A History of Psychology 6Th Edn Glossary

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A History of Psychology 6th edn Glossary

Abelard, Peter (1079–1142) One of the best-known university teachers in the twelfth century. His book Yes

and No illustrated contradictions in the positions of past authorities. He argued for a stronger role for

reason in Christian epistemology.

Academy A facility purchased by Plato by a park named Academeca in Athens. Plato taught students at this

facility, which became known as the Academy. The Academy flourished during Plato’s life and for

hundreds of years after his death. action at a distance Any apparent effect for which one cannot readily identify material and efficient causes.

active mind Refers to intelligent, self-organizing properties of mental processes. Contrasts with the “blank

slate” hypothesis encountered in empirical philosophies. act psychology A system of psychological thought advanced by Franz Brentano emphasizing the forward-

looking, intentional, planful character of experience. Brentano strongly rejected the simplistic

characteristics of many of the early systems of psychological thought.

Adler, Alfred (1870–1937) Founder of a system of psychological thought known as individual psychology, Adler

emphasized the importance of overcoming early feelings of inferiority. He focused on the purposive or

goal-directed nature of behavior and on the capacity of the individual to identify with the goals of society

at large.

Aesara One of the first Greek philosophers to emphasize the importance of balance to health.

Aesculapius Possibly a historical figure, but the name comes from the Greek mythical god Asclepius, son of

Apollo. Asclepius was a great physician who, in Greek mythology, was killed by Zeus because he sinned by

raising a man from the dead. Many temples were built in honor of Asclepius. aesthesiometer A compasslike instrument used to measure tactile sensitivity. Two points can be stimulated

simultaneously. The task of participants is to report whether they feel both points or only one.

epistemology, aestheticism attempts to integrate truth and beauty. aesthetic mode of existence According to Kierkegaard, the emphasis on sensual or intellectual pleasure. This

mode breeds indifference and boredom and the collapse into melancholy and despair. affect (affection) According to Titchener’s early theory, affections are the elementary mental processes

associated with emotions. Later, he viewed affections primarily as sensations of pleasantness or

unpleasantness. afferent In neurology, the term afferent refers to movement inward toward the central nervous system.

alchemy The ancient practice of transformation. Jung found inspiration in alchemical practices, believing they

gave substance to his psychology, spiritual values, and ideas about psychological transformation.

Alcmaeon Early Greek physician who worked around 500 BCE. He advocated an empirical, rational, and

naturalistic approach to medicine. One of the first to practice dissection.

Al-Ghazali (1058–1111) Author of The Incoherence of the Philosophers. Attacked the rationality of the Greeks

and the concept of causality. Worked against scientific progress in Islam.

Alhazen (965–1039) One of the greatest Islamic scientists whose Book of Optics is one of the most influential

classic works on vision. He made many original contributions on topics such as depth perception, apparent

size, and binocular vision.

Allport, Floyd H. (1890–1971) A founder of experimental social psychology, Allport pioneered research in

conformity, social influence, and prejudice.

Allport, Gordon (1897–1967) Well-known personality psychologist interested in the development of a

psychology consistent with the principles of freedom and democracy. His individualistic psychology is

consistent with many of the main themes of humanistic or third-force psychologies. anal stage According to Freud, in the second and third years of life, the child develops a deep awareness of the

pleasures associated with relief of bowel and bladder tension. The expression of this pleasure may be in

child is to develop normally. analytic a priori Refers to formal truths in which a predicate completely unpacks a subject. A statement such

as All bachelors are unmarried is an example. analytic psychology The name of the system of psychology advanced by Carl Gustav Jung.

Anaximander of Miletus (610–c. 547 BCE) Greek scientist and philosopher and one of the first to advance a

theory of organic evolution.

Anaximenes (c. 588–c. 524 BCE) A cosmologist who taught that air is the primal substance and that this

substance is transformed into other things through condensation and rarefaction.

Angell, James Rowland (1869–1949) A powerful advocate of the functionalist viewpoint in U.S. psychology. He

argued that psychology should emphasize mental operations rather than the “stuff of experience.” His

book Psychology and his classic article “The Province of Functional Psychology” are important expositions

of functionalism. anima In Jung’s theory, the female archetype in men.

animal spirits A concept that has enjoyed wide usage, especially in premodern times. In Galen’s pneuma

concept of the soul, the expression animal spirits was used to account for a vital psychological function,

namely, the operation of higher cognitive functions. Animal spirits contrasted with natural spirits, which

account for vegetative functions. See vital spirit. animus In Jung’s theory, the male archetype in women.

a posteriori Literally, from what is later. Generally refers to the belief that knowledge is dependent on

experience and past learning. Contrast with a priori. apperception Historically a term with many meanings, but it commonly refers to mental processes that are

more complex than those involved in perception. It implies a high level of awareness and activity of the

mind so that relationships are clearly understood. Contrasts with mere passive awareness.

education to produce not only knowledge of facts but also a higher level of awareness of relationships. approach–approach conflict A type of conflict marked by the presence of two attractive but mutually exclusive

goals. Thus, the achievement of one goal precludes the possibility of attaining the other. approach–avoidance conflict A type of conflict in which a positive goal is associated with some unattractive or

undesirable feature. a priori Literally, from what is prior. Generally refers to the presumed capacity to discern truths through

intellectual insights with minimal dependence on past experience and past learning. Contrast with a

posteriori.

Aquinas, Thomas (1225–1274) One of the greatest doctors of the church, remembered for his heroic efforts to

reconcile faith and reason. He is also remembered for advancing an empirically based system of

psychological thought. archetype According to Jung, archetypes exist in the collective unconscious. They are patterns or forms that

help mold thinking about experiences with topics such as power, death, darkness, mothers, fathers, and

so on. Jung assumed that the vast experiences of the entire species with such topics do not go

unrepresented in the psychological apparatus of each individual.

Arete Daughter of Aristippus and head of the school of philosophy at Cyrene following the death of Aristippus.

Aristippus Student of Socrates who headed the school of Cyrene following the death of Socrates.

Aristotle (384–322 BCE) The pupil of Plato and one of the great philosophers who is especially noteworthy for

his work in physics, biology, and psychology. Aristotle also founded logic and set forth an original and

comprehensive view of causality.

Asch, Solomon (1907–1996) A social psychologist in the Gestalt tradition, Asch performed classic conformity

studies in which participants often conformed to strangers’ mistaken perceptions of the length of a clearly

visible line.

delusions and hallucinations and argued that therapy for emotional problems should be pleasant. associationism Systematic emphasis on the idea that human knowledge is not innate but grows inevitably out

of the gradual buildup of associations from sensory data. attitudes According to Jung, an attitude is a pervasive social orientation. Jung identified two attitudes:

introversion and extroversion. attributes of elementary mental processes According to Titchener, elementary processes such as sensations

include four attributes: quality, intensity, clearness, and duration. attributive pluralism Emphasizes the varieties of descriptive modes applicable for most phenomena. For

example, a sunset may be described in the language of physics, anthropology, psychology, or any of a

variety of other disciplinary languages. Events can also be described poetically or musically.

