated, To makewateravailableforcropsanddomesticuse, fast-flowingstreamsare Not Taylor andFrancis WATER ANDPOWERIN THE PERUVIANANDES Barbara DeutschLynch 2 percent of ’s inhabitants percent although it is home to 86 percent of Peru’s inhabitants for 2006), butnearly ANDEAN WATERSCAPES CHAPTER THREE distribution 44 percent goes to the sparsely populated 98 percentgoestothesparselypopulated acequias andstoredinreservoirsor

- - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 06:14 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315621715, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315621715-4 interactions amongthesegroupsreconfigurehydrologyontheground. that differentsocialgroupsunderstandwaterandthepowerdynamicsgovern tural artifacts, shaped and governed by social practices, norms, and rules. The ways While many Andean waterscapes predate human settlement, they have become cul- erasing thedistinctionbetween thetwo. when waterusesareincompatible. Lastly,waterconnectsthesocialandnatural, (Sherbondy, not onlytousewater,butalsocultivatethelands towhichthewaterbelongs their laborinirrigationsystemoperationandmaintenance asvalidatingtheirrights Lake Titicacatospringsonthelandsbelongingtheir descendents.Irrigatorssee region’s peoplesarrivedattheirlandsbytravelling underground fromapointin the past,andpeople to place.According to Andeanoriginmyths,ancestors of the Orlove andCaton( implications forwaterandpowerinthewakeofreform. the reformprojectintendedtocontrolthem,Andeanresponsesboth,andtheir ance It concludes with a discussion of the water stresses that emerged in this century, twentieth century,whichbroughtnewformsofstateinterventioninwatergovern shows howwaterhasshapedAndeansocietiesovertime,withanemphasisonthe ing sometoolsforthinkingabouthydrosocialsystemsinthePeruvianAndes.Itthen and thepeoplewhoselivelihoodsdependuponthem.Thischapterbeginsbyoffer implications oflandtenurepatternsandindustrialactivitiesfordifferentwatersheds national institutionsthathavegovernedwateraccessanduseovertime,the dinary hydrologicalandenvironmentalvariability of the region, thevariedlocaland to understandtheroleofwaterinregion,onemusttakeintoaccountextraor lization oflaborforsystemoperationandmaintenance. repaired. Managing variability entails decision making, administration and the mobi- and earthquakes. Canals must be cleaned every year. Reservoirs silt up and must be ter howwellbuilt,irrigationinfrastructureiseasilydamagedbylandslides,floods, delivering watertoanetworkofcanalsthatdistributefarmfields.Nomat that channelwaterforkilometersalongtheedgeofsteepcanyonsatanevengrade, also participatedfullyintheconflict. poration. But,whileintenseprotestoccurredinthecity, nearbyfarmingcommunities event catalyzedbythetakeoverofamunicipalwatersystem byatransnationalcor Bolivian cityofCochabambaintheyear and towns.Italsoconnectsthecitycountry:conflictthatshook water connectshigh-altitudepunagrazinglandswithdownstreamcultivatedzones production to massive agribusiness and extractive enterprises. As Arguedas showed, systems, andeconomicactivitiesrangingfromsmallholdercultivationlivestock In theAndes,wateralsoconnectsquotidianto the cosmic,presentto In sum,thefactorsthatshapeAndeanhydrosocialsystemsarecomplex.Therefore, Not Taylor andFrancis 1998). Water connects diverse economic activities, provoking tensions — Water andpower inthePeruvian Andes — 2010) emphasizewater’sroleinconnectingpeople,places, eco WATER, NATURE,ANDPOWER for WATER ASCONNECTOR distribution 1 2000 seemed,atfirstglance,tobeanurban 45 ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 06:14 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315621715, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315621715-4 elite watercapture. economic actors, and the ability of those without power to mobilize in resistance to of watertoparticularactivitiesdependsonlegalstipulations, thepowerofdominant ture, livestock, and domestic use (Urteaga, displace farmingcommunitiesanddivertwaterfrom where itisneededforagricul towns andvillagesbyrechannelingirrigationwatersafter dark.Incontrast,bigdams Hydropower canbesustainableasinthecaseofmicrohydro systemsthatlightsmall waste canrenderwatertootoxicforirrigation,livestock, orhumanconsumption. much water,theyhavehadmassiveenvironmentalimpacts. Mineandprocessing contributions tothenationaleconomy.Whileneither industry isseenasconsuming market. TheseactivitiesareundervaluedbythePeruvian state. strategies, andinrecentdecades,fishfarminghasexpanded toserveagrowingtourist that feedsmallanimals.Fishfromhighlandlakesareakeycomponentoflivelihood from unlinedacequias— food plantslikequinoaandtarwi(anediblelupinealsoknownaschocho).Seepage Water instreamsandditchesisusedtomillgrain,washwool,leachtoxinsoutof wetlands (bofedaes)andglaciallakesprovidewaterforwildlifedomesticanimals. (Swyngedouw, possession andlossofaccessforthosewhodependonwatertheirlivelihoods position arguethatpricingwaterandtreatingitasaresourceinevitablyentailsdis argue thatwaterwillnotbeusedefficientlyunlessitispriced.Opponentsofthis as aneconomicgood.”Economistsworkingwithinternationalinstitutionsoften “water hasaneconomicvalueinallitscompetingusesandshouldberecognized nomic good.Thispremiseiscodifiedinthe underscores thefactthatinternationalpolicymakersalsoseewaterasaneco mizing economicgrowth.Theuseoftheword“resource”intermIWRM Peruvian governmentofficialsoftenviewwaterasaresourcetobeusedformaxi to theglobe. hydrosocial systemsasoperatingsimultaneouslyatscalesrangingfromthefarmfield tion, energyproduction,andurbanwatersupply.Wethereforehavetothinkabout the Andes,divertsitfromSierrafarmlandsanddeliverstocoastforirriga the Pacificwatershed.AndMajesprojectinArequipacaptureswaterhigh international capital,tunnelswaterfromtheAmazonbasinunderAndesinto flowing Río Santa into seven additional watersheds. The Olmos project, built with huge Chavimochic and Chinecas irrigation systems divert waters from the westward (Budds andHinojosa,2012).Forexample,therecentlyconstructedcanalsof decisions thataffectwaterallocationandusereshapeAndeanwatersheds