Augustine, Aurelius (354–430) One of the great doctors of the church who wrote extensively about a number

of psychological topics including memory, grief, speech, and dreams.

Aurelius, Marcus (121–180 CE) Roman emperor and stoic philosopher who emphasized the importance of

enduring hardships that undoubtedly serve a larger purpose. The expression stoic resignation

characterizes an important dimension of his thought. authority One of the most common tests of truth. Reference to books, institutions, legal codes, or other people as appropriate and adequate repositories of knowledge. autokinetic effect The tendency of a fixed point of light to appear to move. Muzafer Sherif examined the ways that social norms influenced the perceived degree of movement. autonomy A term employed by Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) that refers to self-government or the ability to act

in a moral and responsible manner, not to please an authority but because the individual recognizes the

inherent or intrinsic worth of certain actions.

Averroës (1126–1198) An Islamic scholar very influential in Europe because of his commentaries on the works

of Aristotle. Known also for many substantive scientific discoveries. He discovered that patients once

retina is the part of the eye sensitive to light.

Avesta Holy book of the Zoroastrian religion.

Avicenna (980–1037) An influential philosopher of the Islamic world who attempted to reconcile the tensions

between revelation and reason. Also remembered for his Aristotelian approach to psychological problems. avoidance–avoidance conflict A type of conflict marked by the presence of two unattractive or undesirable

alternatives.

Bacon, Francis (1561–1626) Early modern philosopher of science who called for a close examination of the

problem of knowledge and increased sensitivity to sources of error. A powerful advocate of a critical

empirical-inductive method.

Bacon, Roger (c. 1220–c. 1292) One of the first to write on the sources of error in human thought. His catalog

of errors included things such as being a slave to habit, relying too much on authority, giving in to popular

prejudices, and conceit about one’s own knowledge.

Bain, Alexander (1818–1903) Founded Mind, the first journal devoted extensively to psychological topics. Also

the author of some of the first psychological texts.

Bandura, Albert (b. 1925) Psychologist who studied vicarious or observational learning.

Bartlett, Frederick Charles (1886–1969) British psychologist who stressed the role of representations or

schemas in memory and cognition. basic anxiety An overwhelming feeling of helplessness and isolation in a threatening and hostile world.

Beck, Aaron T. (1921–) An early cognitive therapist who helped clients reduce negative thoughts and more

accurately perceive themselves. He developed the Beck Depression Inventory. behavioral genetics The study of the role of genes in cognition and behavior.

methods and values of the natural sciences. Watson saw psychology as a branch of the natural sciences

and defined the discipline simply as the scientific study of behavior.

Bekhterev, Vladimir Mikhailovich (1857–1927) A contemporary of Ivan Pavlov who advanced an objective

psychology in which the reflex served as the fundamental category of inquiry. Bekhterev’s system was

known as reflexology.

Bell, Charles (1774–1842) Co-discoverer with François Magendie that spinal nerves are specialized. The ventral

root handles motor functions and the dorsal root handles sensory functions.

Bell–Magendie Law The discovery by Sir Charles Bell in England and by François Magendie in France that

motor functions are localized in the ventral root of the spinal cord, whereas sensory functions are

localized in the dorsal root.

Bentham, Jeremy (1748–1832) Founder of utilitarianism. Argued against intuitive approaches to jurisprudence

that resulted in punishments that do not fit the crime and argued for a rational system of punishments

and rewards and the need to maximize pleasure for the greatest possible number of people.

Berkeley, George (1685–1753) British philosopher who argued that the real world is not the world of matter

but the world of experience. His dictum esse est percipi (to be is to be perceived) marks him as one of the

most radical of the early empiricists. Advanced an early empirical approach to depth perception,

attempting to demonstrate that we learn to see in depth.

Binet, Alfred (1857–1911) Early pioneer in intelligence testing. Binet and his collaborator, Théodore Simon,

developed early assessments for children.

Boulder model The model for current clinical training that recommends doctoral programs train clinical

psychologists as research-practitioners with solid backgrounds in general and clinical psychology,

extensive supervised experience, and research experience.

Brentano, Franz (1838–1917) Founder of a system of psychological thought known as act psychology.

and intentional characteristics of mental life.

Breuer, Joseph (1842–1925) German physiologist and colleague of Sigmund Freud. Breuer’s treatment of

Bertha Pappenheim (Anna O.) played a central role in the early development of Freud’s psychoanalysis.

Bridgman, Percy W. (1882–1961) U.S. physicist and mathematician, known for his classic book The Logic of

Modern Physics and for his emphasis on operationism, or the attempt to tie scientific terms to precise

measurements.

Broca, Paul (1824–1880) A French physician who is remembered, among other things, for his discovery that

the anatomical locus for articulate or spoken speech is in a small region of the left frontal lobe—the

inferior frontal gyrus, subsequently named Broca’s area.

Brücke, Ernst (1819–1892) Famous physiologist who had a powerful influence on Sigmund Freud. Brücke

emphasized the importance of a thoroughgoing, physical–chemical approach to the study of psychological

topics.

Calkins, Mary Whiton (1863–1930) First woman president of the American Psychological Association, who

argued for a reconciliation of structuralism and functionalism. Advanced a personalistic psychology in

which the self is the primary focus of study.

Carr, Harvey A. (1873–1954) The thirty-fifth president of the American Psychological Association, Carr helped consolidate and amplify the functionalist viewpoint in psychology. At the University of Chicago, he headed a powerful department of psychology that was one of the most prolific in Ph.D. production. categories of understanding An expression employed by Kant to refer to inherent ordering principles of the mind that contribute to knowledge. For example, Kant believed that human beings have intuitive understandings of causality and temporal and spatial relationships.

Cattell, James McKeen (1860–1944) A prominent leader in the U.S. functionalist tradition. Though he

published little, he established a laboratory at Columbia University and headed a strong department in

that institution. Cattell served as editor of numerous journals and magazines, including Science, Popular

Science Monthly, Psychological Review, and School and Society. Through his efforts, psychology became

applied psychology, most notably by founding the Psychological Corporation. chaos hypothesis The belief that there is no pattern or direction in history; history has no meaning except that

attributed to it by humans.

Charcot, Jean-Martin (1825–1893) French physician and neurologist who had a strong influence on the

development of Freud’s thought. Charcot emphasized the psychological basis of some physical symptoms.

closure The tendency psychologically to complete that which is incomplete, to fill in the gaps, or to see

wholeness even when it is not present. cognitive maps A term employed by Edward Chace Tolman referring to “mental representations” of the

environment that make it possible for an animal to grasp relationships and locations. cognitive psychology A broad interdisciplinary effort to study the processing of information in memory,

problem solving, judgment, and other forms of cognition. Also known as cognitive science or information-

processing psychology. collective unconscious A controversial concept advanced by Carl Jung. He believed that the human mind

includes unconscious memories from the biological past of topics such as darkness, death, and power.

Most of what is in the collective unconscious is associated with topics that strongly influence survival. commonsense philosophy A term referring to the philosophical orientation of philosophers such as Thomas

Reid (1710–1796) and his followers. The expression refers to a deeply held opposition to beliefs that are counterintuitive or that do violence to our experience of the world. compensation In Adler’s psychology, the normal attempts to overcome specific inferiorities by developing strengths in alternative areas (e.g., a person who is not athletic may excel in the classroom). complex A term employed by Jung to refer to conscious materials that are strongly associated with emotional or perceptual distortions. For example, in Jung’s view, an inferiority complex results partly from perceptual distortions regarding personal adequacy. compliant type A neurotic attempt to reduce anxiety by moving toward people.

Condillac, Étienne Bonnot de (1715–1780) French radical empiricist who attempted to show specifically how

all knowledge could derive from associations that start with simple sensations. conditioned reflex (CR) In classical conditioning, a learned reflex elicited by a conditioned stimulus. Also

known as a conditioned response. conditioned stimulus (CS) In classical conditioning, any stimulus that is psychologically or biologically neutral

prior to conditioning trials. Such a stimulus may be paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus.

After repeated pairings, the previously neutral conditioned stimulus will elicit a reflex similar to the

unconditioned reflex elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.

Confucius (551–479 BCE) Well-known early Chinese philosopher interested primarily in the moral life with a

focus on methods that promote personal and interpersonal harmony. connectionism A formal term often applied to the theory of learning advanced by Edward Lee Thorndike.

Thorndike believed that learning involved the development of connections or bonds between sense

impressions and responses. Connectionism is one of the first S–R theories of learning. context theory of meaning According to Titchener, meaning depends on context or the association of a

stimulus with other relevant surrounding stimuli.

Copernicus, Nicolaus (1473–1543) Polish astronomer, physician, and minister remembered as the founder of a scientific revolution marked by the belief that the sun, rather than the earth, is the center of the solar system. cosmology The study of theories of the nature of the universe including the relation of earth to the rest of the solar system. countertransference In Freud’s psychology, the emotional attachment of a therapist to a patient.

creative synthesis The principle advanced by Wundt that psychical combinations are not a mere sum of elements. Rather, a combination of associations includes new attributes not predictable from the sum of the elements. critical psychology An approach that challenges traditional methods and assumptions in psychology to promote social justice.

example, it might be argued that freedom is lost, only to be regained and lost again; thus, there is endless

repetition.

Dasein Literally, the term refers to “being-in-the-world.” The term was employed by Heidegger to refer to a

kind of authentic self-awareness along with a deep awareness of the surrounding environment and one’s

role in that environment. da Vinci, Leonardo (1452–1519) Broad-ranging Renaissance scholar who was an artistic genius, engineer,

sculptor, and architect. He is also remembered for his careful studies of human anatomy and his artistic

skill in capturing human emotions. deductive argument Any argument in which the conclusion is claimed to follow necessarily from the premises.

A deductive argument is valid if, and only if, it is not possible for the premises to be true and the

conclusion false. Otherwise, the argument is invalid.

Democritus (c. 460–c. 370 BCE) Refined the atomic theory set forth earlier by the philosopher Leucippus.

Taught that reality was based on atoms and the void. Atoms were thought to be indivisible and invisible.

Their basic structures accounted for the nature of the observable material world.

Descartes, René (1596–1650) French philosopher who is often regarded as the founder of modern philosophy.

Descartes made extensive original contributions in a great variety of areas. He helped elaborate early

scientific methodology, provided rich and often testable hypotheses about the relationships between

behavior and physiology, and is regarded as one of the key figures in modern rationalism. desire According to Brentano, a way of being conscious of an object marked by attraction or repulsion. detached type A neurotic attempt to reduce anxiety by moving away from people.

determinism The belief in universal causation. Implies that whatever happens is based on antecedents such

that, given them, nothing else could happen. Contrast with free will.

thought. Dewey argued for a process-oriented psychology emphasizing the study of adaptation. He argued

against the concept of elements, whether they be units in consciousness or in the reflex. difference threshold The minimal stimulus difference that is detectable 50 percent of the time.

disciplined naïveté The attempt to approach the phenomena of consciousness while suspending

presuppositions so that such phenomena may be captured in their givenness. discrimination In classical conditioning, subjects may be conditioned to respond to one stimulus and to ignore

or withhold a response to another stimulus. Discrimination is generally established through differential

reinforcement. doctrine of formal discipline An early belief that the mind, like certain muscle groups, is developed most effectively by specific exercises such as the study of certain classics (e.g., Latin and geometry). double-aspect monism A mind–brain position emphasizing the availability of two languages to describe the same phenomena. In this case, there is the language of physiology versus language that employs mentalistic concepts. The position assumes that both refer to the same underlying reality. drive A term employed in different ways in different systems of psychology but generally referring to “inner

stimulation” that results in action. dualism The belief that there are two fundamentally different realities. For example, mental processes are

considered by the dualist to be largely independent and qualitatively different from brain processes.

Duncker, Karl (1903–1940) Gestalt psychologist remembered for his work on the nature of problem solving

and for work on the relativity of perceived movement.

Ebbinghaus forgetting curve A curve demonstrating that forgetting of nonsense material is rapid immediately

after learning. After an initial rapid decline, the rate of forgetting slows down.

Ebbinghaus, Hermann (1850–1909) One of the great pioneers in psychology, remembered for developing the

nonsense syllable as a means of studying memory experimentally while minimizing past associations. Also

psychology.

Eccles, John C. (1903–1997) Received the 1963 Nobel Prize for his work on synaptic transmission. ecological validity The view that psychologists should study real-world, everyday events about the human

condition. Cognitive psychology has been criticized for its lack of ecological validity. ecopsychology The study of the relationships between humans and the natural world, emphasizing principles of psychology and ecology. ecotherapy A form of therapy that blends traditional therapy and ecopsychology with particular emphasis on human health in the natural world. efferent Refers to neurological activity that moves outward from the central nervous system toward the

muscles and glands. efficient cause According to Aristotle, the force that sets a thing in motion. Thus, domino A, impacting domino

B, is the efficient cause of the fall of B.

ego In Freud’s system, the ego is the I or me of the personality—the center of organization and integration that

must adapt to the demands of reality. Jung uses the term to refer to a component of personality that is

closely associated with conscious processes. element An abstraction referring to a simple irreducible sensation.

emergentism A mind–brain position embracing the idea that mental processes are produced by brain

processes. Some emergentists believe that mental processes, though produced by brain processes, are

qualitatively different from the physical system from which they emerge.