cial systems.Regional,nationalandinternationalactors—publicprivate—make natural unit for water governance, but watersheds are not independent hydroso- water resource management (IWRM). IWRM proponents view the watershed as the Policymakers argue that mining and energy production make more significant Irrigated agricultureisakeycomponentofAndeanlivelihoods,andhigh-altitude In lightoftheseconnections,internationalwaterpoliciesemphasizeintegrated Not Taylor andFrancis 2006). WATER ASANECONOMICGOOD — Barbara Deutsch Lynch — which irrigation engineers view as waste—nourishes plants which irrigationengineersviewaswaste—nourishesplants for distribution 46 1992 DublinPrinciples,whichstatethat 2014). Attheendofday,allocation - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 06:14 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315621715, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315621715-4 a longanddistinguishedhistoryintheAndes. ization ofwaterasaresourcetobeallocatedits“highest andbest”use,butithas IWRM understandingofwaterasaneconomicgoodand theneoliberalconceptual scape, culture,andcosmos.Thiscomplexconstruction contrastssharplywiththe movements “elaguaeslavida”—waterislife,afundamental componentofland and highlandcommunitiesthemselvesdefinewater(in)security.”ForAndeansocial propose “areoftenentirelydifferentfromthewaythatmarginalizedusergroups donors, andNGOsunderstandwatersecurityproblemsthesolutionsthatthey Seemann (2014)findthatthewaysinwhichgovernmentofficials,international consulting firms(OréandRap,2009). the WorldBank,InterAmericanDevelopmentFAO,andinternational La Molinaandbelongingtoaninternationalcommunitythatincludesexpertsfrom elite cadreofirrigationengineersassociatedwiththeNationalAgrarianUniversityat the powertodefinetermsofwatergovernanceatnationallevelrestswithan tion abouttheperformanceofdifferentkindshydraulicinfrastructure?InPeru, or abouttheimpactsofpollutiononpublichealthrankincomparisontoinforma counts. How,forexample,doesknowledgeaboutthewaysinwhichplantsusewater and todecidewhoseknowledgeaboutwatercountswhatkindof legitimate andothersasillegitimate,tolabelsomeessentialmarginal, rivers andlakesintoirrigationditches,industrialplantsorurbanwatersystems. tive situations.Poderhídricocanalsorefertotheabilitymovewaterawayfrom Guevara Gil, and Panfichi, some associationsinhighlandPeruenjoylegalrecognition,othersdonot(Boelens, tions investedwiththepowertomakeandenforce rules governingallocation.While use ofcoercion.Accesstowatermaybelimitedmembersuserassocia exclude othersfromaccesswhetherbyrequiringcashorlaborpaymentsthrough ity informsthatareseenaslegitimate,wellthepowertoenforcerulesand to monitor, and to produce and disseminate information about water flows and qual - protection ofbodieswaterfromcontamination.Enforcementincludestheability rules governingthedefinitionandallocationofwaterrights,accesstowater, ability toexercisethatright.Atasocietallevel,itisthepowermakeandenforce their interests. At an individual level,poder hídrico ishavinga right towater and the certain groupsinsocietygaintheabilitytodirectflowofwaterwaysthatserve “poder hídrico”(poweroverwater)toanalyzetheserelationships.Theyaskhow Peruvian anthropologistGerardoDamonteandco-authors( ervoirs aswelltechnological informationandmanagementrulesthatdateto the have beenbuiltuponandcontain infrastructuralelementslikecanalsandsmallres form thetemplateformanycontemporaryhydrosocial systemsinthesierra.They The waterscapesthatevolvedoverthecourseofhuman occupationofhighlandPeru Discursive powerincludestheabilitytoassignmeaningwater.Boelensand At adiscursivelevel,poderhídricoisthepowertodefinesomeusesofwateras Not Taylor andFrancis — Water andpower inthePeruvian Andes — ANDEAN HYDROSOCIALSYSTEMSIN for HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 2010). This puts the latter at a disadvantage in competi- Poder hídrico distribution 47 2016) usetheterm - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 06:14 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315621715, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315621715-4 to thecosmos(Sherbondy, to between1000and500bce(SandweissRichardson,2008). culture (Dillehay,Eling,andRosen, 6,700 yearsold,suggestingactivewetlandmanagementandperhapsincipientagri- lined irrigationcanalsinnorthernPeruthatareprobably5,400years,andpossibly smaller, butsomewerealsocomplex.Archaeologistshavefoundevidenceofstone- networks werelocatedonthenorthcoast’sMocheValley.Highlandsystems Some havebeenincontinuoususesinceIncatimes.Themostimpressiveearlycanal Remains ofprehistoriccanalsandreservoirscanbefoundthroughouthighlandPeru. to reservoirsandextensiveterracingirrigationsystemsthatundoubtedlydid. beds, andsunkenfieldsthatdidnotrequireahighdegreeofsocialorganization Prehispanic watermanagementtechnologiesrangedfromsmalldiversions,raised until thelatetwentiethcentury,ithassincebecomemoretenuous. precolonial past.Whiletheconnectionbetweenpastandpresentremainedstrong keep themfunctioning(Bunker andSeligmann,1986;Mitchell,1994). over irrigablefields,theirrigation networksthatservedthem,andthelaborrequired to for their labor. Other systems belonged to communities which exercised direct control erential accesstowater,butsurpluscouldbereallocated topeasantcultivatorsinreturn governance (Palerm-Viquera,2010).Hacienda-controlledirrigationsystemsenjoyedpref called forsmallholderandhacendado(largelandedestateowner)participationinwater constitution authorizedspecialcourtsforwateranddams, andnineteenth-centurylaws and watergovernancepracticespersistedafterPeru’sIndependence in tribution systems(Guillet,2006).Thisamalgamofprehispanicandcolonialtechnologies forms oflocalsocialorganization)retainedtheirpreexisting waterrightsanddis- participation inwatergovernance.Withinnewcolonialjurisdictions, vived. Spanishauthoritiesappointedwaterjudges,butlegislation allowedforwateruser collapse madeithardertomaintaincanalsandterraces,Incaic irrigationinstitutionssur- conditions permit,theycanbefoundtoday. water governance practices, andwaterusesare