Empedocles (c. 490–c. 430 BCE) Early homeostatic theorist who taught that four basic elements (air, earth, fire,

and water) combine with two first principles (love and strife). Love unites and organizes, whereas strife

results in disintegration and disorganization. empiricism A philosophical position that emphasizes the importance of experience, observation, and learning

in the acquisition of knowledge.

associated with an attitude of suspended judgment. enhanced interrogation techniques A series of tactics employed by psychologists against prisoners at

Guantanamo Bay and elsewhere, including stress positions, long-term exposure to cold, sleep deprivation, and waterboarding, among others.

Epictetus (c. 50–c. 135) A Roman stoic philosopher, popular in his day, who emphasized the stoic virtues of

order, discipline, and resignation in those matters beyond our control.

Epicureanism A philosophy based on the goodness of pleasure and the evil of pain. Epicureanism emphasized

moderation and the capacity to forgo immediate pleasures for long-term gains.

Epicurus of Samos (341–270 BCE) An important post-Aristotelian philosopher who founded a school of thought

that focused largely on how to live the good life by maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain. epiphenomenalism A mind–body position marked by the belief that physical events are causal with respect to

mental events. Mental events are viewed as completely dependent on physical functions and, as such,

have no independent existence or causal efficacy. epistemology A branch of philosophy concerned with problems of knowledge such as what can we know or

how can we know? equivalent phase A Pavlovian term referring to the tendency of a subject to respond in a highly stereotyped

fashion to any stimulus. The equivalent phase may follow a biological insult that produces a shock-like

reaction. In such circumstances, the subject may respond in the same way to all signals. essentialism Belief in the possibility of discerning the fundamental character or intrinsic nature of something.

ethical mode of existence According to Kierkegaard, the ethical mode of existence is marked by deep concerns

for justice, genuine and caring moral concerns, and a capacity to shoulder responsibility. In the face of

moral complexities and absurdities, the ethical mode of existence may collapse into a profound sense of

irony.

by an emphasis on the centrality of experience, the role of freedom in human life, the irreducible

uniqueness of each person, rejection of reductionism, and the quest for authenticity in the face of all of

the absurdities and forces that threaten human dignity. extinction The weakening or elimination of a conditioned response. The major means of achieving extinction is

to present repeatedly the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. extrinsic teleology The view that design or order in nature reflects the work of a designer.

extroversion In Jung’s psychology, a quality of personality marked by love of other people and social interaction. eye of the soul A metaphor employed by Plato to convey the idea that the soul can sometimes apprehend true

reality. fatigue In Hull’s system, fatigue refers to the theoretical position that each response generates some inhibition

to its own reoccurrence.

Fechner, Gustav Theodor (1801–1887) His Elements of Psychophysics, one of the great original classics in

psychology, set forth a systematic approach to psychophysics. He proposed several early psychophysical

methods and helped lay the conceptual and methodological foundations for the new discipline of

psychology.

Fechner’s law An integration of Weber’s formula expressed as S = k log R, where S is a mental sensation and R

is a stimulus magnitude. Thus, according to the law, a mental sensation is a logarithmic function of the

stimulus multiplied by a constant.

Feyerabend, Paul K. (1924–1994) Philosopher of science who has argued for an anarchistic epistemology

marked by belief that there is no such thing as a single unified and unchanging scientific method. fictional final goals According to Adler, fictions play major roles in the subjective world of the individual.

Fictional final goals are those things that we wish to achieve. Such wishes are not necessarily grounded in

realistic considerations.

standing out and other things as forming background. field theory Generally associated with the psychology of Kurt Lewin. Field theory emphasizes the

interdependence of the person and the environment. It may be viewed as a corrective to extreme

individualistic psychologies that neglect the role of context. final cause According to Aristotle, the goals or purposes for which an action was intended.

fixation A strong attachment to a specific stimulus in Freud’s theory of instinct. For example, a childhood

trauma may result in an oral fixation that might manifest itself in adulthood as a habit of smoking cigars.

Flourens, Pierre Jean Marie (1794–1867) French physician and neurophysiologist who employed the method

of ablation (surgical removal or isolation of specific structures) as a means of establishing the functions

performed by various parts of the brain.

Follett, Mary Parker (1868–1933) An early industrial-organizational psychologist who applied her background

in political psychology to corporate issues and seminal executive development seminars. formal cause The form or shape that contributes to a causal sequence. Thus, an airplane could not fly if critical

components were not shaped properly.

Frankl, Viktor E. (1905–1997) Viennese psychiatrist and founder of a humanistic orientation known as

logotherapy. Frankl emphasized the importance of the quest for meaning and the human capacity to

construct alternative meaning orientations. free association Therapeutic method developed by Sigmund Freud and marked by the uninhibited sharing of

whatever happens to be in the center stage of consciousness at a given time. free will The assumption that human beings make choices that are to some degree independent of antecedent

conditions. Contrast with determinism.

Freud, Sigmund (1856–1939) Founder of psychoanalysis, which is both a major system of psychology and a

therapeutic technique.

established the field of electrophysiology. Fritsch and Hitzig were pioneers in the use of direct electrical

stimulation as a means of establishing brain functions. function According to Jung, a function is an expression of the psychic apparatus. He identified four functions:

thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition. He believed that, for many people, specific functions (e.g.,

thinking) are dominant features of the personality. functional autonomy Refers to the idea that the means for satisfying a motive may acquire drive properties.

Thus, one might hunt to satisfy hunger, but later hunting acquires drive properties of its own and one now

hunts for “sport.” functional fixedness The inability to find productive solutions to new problems. May also refer to the inability

to see alternative uses for a particular tool or method. functionalism A loosely knit system of psychology having its origin in the work of U.S. scholars such as William

James, John Dewey, and G. Stanley Hall. Functionalism emphasized a broad-based methodology applied to

basic and applied problems associated with experience and behavior.

Galenus (c. 129–c. 199 CE) Rome’s greatest physician, remembered for his early anatomical theories and his

speculation on a host of medical problems including the problems of emotional illness.

Galilei, Galileo (1564–1642) Italian astronomer and physicist remembered for improving the telescope and

using it systematically in the observation of the solar system.

Gall, Franz Joseph (1758–1828) German anatomist, physician, and pioneer in faculty psychology. Gall believed

that faculties of the mind were localized in specific regions of the brain and that well-developed or

deficient regions were manifested in protrusions or indentations on the skull. Gall was the founder of

phrenology, the attempt to assess character by examining the shape of the head.

Galton, Francis (1822–1911) A key figure in the discovery of new quantitative techniques for the study of

behavior. He pioneered many early concepts in statistics including the concept of correlation. gender The attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a culture associates with a person’s biological sex.

developmental level. genital stage According to Freud, this stage is associated with the adolescent years and is marked by the

development of emotional ties with members of the opposite sex. geocentric Literally, earth centered. Generally refers to the ancient view of Ptolemy that the earth is the center

of the solar system.

Gestalt There is no exact English equivalent for this German term, but English words such as whole and

configuration are close in meaning.

Gestalt therapy A form of therapy coming out of the work of Fritz Perls and having little or nothing in common

with Gestalt psychology.