not simply vestiges ofthepast.Where important intheFormativePeriod(Hastorf,2008),anditstillis.Thesetechnologies, lake affordedcroprootsbetteraccesstomoisture.FishinginLakeTiticacabecame and Richardson, 2008). Sunken fields (also called raising (Maldonado, Prehistoric settlementslocatednear maintenance, andwaterallocation(Guillet,2006). agricultural calendar,labormobilizationforirrigationsystemconstructionand At apracticallevel,waterorganizedcommunitiesandlargerpolitiesthroughthe emerged inmountainspringsandstreams,connectingthediverseAndeanlifezones. ing frombeneaththeearth’ssurfaceandredistributingitinundergroundriversthat the edge of Lake Titicaca between water intopasturelands(Palacios,1977).Farmerswereplantinginraisedbedson In precolonialPeru,waterconnectedpeopletoplacesandthephysicallandscape The Spanish brought to Peru their impressive irrigation tradition, but, while demographic The Spanish brought to Peru their impressive irrigation tradition, but, while demographic Wetlands wereanothercomponentofprehispanicAndeanhydrosocialsystems. Not Taylor andFrancis The prehispanicandcoloniallegacies 2014). Punopastoralistsmadenew — Barbara Deutsch Lynch — for 1998). LakeTiticacawasseenasreceivingwateremerg bofedales wereassociatedwithllamaandalpaca distribution 2005). Small-scaleirrigationinCajamarcadates 600 and 48 1150 cochas) found on lands near the ce (Erickson, bofedales bychanneling (prehispanic ayllus (prehispanic 1821. Peru’s 2000; Sandweiss 1839 - -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 06:14 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315621715, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315621715-4 a watercode,andin ples, evenifhonoredinthebreach. Equity andtransparencyflexibilityinthefaceofdroughtwereguidingprinci about waterallocationdeterminedwhatcropswouldbegrowninaparticulararea. dry westernslopesoftheSierra,itwasoftencarefullyrationed.Communitydecisions to theareabeirrigated. could drawwaterasneeded,butduringthedryseason,itwasallocatedaccording entitled cultivators to water rights (Mayer, work parties (known as generally speaking,participationinacequiaconstructionandperiodiccommunal Andean tradition varied in response to ecological as well as cultural differences, but ernment officials saw highland agriculture as marginal (Palerm-Viquera, the tion projects.A and HydraulicEngineers( port thisproduction.In1901,thePeruviangovernmentestablishedaCorpsofMining that emphasizedsugarandcottonproductionlarge-scaleirrigationworkstosup- oriented coastalagriculture.Coastalagricultureunderwentamodernizationprocess private sectorinterests. to consolidateandprotecttheirwaterrights;othersenhancedthepowerofstate ships occurred.Somecreatedavenuesthroughwhichruralcommunitiescouldseek Andean wateruserslostautonomy,andanumberofchangesinpowerrelation dam constructionandinterbasinwatertransferprojects.Asconnectivitytightened, Andean hydrosocialsystemsbecameincreasinglyconnectedtothenationwithbig water supply;andthreatstotherightsofcommunitiessmallcultivators. ernance; increasingeconomic,demographicandclimaticpressures on theregion’s tieth century, with the employment of new technocratic approaches to water gov- Peruvian watergovernance institutions andpractices changed markedly inthe twen Interest inhydropowergrewafter the fieldtobewatered. receive theentireflowofatertiarycanalfortimeperiodproportionaltosize eral canals,accordingtoaprearrangedschedule.Individualfieldswouldcommonly tive industries and governed hydropower development. A newNational Water and sanitation, andtheMinistry ofEnergyandMinesregulatedpollutionbyextrac of Agriculture. The Ministry of Housing supervised domestic water provision and to use. Irrigation, which received most state attention, was overseen by theMinistry law madewaterstatepropertyanddividedauthority foritsgovernanceaccording water lawthatwouldconnectthestatemoreintimately toAndeanwaterscapes.The government ofJuanVelascoAlvaradoenacted a sweeping agrarian reformanda tion anddomesticwaterprovisionremainedminimal until That said,before1969,thestatelargelyignoredsierrairrigation,becausegov The earlytwentiethcenturysawincreasingstatepromotionofirrigationforexport- 1920s sawthefirststate-runirrigationprojects(OréandRap,2009) Not Taylor andFrancis — Water andpower inthePeruvian Andes — water law gave engineers control of system management, and 1917 waterlawgaveengineerscontrolofsystemmanagement,and State andirrigationinthetwentiethcentury 1908 ithiredaNorthAmericanengineertorecommendirriga 2 Wherewaterwasscarce,asitisinloweraltitudesandonthe faena, minga, or for Cuerpo deIngenierosMinasyAguas The bureaucratictransition Vigilantes orwaterjudgeswoulddiverttolat 1945, butstateinvolvementinhighlandirriga distribution 49 minka) for system maintenance and repair 2002). When it was plentiful, irrigators 1969 whenthemilitary ). In it enacted 1902 itenacted 2010). The ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 06:14 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315621715, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315621715-4 irrigation andpotablewatersystemsterraces(Montoya, migration circuitswhichreducedthesupplyoflabor for maintainingandrepairing address. Onewastheincreasingparticipationofrural familymembersinseasonal for U.S.,European,andPeruvianeconomists,engineers, andsocialscientists. jobs, somewhatmorepermanentcivilservicepositions, andconsultingopportunities international developmentagents.Inaddition,theycreated temporaryconstruction further connectingthestatetocountryside,and both stateandcountrysideto tion, theseinternationallyfundedandsupervisedirrigation projectshadtheeffectof overwhelming majorityofsierrairrigationsystemsnever receivedinternationalatten- social workers,andeconomiststoworkwith people intheprojectareas. While the of bureaucraticentitieswithintheDGA.Theseagenciesinturnhiredagronomists, the tideofmigrationtoLima.Asaconditionaidinvestorsdemandedcreation the assumptionthatirrigationwouldmakeagricultureeconomicallyviableandstem Bolin, continued