Gilbreth, Lillian (1878–1972) Called the “Mother of Industrial and Organizational Psychology,” she and her

husband Frank Gilbreth helped launch the field of ergonomics. She studied many diverse topics including

worker efficiency and effective management.

Golgi, Camillo (1843–1926) Italian physician and histologist famous, among other things, for developing a

staining technique that made it possible to distinguish fine nervous structures from surrounding tissue. His

methods made a singular contribution to the advance of knowledge in neurophysiology. good continuation The perceptual tendency toward linearity, continuity, or coherence. Good continuation is

manifested when a perceptual pattern is tracked even in the presence of irrelevant or competing cues. great-person theory The view that unique individuals play a causal role in history. Contrast with Zeitgeist and

Ortgeist.

group dynamics In Lewin’s psychology, this expression refers broadly to the study of the effects of groups on

individuals and the effects of individuals on groups. It also includes the study of group structures and their

effect on work, productivity, and achievement of group goals.

Guillotin, Joseph Ignace (1738–1814) Famous French physician who invented the instrument named after him

and used for decapitation.

of learning based primarily on the law of contiguity. Guthrie served as the fifty-third president of the

American Psychological Association in 1945. habit strength A term employed by the learning theorist Clark Hull referring to the number of reinforced trials

in a situation that have contributed to the strength of a connection between a stimulus and a response.

Hales, Stephen (1677–1761) One of the first to demonstrate clearly a spinal reflex and the dependence of that

reflex on the integrity of the spinal cord.

Hall, Granville Stanley (1844–1924) Pioneer U.S. psychologist and founder and first president of the American

Psychological Association. Hall was awarded the first doctorate in psychology, founded several journals,

and served as president of Clark University. One of the first developmental psychologists, Hall was the

author of classic books such as Adolescence and Senescence. hardening An early concept that emphasized the beneficial role of self-imposed hardships (e.g., sleeping on an

uncomfortable bed, exposure to cold weather) as means of preparing for subsequent tasks. Hardening is

not quite the same as conditioning in that it involved practices that were more likely to be damaging.

Harlow, Harry Frederick (1905–1981) American psychologist noted for his creative contributions to learning

theory and the formation of attachment.

Hartley, David (1705–1757) Founder of modern associationism and one of the first to establish a classification

system of pleasures and pains. health psychology The study of psychological and behavioral aspects of health and health maintenance.

Hebb, Donald Olding (1904–1985) A pioneer in the neurobiology of learning, he provided a testable

explanation of associationist learning and evaluated the effects of the environment on rats’ neurological

development.

Heidegger, Martin (1889–1976) German philosopher and one of the most important existentialists of the

twentieth century. Heidegger’s work focused on the theoretical meaning of existence and the practical

questions of how we should exist individually and collectively in the world.

is the center of the solar system.

Helmholtz, Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von (1821–1894) One of the great German scientists of the nineteenth

century. Among other contributions, he was the first to measure the speed of conduction of the nervous

impulse.

Héloise (c. 1098–1164) A gifted scholar known primarily for her tragic love affair with Peter Abelard. Her

letters illustrated a deep philosophy and psychology of the nature of loving relationships.

Helvétius, Claude-Adrien (1715–1771) French materialist who argued that human actions can be explained on

the basis of rewards and punishments. His views were considered radical in his day and he was forced to

recant his position.

Heraclitus Probably active around 480 BCE, Heraclitus was the first process philosopher. Emphasized the idea

that only change is real.

Herbart, Johann Friedrich (1776–1841) German mathematician, philosopher, and psychologist. Herbart was

among the first to attempt to quantify mental functions. He was also interested in the role of unconscious

processes in human life and in the application of psychological studies to clinical and educational

problems.

Herodotus (c. 484–c. 425 BCE) First great Greek historian to write history with an emphasis on natural rather

than supernatural causes. heterogony of ends Wundt’s position that an ongoing behavioral sequence must often be understood in terms

of an ever-shifting pattern of primary and secondary goals. For example, a cat chasing a mouse may

suddenly find it necessary to compete with a partner, overcome an unexpected barrier, or avoid a danger.

Ends, goals, and purposes keep changing. heteronomy A term employed by Kant to refer to the varieties of forces outside the organism (e.g., rewards,

punishments, authority) that often regulate behavior.

thoroughgoing naturalistic account of all illness, both physical and mental. Advanced the first classification

system of mental disorders. historiography The writing of history along with the study of the methodological and philosophical issues that

are pertinent to the work of the historian. history The interpretive study of the events of the human past.

Hitzig, Julius Eduard (1838–1907) German psychiatrist and neurophysiologist who collaborated with Gustav

Theodor Fritsch to establish the field of electrophysiology. Fritsch and Hitzig were pioneers in the use of

direct electrical stimulation to study brain functions.

Hobbes, Thomas (1588–1679) One of the first of the modern philosophers to advance a thoroughgoing

mechanistic account of human behavior. He also argued that self-interest serves as the primary basis for

motivation.

Hoffman Report The independent report that verified the APA’s collusion with the Department of Defense to maintain an ethics code for psychologists that would not preclude psychologists’ participation in enhanced interrogation techniques.

Hollingworth, Leta Stetter (1886–1939) Psychologist and educator who was one of the first to subject gender

differences to rigorous experimental scrutiny. Her work exposed several nineteenth-century myths

regarding the intellectual status of women. She is also remembered for pioneering studies on gifted

children.

Horney, Karen Danielsen (1885–1952) German American psychoanalyst who enlarged the domain of

psychoanalysis with her study of sociocultural factors in neurosis and gender development. hostile type A neurotic attempt to reduce anxiety by moving against people.

Hsün Tzu (c. 298–c. 212 BCE) An early Chinese philosopher who advanced a thoroughgoing naturalistic

philosophy. He is sometimes viewed as the Chinese Aristotle.

temperament.

Hull, Clark Leonard (1884–1952) One of the most famous neobehaviorists, known for a mathematical-

deductive approach to animal and human behavior. Hull, a member of the National Academy of Sciences,

served as the forty-fourth president of the American Psychological Association in 1935.

Hume, David (1711–1776) British empiricist who advanced the view that causality is not a property of objects,

and therefore, there are no necessary connections. Causality is thus reduced to a psychological problem

and is based on consistent conjunction and our ways of making sense of the successive events in the

world.

Husserl, Edmund (1859–1938) German philosopher and founder of phenomenology. He emphasized the uniqueness of consciousness, the dangers of reductionism, and an approach to the study of consciousness that attempts to describe what is naturally there in terms of content, impressions, and meanings. hylomorphism A mind–body position advanced by Aristotle—it comes from hule meaning matter and morphe meaning form.

Aristotle stressed the interdependence of matter and form. Thus, seeing as a mental process cannot be separated from the physical structure of the eye. hylozoism The view that mind is manifested in all material movement.