togrowaspartofintegratedruraldevelopmentprojects(Lynch, in effect.InternationalinvestmentsmallandmediumirrigationtheSierra ment andoftenwithheldtheirlabor. members benefited from these projects, and those who didnot resented the require political partiesseekingvotes, micro-hydro, potablewaterandirrigationsystemsbythePeruviangovernment, izing access to water in the Sierra grew, as did investment in small and medium-scale strategy (Lynch,1988). proliferated. SanMarcosirrigatorsadoptedformalrulesasaconflictmanagement vated area,butthewatersupplyremainedconstant.Notsurprisingly,conflicts town ofSanMarcos,forexample,malariacontrolallowedexpansiontheculti realities. The bureaucratic transition was sometimes welcomed. Inthe northern Sierra were absent;inothersirrigatorsadaptedformalrulesandinstitutionstotheirown water systems(Gelles, ernance institutionscoexistedwithinformal,butoftenwell-organizedcommunity interfaces thatsierra irrigators couldmanipulatetosomeextent.Officialwater gov formity withthewatercode.Whiledeeplyflawed, aid forirrigationimprovementswereexpectedtobringlocalinstitutionsintocon depriving themofalegitimacythattheyonceenjoyed.Communitiesacceptingstate ment duringdroughts. also empoweredthenationalgovernmenttointervenedirectlyinlocalwatermanage local irrigatorcommittees.Thelatterhadauthoritytoallocatewaterrights.law Irrigation Agency(DGA)headedahierarchyofirrigationdistricts,commissions,and advice, butrequiredlaborcontributionsfromprojectrecipients. Development Bank(IADB)andtheWorldBank.Investorssuppliedmaterials German GTZ, and Dutch and Belgian development agencies), and the InterAmerican level. The law should have made water allocation more equitable, but enforcement was level. Thelawshouldhavemade waterallocationmoreequitable,butenforcementwas problem worse.Anotherstress wasthepersistenceofpowerimbalancesatsystem tion andabandonmentofagriculture byhouseholdmembers—oftenmale—made the There were, however, stresses that integrated rural development projects could not There were,however,stressesthatintegratedruraldevelopment projectscouldnot The agrarianreformwasundoneintheearly Between The 1994), projectspromotedbytheIADBandbilateralassistanceagencieson 1969 waterlawdidnotrecognizepreexistingindigenousauthorities, Not Taylor andFrancis 1969 andtheearly 2000; Boelens,2009).Inmanyruralareas,stateinstitutions — Barbara Deutsch Lynch — for 3 1980s, Peruvianandinternationalinterestinformal bilateralassistanceagencies(includingUSAID,the distribution 50 1980s, butthewaterlawremained 1969 lawcreatedporous 1982). Permanentmigra- 4 Notallcommunity 1988; ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 06:14 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315621715, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315621715-4 Andean hydrosocialsystems. importantly, civilunrestandneoliberalprogramsplaced newandpotentstresseson with stateactorswhichsometimesledtobureaucratization atthelocallevel.More systems werestillindependent,butmostirrigatorassociations hadrelationships connected tothePeruvianstateandglobaleconomy.Somesmallirrigation was scrappedin2000. ing transferrablewaterrights,butirrigatorslargeandsmallopposedthebill,which drafted legislationtosevertheancientconnectionbetweenlandandwaterbycreat with private,public,ormixedmunicipalenterprises.Fujimori’sgovernmentalso 1994 lawcalledforthereplacementofstate-owneddomesticwaterprovider hydropower facilitiesandalsoattemptedtoprivatizedomesticwaterprovision.A massive influxofforeignanddomesticcapitalintotheSierra.Fujimoriprivatized became president. His decentralization and neoliberal economic policies brought a ingly, irrigatorsobjected(GuevaraGil,2010). to waterusergroups.Thesefunctionswouldbefinancedbyfees.Notsurpris responsibility foroperatingandmaintainingirrigationinfrastructurefromthestate irrigation, nowpackagedasdecentralization.A maintenance. Thesephenomenawereaccompaniedbyrenewedstateneglectofsierra rural where sewagetreatmentdidnotexist.Urbanizationmeantabandonmentofsmall ity, whileexacerbatingsolidwastedisposalproblemsandwaterpollutioninplaces Urbanization accelerated,intensifyingthedemandfordomesticwaterandelectric tion, rather than rural development, became overarching government concerns. rural developmentprojectswiththeirirrigationcenterpieces.Pacificationandinfla ment (SenderoLuminoso),andmilitarizationofthecountrysidestalledintegrated other communitiescompelledMajestosharewaterwithupstreamcultivators. project officialstoinstallanoutletforlocalirrigation.Threatsofsimilaractionby During thedroughtof Colca Valley (Gelles, water toArequipa’scoastallands,displacedoveradozenhighlandcommunitiesinthe tial. Forexample,themaincanalofMajessystem,builtin projects, andtheirnegativeimpactsonSierraresidentscultivatorsweresubstan scale systemswasdwarfedbythesumsspentonbigcoastalirrigationandhydroelectric erratic andprivateinterestsoftenprevailed.Lastly,investmentinsmallmedium efforts toprotectAndeanwaterscapes. water rightsandaregiving risetosomeinterestingsocialmovementsandNGO concerns abouttheprotection ofecosystems,communities,andsmallcultivators’ tive promotedbytheWorldBankandIADB.These developmentshaveraised the intensificationofprotestinSierra.Anotherwas amajorwaterreforminitia opment, glacialretreat,urbanization,andruraldepopulation. Oneresponsehasbeen Andean waterscapes are changing faster than ever in the face of mining, energy devel- By theendoftwentiethcentury,mostAndeanhydrosocialsystemsweretightly In By themid-1980s,economiccrisis,activitybyShiningPathguerrillamove 1990, AlbertoFujimori,formerRectoroftheNationalAgrarianUniversity, aldeas (hamlets)andfurtherlossoflaborforterraceirrigationsystem CONFLICT ANDREFORMINTHENEWMILLENNIUM Not Taylor andFrancis — Water andpower inthePeruvian Andes — ) and cut off the water supply to other highland cultivators. 2000) and cut off the water supply to other highland cultivators. , Cabanaconde peasants breached the canal forcing Majes 1983, CabanacondepeasantsbreachedthecanalforcingMajes for distribution 51 1989 supremedecreetransferred s to transport 1970s totransport ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 06:14 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315621715, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315621715-4 President Humala declared a state of emergency in Cajamarca. The repression that President Humaladeclared a stateofemergencyinCajamarca.Therepressionthat is moreimportantthangold” andpromisingto“guaranteewaterforallPeruvians,” processing. Protestledtoconfrontationwiththegovernment. Afterstatingthat“water mining inriverbasinheadwatersandabanontheuse of cyanideandmercuryinore water tosixwatersheds.Concernedabouthealthrisks, protesters calledforanendto open-pit goldandcoppermine.Plansincludeddraining fourpunalakesthatsupplied the roadandoccupiedanAntiminaminepumphouseto protestwatercontamination. but eruptedagainin NGOs. Theconflictabatedwhenthegovernmentsuspended theexplorationpermit, the region’spublicsector,localgovernmentofficials, church,andenvironmental to HuarazandmarchedinthestreetsofChimbote. Theyfoundalliesin the HuascaránNationalPark(Figure ing communities,urbanwaterusersinHuarazandcoastalcities,defendersof irrigation anddrinkingwater,provokedmobilizationbylivestock-producingfarm Lake Conococha,headwatersoftheRíoSantaandtwoothercoastalriversusedfor throughout thehighlands.In2010,threatofmineralexplorationonshores ing, haveled to massive protests in Cajamarcaand in Ancashandmyriadsmallerclashes community irrigationsystemsforitsownoperations(SosaandZwarteveen,2012). irrigation. Yanacocha also drained high altitude lakes and captured the waters from has contaminatedthemandalteredtheirflows,reducingthesupplyfordownstream water toprocessore.Sitedattheheadwatersoffivemajorriversinregion,mine (and financedbytheWorldBank),usescyanidesolutionandmassivequantitiesof US. NewmontMiningCorporationandthePeruvianBuenaventuraCompany ously damagedtheregion’swaterscapes.Yanacocha,ahugegoldmineownedby obliterating itsonlysourceofcleanwater(Figure3.1). with mineralprospectingwoulddestabilizeitsdam,endangeringthecommunityand tivation, butHuallanca’s environmental committee feared that blastingassociated The townbecametotallydependentuponasmallreservoirabovethelimitsofcul etallic minerenderedstreamwaterunfitfordomesticuse,livestock,andirrigation. capacity and,asacorollary,theflowinhighlandstreamsandirrigationcanals. ment of heavy machinery across spongy puna soils is reducing their water retention ing bofedalesessentialforalpacagrazing(BuddsandHinojosa, that feedmajorriversystemsaresevere.Mine-relatedwaterconsumptionisshrink mines areoftenlocatedonthepuna,theirimpactswetlands,lakes,andsprings Mine tailingsandprocessingwasteareamajorsourceofwaterpollution,where rejection ofpoliciesfavoringextraction, but hetoofoundmineroyaltiesattractive. exploration. Theelectionofhissuccessor,OllantaHumala,wasinpartapopular threat toAndeanwaterscapes. ranean acquifersandwater transfers fromthehighlands.Miningposed gravest ing, hydropower,andexport-orientedagriculturedependentuponshrinkingsubter- The firstdecadeofthetwenty-firstcenturysawrapidgrowthtourism,min , Cajamarca rural and urban dwellers rose to fight the planned Conga Also in2011,Cajamarcaruralandurbandwellersrosetofightthe planned Conga These impacts,togetherwithinequitabledistributionofthecostsandbenefitsmin Water diversionandcontaminationassociatedwithmininginCajamarcahasseri- In Huallanca,asmalltownintheCordilleraHuayhuash,leachingfrompolym- Not Taylor andFrancis 2011 whenresidentsof — Barbara Deutsch Lynch — for STRESSES ANDPUSHBACK 5 Aspresident,AlanGarcíastronglypromotedmineral distribution 3 . 2 ). Protesters blocked the highway from ). ProtestersblockedthehighwayfromLima 52 towns in the district of Catac blocked 32 townsinthedistrictofCatacblocked 2012), andthemove ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 06:14 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315621715, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315621715-4 big hydrodevelopment.Often viewedassustainable,bigdamsandwatertransfer came fromhydroelectricplants. TheGarciaandHumalagovernmentssupported tion inPerudoubledbetween and glaciallakes. ingly vulnerablecomponentofAndeanwaterscapes—the highpunawithitsbofedales public healthaswellirrigatorconcerns.Theprotestsalso drewattentiontoanincreas Cajamarca protestsemphasizedbothwaterqualityandaccess andaddressedurban define accesstowaterasahumanright(PooleandRénique, 2012,p.5 washing, protectcommunitycontrolovernaturalresources insidetheirboundaries,and mining andinglacierswetlands,prohibituse ofmercuryandcyanideinore in Defense of Water. Upon arriving in Lima, they demanded that Congress ban open-pit report asexaggeration.InFebruary2012CajamarcaprotestersstagedaNationalMarch watershed damage, but the more powerful Ministry of Energy and Mines dismissed its followed ledtoviolence.Peru’snewMinistryoftheEnvironmentwarnedpotential they relyentirelyforirrigation,livestockwateringanddomesticconsumption,becauseother Santa valleycommunityleaders,NGOandactiviststothesmallreservoironwhich worry thatexplosionsassociatedwithmineralexplorationinthemountainsabovedam available watersourcesaretoocontaminatedtouse.Environmentalcommitteemembers Figure 3.1 Mining requiresenergy,asdoindustryandurbansettlements. Energyconsump Not Taylor andFrancis