Hypatia (c. 370–415 CE) Neo-Platonic philosopher noted for her expertise in astronomy and geometry. Possibly

one of the first to recommend music therapy for emotional disorders. id In Freudian theory, the id is the most primitive component of the personality. It represents powerful

biological needs and demands instant expression and immediate gratification. idealism A philosophical orientation emphasizing mind or spirit as the preeminent feature of life. Contrast with

materialism.

idealized self A fictitious view of neurotic selfhood that replaces the real self.

ideal self According to Rogers, the self as one would like it to be.

transfer theory holds that the learning of any new task will be facilitated most by experience with highly

comparable previous tasks. identification In Freudian psychology, a defense mechanism of the ego marked by imitation of another person.

The ego attempts to borrow from the success or adequacy of another individual.

idiographic According to Gordon Allport, an approach to the study of personality that emphasizes individual

experience. This approach makes use of techniques such as case studies, verbal reports, and interviews.

Idols A term employed by Francis Bacon referring to “phantoms of the mind.” Idols are sources of error, such

as excessive reliance on authority, that blind us in our quest for truth.

Idols of the Cave Local prejudices or strongly preferred hypotheses or theories that interfere with objective

responses to data.

Idols of the Marketplace The temptation to take words too seriously so that naming is confused with

explaining. To guard against the Idols of the Marketplace, one must constantly reexamine definitions and

understand the deceptive dimensions of language.

Idols of the Theatre Errors of thought based on the easy acceptance of authority or the naïve acceptance of a

popular paradigm.

Idols of the Tribe Errors of thought resulting from inherent human limitations such as sensory distortions and

the tendency to overgeneralize. imageless thought Belief that there are objective meanings in experience that are not associated with specific

words, symbols, or signs. indeterminism The doctrine that it is impossible to apply strict cause-and-effect explanations to events at the

subatomic level.

Index of Forbidden Books Generally refers to books forbidden by the Catholic Church because they were

regarded as dangerous to faith and morality. Though censorship was practiced from the early days of the

church, the Index started in the sixteenth century and continued until 1966.

individuation The name Carl Jung gave to describe the process of becoming a complete psychological

individual, a self-realization that signals a coming to selfhood. inductive argument Any argument in which the conclusion is claimed to be more probable than not given the

truth of the premises. Inductive arguments are said to be strong or weak, depending on whether the

conclusion is or is not made probable according to the truth of the premises. indulgence Refers to various means of raising money practiced by the Catholic Church prior to the

Reformation. Generally involved payment of money in exchange for a spiritual favor. inferiority complex According to Adler, children are inadequate or inferior with respect to most functions.

Overcoming inferiority is a task for all people. An inferiority complex is an intense or unusually strong

manifestation of feelings that all people experience. information-processing metaphor The view that cognition involves the processing of information in a

sophisticated manner or sequence. Also known as the computer metaphor. insight The capacity to see a problem in a large context and perceptually to restructure relationships necessary to the solution of the problem. instinct An organized sequence of behaviors characteristic of a given species. It is assumed that instinctive behaviors are not learned. interactionism A commonsense belief in the interdependence of the mental and the physical realms.

According to this position, mental events may be causal with respect to physical events and vice versa.

intersectionality The notion that each of us has multiple privileged and devalued identities and that these interact with our contexts to impact our experiences of advantage or disadvantage in the world. intervening variable An unobserved process that accounts for connections between stimulus events and responses. For example, response rate may slow down under conditions of high effort. According to Clark Hull, response rate is slowed down because of reactive inhibition (IR), a fatigue-like state. Fatigue, in this case, might be regarded as an intervening variable. intrinsic teleology The position that design, order, and purpose are immanent in nature.

introspection is a kind of “looking in” to identify elements of experience and the way these elements

combine, or the processes and adaptations of experience. introversion According to Jung, an attitude marked by preference for inwardness and for minimal or highly

selected social contact. isomorphism The Gestalt position on the mind–brain problem. Literally, this term refers to similarity of form.

Isomorphism, in the context of the mind–brain problem, refers to an assumed functional relationship

between experience and underlying brain processes.

James–Lange theory of emotion A theory of emotion advanced independently by William James and Carl

Lange. The theory emphasizes the somatic substrate of emotional experiences and argues that the

experience of emotion is the experience of the activity of the body—thus, the famous statement: We see

a bear, we run, and we are afraid. James’s later vision of emotion emphasizes constitutional determinants

and the impossibility of separating cognition and emotion.

James, William (1842–1910) U.S. psychologist and philosopher who was the author of several classics in both

fields. James’s two-volume The Principles of Psychology is one of the most influential books in the field. His

The Varieties of Religious Experience and Talks to Teachers are pioneering efforts in the psychology of

religion and educational psychology. His philosophical pluralism, pragmatism, and radical empiricism are

still deeply imprinted in U.S. psychology and philosophy.

Jones, Mary Cover (1896–1987) American psychologist famous for her work on counterconditioning fear

responses in a boy named Peter. Her research in this area established her as a founding figure in behavior

therapy. judgment According to Brentano, consciousness of an object marked by belief or disbelief.

Jung, Carl Gustav (1875–1961) Founder of a system of psychology known as analytic psychology.

just noticeable difference (jnd) The smallest detectable difference between a standard stimulus and a

comparison stimulus.

memory in animal models.

Kant, Immanuel (1724–1804) One of the great German philosophers, remembered for his attempts to

reconcile empirical and rational approaches to knowledge. Kant believed that knowledge begins with

experience, but in his view, there are meaningful connections in experience itself. Kant also advanced an

early theory of moral development and was interested in problems associated with nationalism.

Katona, George (1901–1981) Gestalt psychologist who applied Gestalt principles to memory and education.

Kepler, Johannes (1571–1630) German astronomer and mathematician who discovered the elliptical or oval-

shaped motions of the planets.

Kierkegaard, Søren (1813–1855) Danish philosopher commonly regarded as one of the founders of

existentialism. Kierkegaard rejected the concern of rationalist philosophy with the abstractions of the

intellect and instead called attention to the daily practical issues that individuals encounter and the

problems of coping with those issues in an authentic way.

Koffka, Kurt (1886–1941) Pioneering Gestalt psychologist remembered especially for introducing Gestalt

psychology to the English-speaking world and for the extension of Gestalt theory into the field of

developmental psychology.

Köhler, Wolfgang (1887–1967) Principal advocate of the Gestalt school. Köhler is remembered for his

pioneering work on the role of insight in learning, for his treatment of value theory from a Gestalt

perspective, and for his broad systematic approach to science and psychology.

Kraepelin, Emil (1856–1926) A student of Wundt. He created an influential classification system of psychiatric

disorders and made numerous contributions to psychiatry and psychopharmacology.

Kuhn, Thomas S. (1922–1996) A philosopher of science who emphasized the importance of understanding

science in terms of its community structures and evolutionary processes. His book The Structure of

Scientific Revolutions is one of the most influential works in its field in the twentieth century.

Külpe, Oswald (1862–1915) Student of Wilhelm Wundt and well-known founder of an early psychological

simplistic characteristics of other early systems.