— Water andpower inthePeruvian Andes — Members oftheHuallancaEnvironmentalCommitteeescortagroupRío for Photo credit:BarbaraD.Lynch. are threateningitsstability 2004 and2014,overhalfofthecountry’ssupply distribution 53 ). The Ancash and ). TheAncashand - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 06:14 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315621715, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315621715-4 particularly duringtheadministration ofPresidentAlanGarcia,todepopulateSierra areas, concentrationofservices inurbancenters,anddeliberategovernmentpolicy, has continued to do so, thanks to the growth of urban settlements around mining and urbanwateruserswouldberespectedinthelong run. Lynch, an equitable resolution, but Duke backed out (Carey, French, and O’Brien, supply also joined the protest. In small cityofCaraz,andurbandwellersworriedabout threats totheirdomesticwater Chavín, themunicipalcorporationdrawingdrinking waterfromthelakefor patible withtheneedsofirrigatorslong-standing rightstouselakewater.EPS access tothelake,claimingthatDuke’sreleasesgenerate electricitywereincom and isstillnotresolved.CruzdeMayocampesino community membersblocked Laguna ParónintheCordilleraBlancaproducedaconflict thatboiledoverin to runturbinesarealsoproblematic.DukeEnergy’scontroloverwaterreleasesfrom negative impactsonAndeanwaterscapes.Timedreleasesfromnaturalglaciallakes projects havedisplacedcommunities,madeirrigationdifficult,andhad which istheRíoSanta,provideswatertosmallhighlandfarmersandmassivecoastal the regionsofAncashandLaLibertad.Thedelicatelakeecosystem,threatenedbymining Urbanization intheSierrabegantoaccelerate mid-twentieth centuryand Figure 3.2 agribusiness enterprises.Italsoprovidesdrinkingwatertotownsandurbancentersin 2012) anditwasnotclear that thewater rights ofcampesinocommunities Not Taylor andFrancis

exploration, isacrucialresourceforlocalfishersandpastoralists Lake Conococha,highinthepuna,feedsthreeriversystems,largestof — Barbara Deutsch Lynch — for Photo credit:BarbaraD.Lynch. 2010, government intervention appeared to lead to distribution 54 2012; 2008 - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 06:14 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315621715, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315621715-4 duly raised,citizenswouldparticipateinwaterconservationefforts. enforce the law, and inculcate a newwater culture in Peruvian citizens. Consciousness the watershedlevel.Governmentexpertswouldproduceinformation,monitorand coordinate waterusesanddevolutionofresponsibilityformanagementto tion ofcivilsocietyinwatergovernance.Thebankscalledforanationalbodyto water asaneconomicgoodtoberationallyallocatedandencouragedtheparticipa World Bank.IWRMprinciplesinformedthebanks’recommendations.Theydefined reform initiativepromotedbytheInterAmericanDevelopmentBank(IDB)and This panoramaofdeepeningwaterstressformedthebackdropforamajor sheep anddecliningmilkproduction(Rasmussen,2015). appearance oflizards,toadsandlittlebirds;worryaboutthelosscalves the unsettlingeffectsofchangesinrainfallpatternsandsuddenfrost;lamentdis- and more extreme shifts in temperature.” Farmers in the upper Rio Santa valley note melting glaciers,decreasingwatersupply,suddenfroststhatcomeatunxpectedtimes, rience climate change as “seasonal instability, belated rains, longer drought periods, concludes thatmostofthefarmersinColcaValleywithwhomsheworkedexpe They alsoworryaboutoutburstfloodingandhuaycos.Stensrud( living near the snowline understand what climate change means for water availability. capable ofmanagingwaterinawarmingworld(WorldBank, to justifytheirpoliticalandeconomicpositions,questionwhetherAndeanfarmersare hydrology andseasonalvariationinwatersupply,internationalpolicymakers,seeking ingly obvious.Asclimatescientistsassesstheimplicationsofglacialretreatfor capture forurbanusereducesitsavailabilityirrigation. lack accesstopipedwater.Urbanandindustrialwastesaddpollution,water disposal andsewagetreatmentplantsarerareintheSierra,periurbansettlements , Juliaca,Ayacucho,andCuscogrewfasterthanLimain hamlets and concentrate population in urban centers. Highland cities like Cajamarca, governance institutions.The water law,createdanationalauthority(ANA),andthreehierarchiesof commitments (GuevaraGil, water accordingtowhatitseesasitshighestandbest use,overridingotherlegal playing fieldthatisanythingbutlevel.Thelawgivesthe statethepowertodistribute ino (peasant)andindigenouscommunitywaterrights,but itcreatedaninstitutional managed “for all Peruvians” and affirmed national respect for traditional campes - participation inwatershedgovernance.Thelawdefines waterasstatepropertytobe priorities, andcodified water rights. It calledforIWRM,decentralization, and user satisfied noone,butdefinedtherolesofnewinstitutions, setwateruserulesand sophisticated irrigationtechnologies. Theagencylacksagronomistswhocanassess law. ANA engineers see their mission as buildinginfrastructureandpromoting the Sierra(RoaGarcía,2014). ability, andlargecommercialwaterusersoversmallcultivators andcommunitiesin With theseguidelinesinmind,thePeruviangovernmentoverhauled Lastly, theeffectsofclimatechangeonAndeanwaterscapeshavebecomeincreas Peru’s newwaterbureaucracy reflectsthecontradictionsinherentinwater Not Taylor andFrancis — Water andpower inthePeruvian Andes — for 2014). Itprioritizesefficiencyoverequityandsustain 2009 lawthatemergedfromalong,divisiveprocess WATER REFORM distribution 55 ). People 2010, p.137).People 2014–15. Solidwaste 2016, pp.26– 1969 27) - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 06:14 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315621715, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315621715-4 and bofedalprotection(Stensrud, 2016). hope tousecompensation fundtreeplanting,microdamconstructiononthepuna, they deserve compensation from the enterprises that benefited from diversion. They precepts: theyarguethatbecausewaterdivertedbythe projecthaseconomicvalue Colca ValleyfarmerspushbackagainsttheMajesproject, theyareusingIWRM are increasinglydemandingrecognitionandpayment fortheseservices.And,as highland residents’awarenessoftheirroleinprotecting Peruvianwaterscapes.They expanding therepertoireofresponsestowatercrises, theseorganizationsheighten the roleofhighlandcommunitiesinconstructingand maintainingwaterscapesand demics aswelltolocalNGOs,municipalauthorities, and communityorganizations. source fortheregion.TheselargerNGOsareconnectedto internationaldonorsandaca with traditionaltechnologies,anddocumentthevalue ofPiura’s tor glaciallakestopreventoutburstfloods,helpcommunities toadaptwaterscarcity programs, supportedbyUSAIDandinternationalfoundations,includeeffortstomoni Mountain Institute,aninternationalNGO,playsamoredirectroleintheAndes.Its sources, theirimportanceforlocalcommunities,andthethreatstoexistence.The