La Mettrie, Julien Offray de (1709–1751) French physician whose famous book Man a Machine advanced a

deterministic, evolutionary, and mechanistic approach to human mental processes.

Lange, Carl Georg (1834–1900) Danish physiologist remembered for a theory of emotion comparable to one

proposed by William James and subsequently known as the James–Lange theory. See also James–Lange

theory of emotion. latency period According to Freud, the period between the phallic stage and the genital stage. In the latency

period there is no obvious localization of erotic interest. latent content of a dream According to Freud, the symbolic way a dream expresses an unconscious wish or

drive. latent learning A term employed by Edward Chace Tolman referring to learning that has occurred but is not

observed because environmental conditions have not been favorable to its display. When environmental

conditions change appropriately, such learning, heretofore unobservable, may now show itself. law of effect Refers to Thorndike’s early view that connections are strengthened when followed by a satisfying

state of affairs and weakened when followed by an annoying state of affairs. Later, Thorndike dropped the

second half of the law and argued that satisfiers strengthen associations, but annoyers do not weaken

associations. law of exercise Refers to Thorndike’s early belief that connections are strengthened through practice and weakened through disuse. Later, Thorndike denied that exercise alone controls the fate of connections. law of

Prägnanz The law of Prägnanz, according to Wertheimer, refers to the idea that perceptual organization tends to be as good as possible under prevailing conditions. Thus, perceptual organization is as orderly, coherent, and economical as possible under prevailing conditions. learning Any change in performance or behavior that is attributable to the effects of practice or experience.

stimuli. Harlow also referred to this process as learning to learn.

Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm (1646–1716) German rational philosopher and mathematician who sought ways to

reconcile the legitimate claims of monism and pluralism. Leibniz advocated a universal language and a

world united by reason and international government. Leibniz and Isaac Newton independently

discovered the differential calculus.

Leibnizian tradition According to Allport, a tradition that emphasizes the proactive (purposive or goal-

directed) nature of human life.

Leucippus Greek philosopher who lived around 500 BCE. He was the founder of atomic theory later refined by

Democritus.

Lewin, Kurt (1890–1947) Inspired by Wertheimer, Köhler, and Koffka, Lewin attempted to extend the Gestalt

vision to other subdisciplinary branches of psychology, including motivation, personality, social

psychology, and conflict resolution. life space Key concept in Lewin’s psychology referring to all the psychological facts that are influential in the

life of an individual at a given point in time.

Lindsley, Donald B. (1907–2003) An early cognitive and behavioral neuroscientist, he helped launch the

electrical study of the brain, particularly with his application of the EEG to psychological research. linear-

progressive hypothesis A view of history marked by belief in the inevitable growth and progress of human

knowledge and institutions.

Linehan, Marsha M. (1943–) Developer of DBT, a blend of Western scientific approaches to behavior and

Eastern mindfulness practices.

Locke, John (1632–1704) One of the greatest philosophers of English speech who insisted that the mind at

birth is like a blank slate devoid of characters or ideas. His emphasis on the centrality of experience and

learning elevated the importance of universal education.

according to which human beings are regarded as primarily reactive or as mere products of social

conditioning.

Loftus, Elizabeth F. (b. 1944) She led the return to questions of eyewitness testimony that helped to revitalize the study of psychology and the law. logical positivism Sometimes called critical empiricism or scientific empiricism, this school of thought contends

that scientific concepts must be explicitly and operationally tied to observable events. Publicly confirmable

propositions were to replace “inner experience” in all phases of scientific activity. logotherapy Viktor Frankl’s approach to psychotherapy emphasizing meaning orientation and the capacity of

the individual to appropriate alternative meanings for the events of life.

Lucretius (c. 96–c. 55 BCE) Roman Epicurean philosopher who wrote on a variety of psychological topics, often

from the vantage point of the atomic theory of Democritus.

Luther, Martin (1483–1546) The founder of the Reformation and leader of the Protestant movement.

Arguably, Luther contributed to the growth of the empirical spirit by advancing the doctrine of the

individual priesthood of the believer, in which people have the right to read and interpret scriptures for

themselves.

Lyceum A school near Athens founded by Aristotle.

Mach, Ernst (1838–1916) Nineteenth-century physicist who argued that there are space-form and time-form

sensations that are configural in their nature. Mach’s analysis served as an inspiration for the early Gestalt

psychologists who also argued that there are wholes that are grasped intuitively and that are more than a

mere collection of elements.

Machiavelli, Niccolò (1469–1527) Founder of modern political science and modern military science. One of the

first to emphasize the importance of socialization and the techniques for molding public opinion. He

advocated the utility of a descriptive social science.

implies amoral, manipulative attitudes, but, strictly speaking, such an implication is a corruption of the

teachings of Machiavelli.

Magendie, François (1783–1855) Demonstrated that motor functions are handled by the ventral root of the

spinal cord and that sensory functions are handled by the dorsal root. Sir Charles Bell made the same

discovery, now referred to as the Bell–Magendie Law.

Maimonides (1135–1204) Influential Jewish philosopher who attempted to reconcile the conflicting claims of

reason and revelation. His book Guide for the Perplexed was widely read and highly controversial. mandala According to Jung, a “magic circle” or symbol that expresses selfhood.

manifest content of a dream According to Freud, the dream as described by the dreamer; the apparent

content of a dream as censored by the ego.

Marston, William Moulton (1893–1947) Student of Hugo Münsterberg who popularized psychology, invented

the polygraph, and created Wonder Woman.

Maslow, Abraham (1908–1970) One of the important founders and leaders of third-force psychology. Maslow

is remembered, among other things, for his hierarchical theory of motivation, his studies on self-

actualization, and his emphasis on studying healthy people as a means of building an appropriate

database for an adequate psychology. material cause Aristotle’s contention that things behave as they do partly because of their material structure.

For example, a billiard ball could not function properly if it were made of cork or rubber. materialism A monistic ontology characterized by the belief that all real things are composed exclusively of

matter. Implies that all being can be understood in terms of the principles of material structure. material self In James’s theory, the material self is the body, friends, and possessions such as clothing, house,

and automobile.

value with various mixtures of red, green, or blue. He thus contributed directly to the Young–Helmholtz

theory of color vision. medieval period The historical period from approximately 400 to 1300. Though it was a period marked by

reliance on tradition, revelation, and authority, scholars attempted to find an acceptable role for reason

and for observational studies. mentalism The use of words such as mind, intention, and cognition in the study of science. This aspect of

cognitive psychology was challenged by B. F. Skinner. mental set Predisposition to respond in a given manner or tendency to organize an event in terms of an

existing bias. method of average error A psychophysical method that permits a participant to manipulate a variable stimulus

until it appears to match a standard stimulus. method of constant stimuli A psychophysical method in which comparison stimuli are judged against a

standard stimulus. Various values of the comparison stimuli above and below the standard stimulus are

presented on a random basis. The task of the participant is to specify whether each comparison stimulus is

equal to, greater than, or less than the standard. method of limits A psychophysical method whereby a standard stimulus is compared with various values of

comparison stimuli presented in both ascending and descending series. The task of the participant is to

specify when the standard and the variable appear to be the same. Also called the method of limits

because it measured the quantitative limits of the variable stimulus values that appear to be greater than,

less than, or equal to the standard stimulus.