works mainlyintheAmazonbasin,IBCsupportsresearchonlocationofwater bon concessions,highlightingtheextentofthreatstoPeru’swatersheds.Althoughit waterscapes. Peru’sInstitutodelBienComún(IBC)hasmappedmineralandhydrocar scapes and experimenting with practical programs to controlpollutionand to preserve and resistingchangesthatthreatenAndeanecosystemscommunities. are focusing international attention on thewaterstresses that Andean people are facing and itsbeneficiaries.Newcoalitionsofwaterusers,peasantassociations,NGOs of Andeanwaterscapesandawillingnesstochallengetheneoliberalwaterbureaucracy (Rasmussen, members oftenfeelabandonedbythestateandseeoutmigrationastheironlyoption ened byneoliberalwatergovernancepractices(Stensrud,2016),Andeancommunity livelihoods. Theabilityofpeopleinthehighlandstoadaptclimatechangeisthreat waterscapes andthecommunitiesthatdependuponthemfortheirsustenance Peru’s waterreforminstitutionsareunlikelytoofferstrongprotectionsforAndean tection ofhighlandwaterscapesevenasclimatechangeposesevergraverthreats. consciousness aboutwater,butcontinuedtofavoreconomicdevelopmentoverpro ban families settlements—would be underrepresented. The reform raised national communities, small-scaleirrigationorganizations,andordinaryurbanperiur needs ofSierrawaterusers.Unfortunately,mostusers—especiallyrural of waterusers.Theideawasthatcouncilswouldbeabletobalancethecompeting pilot watershedcouncilswhosememberswouldintheoryrepresentthefullgamut banks investedheavilyinthedevolutionofresponsibilityforwatergovernanceto lacks thecapacitytoaddresssierra’swaterstressesintheirfullcomplexity.The its engineering expertise, ANA can amass large quantities of hydrologic data, but to addresswaterquality,publichealth,orsocialandenvironmentalconcerns.With the implicationsofcroppingpatternsforwatersupply.Nordoesithavecapacity While attimesNGOsfostercooptationratherthan resistance,byrecognizing NGOs arebringingnationalandinternationalattentiontothreatsAndeanwater Not Taylor andFrancis ). However, counterbalancing this despair is a growing appreciation 2015). However,counterbalancingthisdespairisagrowingappreciation — Barbara Deutsch Lynch — for NOW WHAT? distribution 56 as a water páramo asawater ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 06:14 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315621715, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315621715-4 3 2 1 this fundamentalresource. reshaping hasgivenrisenotonlytoendemicconflict,butanewappreciationof and culturalas well aseconomicvalueforthe peoples ofthe Andes. Thisprocess of the physicalnatureofhydrosocialsystemsthathavelonghadenormoussymbolic international levelshavereshapedboththerulesgoverningwateraccessanduse Peru showshow,overtime,politicalandeconomicactorsatthelocal,state, response tograssrootseffortsprotectAndeanwaterscapes. with ethicallycompromisedBrazilianconstructioncompanies,butitmayalsobea decision may reflect President Pedro Pablo Kuczynski’s reluctance to do business 20 newdamsontheupperRioMarañondestinedtoexportenergyBrazil.The positive change.InOctober2016,thePeruviangovernmentdroppedplanstobuild an uphillstruggle,butitwouldbeamistaketounderratetheircapacitymake agendas throughouttheAmericas.Thesemovementorganizationsandalliancesface Bury, watershed protection as part of its broader agenda (Bebbington, Bebbington, and In theearly rural allianceslentvisibilitytotheconflictsinCaraz,Conococha,andCajamarca. impacts ofdevelopmentonAndeanwaterscapesisbecomingmorecommon.Urban- Bebbington, A.,D.H., andBury,J., Arguedas, J.M., 5 4

measure ofyield(Lynch, 1988). measure of land, a measure of time allocated to diverting water into afield, and anideal For afirst-handnarrativeofthewaterwarseeOlivera( Bebbington, Bebbington, whom Iinterviewedinthe or soymealsuppliedbythe Alliance forProgressandthe World FoodProgram. Workers irrigation projectsassociatedwithPlanMERISreceivedpaymentintheformofoilandflour Many workers, maleandfemale, When FernandoBelaunde T anticipated. their labor did not necessarily stand to benefit from the completed projectaspromoters had plaints revealed a certain disconnect from the projects themselves. Those who contributed in nowaycommensuratewiththelabortheywereputting in ontheprojects. Their com plied hadnovalueforthehouseholdandthatcashtheybroughtonopenmarketwas In SanMarcos(Cajamarca), forexample, lo hizo” or “Made bythepeople.” These works were easily identified by concrete markers engraved with the words “El pueblo small investments in cement and pipes for small-scale irrigation and potable water projects. irrigation anddrinkingwaterarecoveredbyminingconcessions. registered campesinocommunitiesandthatlargeproportions ofthewatershedsthatsupply Waveland Press. To conclude,thehistoryandpoliticaleconomyofwatermanagementinhighland Despite alonghistoryoffragmentation,collectiveactiontocontroltheworst of themainstream.London:Earthscan,pp. 307–327. tory and extractionin the Andes. In R. Boelens, D. Getches, and A. Guevara Gil, eds., 2010). Waterscapeprotectionisalsoakeycomponentofindigenousrights Not Taylor andFrancis 2000s, CONACAMI,ananti-miningfederationtookupthecauseof — Water andpower inthePeruvian Andes — 1985[1941]. andBury, for 1980s inPunoandCajamarcacomplainedthatthefoodssup erry ranforpresidentin Yawar fiesta.F.H.Barraclough,trans.ProspectHeights,IL: whocontributedtheirlabortosmall-andmedium-scale 2010 notethatminingmaywellaffectoverhalfofPeru’s REFERENCES distribution NOTES irrigatorsreferredtothe 57 2010. Federatinganddefending:water, terri- 1980, hisparty, Acción Popular, made 2004). surco orfurrowasa Out - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 06:14 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315621715, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315621715-4 Dillehay, T.D.,Eling,Jr.,H.H.,andRosen,J., . An introduction to the bofedales of the Peruvian High Andes. Maldonado Fonkén,M.S.,2014.AnintroductiontothebofedalesofPeruvianHighAndes. Lynch, B.,2012.Vulnerabilities,competitionandrightsinacontextofclimate change:toward Lynch, B.,1988.Thebureaucratictransition:Peruviangovernmentintervention insierrasmall- Hastorf, C.,2008.TheformativeperiodintheTiticacaBasin.InH.SilvermanandW.H.Isbell, Gelles, P.H., Erickson, C.L.,2000.TheLakeTiticacaBasin:aprecolumbianbuiltlandscape.InD.Lentz, Damonte, G.,Gonzalez,I.,andLahud,J. Carey, M.,French,A.,andO’Brien,E., Bunker, S.andSeligmann,L.J.,1986.OrganizaciónsocialyvisionecológicadeunSistema Budds, J.andHinojosa,L., Boelens, R.,GuevaraGil,A.andPanfichi,A., Bolin, I.1994.LevelsofautonomyintheorganizationirrigationhighlandsPeru. Boelens, R. Mitchell, W., Mayer, E.,2002. Guillet, D., Guevara Gil,A. Guevara Gil,A. Boelens, R.,andSeeman,M. pp. 87–114. Mires andPeat15 22(2), pp.364–373. equitable watergovernanceinPeru’sRioSantaValley. scale irrigation.CornellUniversity,LatinAmericanProgramDissertationSeriesNo. 95. eds, HandbookofSouthAmericanarchaeology.NewYork,NY:Springer,pp. 545–561. Series 1478.OxfordUK:Archaeopress,pp.63–69 York: ColumbiaUniversityPress,pp.311–356. ed., Andes. tadores yescasezdeaguasubterraneaenelvalleIcaVillacuri. change adaptation.JournalofHistoricalGeography38(2),pp.181–191. riego andino.Allpanchis,27(1),pp.149–178. contexts: thecoproductionofwaterscapesinPeru.WaterAlternatives,5(1),pp.119–137. Washington, DC:AmericanAnthropologicalAssociation,pp.141–166. zation ofwatercontrolsystemsintheAndes pp. 307–331. In W.P.Mitchell,D.Guillet,andI.Bolin,eds, malization inYanque,ColcaValley,Peru.HumanOrganization,73(1),pp.–12. pp. 275–302. Latin American Anthropology. Washington, DC: American Anthropological Association, at highaltitudes:thesocialorganization ofwatercontrolsystemsintheAndes Westview Universidad CatólicadelPeru,FondoEditorial,pp.173–226. eds, caso deSantaRosaTambo,Huancavelica.InMaríaTeresaOréandGerardoDamonte, mainstream: waterrights,politicsandidentity.London:Earthscan. River valley,Junín,Peru.InR.Boelens,D.Getches,andA.GuevaraGil,eds,Outofthe P. Dransert,ed., ment. Piscatawy,NJ:RutgersUniversityPress. struggles overlegitimacy.JournalofWaterLaw,20(5),pp.268–277. Imperfect balance:landscapetransformationsinthePrecolumbianAmericas Escasez deAgua?RetosparalagestiónCuencadelríoIca Proceedings oftheNationalAcademySciences, Not Taylor andFrancis 2009. Thepoliticsofdiscipliningwater rights. 2006. Boundary practice and historical consciousness in Spain and Peru. In 2000. 1994. Damthewater.InW.P.Mitchell,D.Guillet,andI.Bolin, eds, 2010. Water rights andconflictsinanInter-Andeanwatershed:theAchamayo 2014. Lagestión(des)integradadelaguaenlacuencaaltaríoIca:el The articulatedpeasant:householdeconomiesintheAndes . Boulder,CO: Water and power in highland Peru: the politics of irrigation and develop- ( Kay Pacha:cultivatingwaterandearthintheAndes. 2014/ — Barbara Deutsch Lynch — 15), Article for 2012. Restructuringandrescalingwatergovernanceinmining 2014. Forcedengagements:watersecurityandlocalrightsfor 05, distribution 1 2016. Laconstruccióndelpoderhídrico:agroexpor 2012. Unintendedeffectsoftechnologyonclimate – 13.www.mires-and-peat.net/ [AccessedJuly . Preceramic irrigation canals in the Peruvian 2005. Preceramic irrigation canals inthePeruvian 58 . SocietyforLatinAmericanAnthropology. Irrigation athighaltitudes:thesocialorgani 2010. IndigenouswaterrightsintheAndes: 102( Development andChange Global EnvironmentalChange, 47), pp.17241– Antropológica, BAR International . Lima,Pontificia 17244. . Societyfor Irrigation 7 , 34(37), , . New 2017]. 40(2), - - -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 06:14 03 Oct 2021; For: 9781315621715, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315621715-4 Swyngedouw, E.2006.Power,waterandmoney:exploringthenexus.UNDP,UnitedNations Stensrud, A.2016.“Thesocialvindicationofthehighlands”:climatechangeandjusticein Sosa, M.andZwarteveen,M., Sherbondy, J.1998.Andeanirrigationinhistory.InR.Boelens,andG.Dávila,eds, Sandweiss, D.andRichardsonIII,J.B.,2008.CentralAndeanenvironments.InH.Silverman Roa García,M.C.,2014.Equity,efficiencyandsustainabilityinwaterallocationtheAndes. Rasmussen, M.B.,2015. Poole, D.,andRénique,G., Palerm-Viquera, J., Palacios Ríos,F. Orlove, B.andCaton,S.C.,2010.Watersustainability:anthropologicalapproachespros Oré, M.T. and Rap, E., 2009. Políticas neoliberales de agua en el Perú. Antecedentes y Olson, D.,2006.Recursoshídricos.InMarceloGiugale,VicenteFretes-Cibils,andJohnL. Olivera, O.,2004.¡Cochabamba!:WaterwarinBoliviaNewYork:SouthEndPress. Montoya, R.,1982.ClassrelationsintheAndeancountryside. World Bank,2010. Urteaga, P.,2014.Creadoresdepaisajeshídricos.Abundanciaagua,discursosyMercado southern Peru.LASAForum,47(4),pp.26–29. mining operationsinthePeruvianAndes.WaterAlternatives,5(2),pp.360–375. pp. 93–104. and W.H.Isbell,eds,HandbookofSouthAmericanarchaeology Water Alternatives,7(2),pp.298–319. University ofWashingtonPress. Americas, 45(1),pp.4–5. 12(6), pp.779–797. water managementinSpain,Mexico,Chile,Mendoza(Argentina)andPeru. de Puna.Lima:InstitutoEstudiosPeruanos. pects. AnnualReviewofAnthropology,39pp.401–415. Gorcum, pp.210– for equity: conceptions of justice and equity in peasant irrigation. Assen, Netherlands: Van entretelones delaLeyRecursosHidricos.DebatesSociologica(Lima),34,pp.32–66. able. WashingtonDC:WorldBank,pp.417–426 Newman, eds, 9(34), pp.62–78. Washington DC:TheWorldBank. Fondo Editorial,PontificiaUniversidadCatólicadelPeru,pp.227–267. en lascuencasdeIca y Pampas. Human DevelopmentReport,BackgroundPaper. Not Taylor andFrancis — Water andpower inthePeruvian Andes — 1977. Pastizalesderegadíoparaalpacas.InJ.A.FloresOchoa,ed., Perú: La oportunidad de un país diferente: próspero, equitativo y gobern- 2010. Acomparativehistory,fromthe 214. Development andclimatechange:worlddevelopmentreport2010. Andean waterways:resourcepoliticsinhighlandPeru.Seattle,WA: for 2012. Peru:Humalatakesoffhisgloves. 2012. Exploringthepoliticsofwatergrabbing:caselarge Escasez de agua?Retos para lagestióndelríoIca distribution 59 16th to Latin AmericanPerspectives, 20th centuries,ofirrigation NACLA Reportonthe . NewYork:Springer, Water Policy, Searching Pastores . Lima: -