Milgram, Stanley (1933–1984) A social psychologist who examined participants’ willingness to obey an

authority’s orders to injure or even apparently kill another human.

Mill, James (1773–1836) British philosopher who advanced an uncompromising mechanistic approach to

association. Argued strongly for the education of the masses.

human nature based on probabilistic notions. Also one of the first to deplore the subjugation of women. mindfulness The practice of observing thoughts without letting them entangle us; being centered and

conscious in the present moment without delusion or judgment.

Mitwelt Heidegger’s term for the community or our life with other people.

molar behavior An expression employed by Tolman to designate the special domain of his psychology. Molar

behavior is the behavior of the intact organism engaging in typical day-to-day activities. Molar behavior

contrasts with molecular or isolated small units of behavior. monad A term employed by Leibniz to refer to a principle of existence. Leibniz believed that the world

consisted of many independent monads, but all monads are harmonious with all other monads. Thus, for

him, there is a real mental world and that world is completely harmonious with a real physical or

physiological world. Hence, mind and body are both real but completely harmonious and independent. monism The position that reality is one thing. Thus, everything relates to everything else in a completely

interconnected world. Contrast with pluralism.

Montaigne, Michel de (1533–1592) Late Renaissance scholar who launched a powerful and influential attack

on human knowledge. His skepticism was to have a strong influence on Francis Bacon and René Descartes.

Montaigne also speculated on a number of psychological topics such as how to rear children, education,

motivation, and emotion. moral anxiety According to Freud, anxiety associated with the threat that the irrational demands of the

superego might overcome the ego.

Müller, Georg Elias (1850–1934) Prominent German psychologist remembered for his work in psychophysics,

memory, learning, and vision. Numerous early psychologists studied with Müller at the University of

Göttingen.

for his doctrine of specific energies, which argues that each nerve is highly specialized to carry out one

kind of function.

Münsterberg, Hugo (1863–1916) German American psychologist and a pioneer in applied psychology with his

research on forensic, clinical, and industrial psychology.

Myia Daughter of Pythagoras and Theana. One of the first to give advice on child rearing.

nativism The position that there are perceptions that are built in or operational from birth and that are informative about the world. For example, the nativist argues that we have an innate capacity to see in depth. Contrast with empiricism. natural spirit In Galen’s pneuma concept of the soul, natural spirit refers to those vital principles responsible for vegetative functions of the body. neo-Platonism A school of philosophy founded in the third century that combined selected features of

Platonic philosophy with Jewish and Christian mysticism. neurotic anxiety According to Freud, this arises when the irrational demands of the id threaten to overwhelm

the ego. neurotic trends Neurotic needs that form strategies of protection designed to counter basic anxiety.

nomothetic Allport’s term for a research orientation that emphasizes statistical abstractions (e.g., means, standard deviations). noogenic neuroses Frankl’s expression referring to the anxiety associated with loss of meaning or a feeling of worthlessness. normal science A notion introduced by Thomas Kuhn that refers to conventional ways of solving problems in

science at a given time or during the reign of a particular paradigm. noumenal In Kant’s philosophy, the term noumenal refers to a “thing in itself,” an object or event independent

of experience or perception. objective anxiety Objective threats from the world or from other people that threaten to overpower the ego.

an issue.

Ockham’s Razor The contention of William of Ockham that explanations containing fewer assumptions are to

be preferred to those containing more assumptions.

Oedipus complex A young boy’s desire for his mother along with feelings of competition with his father. The

term is used more generally to refer to strong emotional attachment to the parent of the opposite sex and

feelings of competition with the parent of the same sex. ontology A branch of philosophy that studies the nature and relations of being. Considers the question, “what

is real?” operant conditioning The term operant refers to behavior that is emitted. According to Skinner, operant conditioning occurs if reinforcement follows with a response that is emitted in a specific situation. operationism A programmatic attempt to tie scientific terms to measurements or operations employed in experiments. Thus, abstract terms such as anxiety or intelligence are defined in terms of the measures or operations employed in research studies. ophthalmoscope An instrument designed by Hermann von Helmholtz for viewing the interior of the eye,

especially the retina. oral stage In Freud’s psychology, the first stage of psychosexual development. In this stage, the child’s

interactions with the world are primarily via the oral cavity and there is primitive learning about the

responsiveness of the world to oral activities such as crying and sucking.

Ortgeist The spirit of the place. Contrasts with the great-person theory of history and emphasizes the

importance of place and time (Zeitgeist) as conditions for the production and acceptance of new ideas.

overcompensation According to Adler, overcompensation involves attempts to develop great strength in

the very area that is most beset with difficulties (e.g., an individual with a physical disability who becomes

a great athlete).

replace old scholastic techniques and blind allegiance to authority.

paradigm According to Thomas Kuhn, the beliefs, attitudes, values, methods, and assumptions that guide the

intellectual community at a given time.

paradoxical intention Frankl’s expression referring to the capacity to do the very opposite of what one would

most like to do. Thus, one who is fearful of flying might prefer to stay home but instead chooses to fly.

paradoxical phase According to Pavlov, a weak stimulus may sometimes produce a strong response and a

strong stimulus may produce a weak response. The paradoxical phase sometimes follows shock induced by a

biological insult.

Parmenides Early philosopher who did his work shortly after 500 BCE. He was one of the first to attempt to

distinguish between appearance and reality. According to Parmenides, the senses reveal only

appearances, whereas reason leads to real truths. In contrast with Heraclitus, Parmenides emphasized a

philosophy of being as opposed to a philosophy of becoming.

Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich (1849–1936) The most significant figure in the history of Russian psychology and

pioneer in research in classical conditioning. His Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes is a classic work setting

forth a psychology and psychiatry based on the principles of conditioning. penis envy According to Freud, during the phallic period, the young girl is envious of the protruding sex organ of

her father. Freud argued that the young girl holds her mother responsible for her own “castrated

condition.”

persona Literally, the play-actor’s mask. In Jung’s psychology, the persona is that part of the psychic structure

that is most visible socially.

personal unconscious Jung’s term for the storehouse of materials based on each individual’s experiences that

are not immediately available to consciousness.

the level of awareness. Leibniz believed that small perceptions in concert form the basis of perception. His

concept of petites perceptions represents an early concept of unconscious processes.

Petrarch, Francesco (1304–1374) Italian poet, scholar, and moralist who was a founder of Renaissance

humanism. phallic stage In Freud’s psychology, that period from ages three to five when the child develops an interest in

his or her sex organs and the sex organs of the parent. Freud believed that, at this time, the child begins to

identify with the opposite-sexed parent. phenomenal The term phenomenon is similar to the term appearance. In Kant’s philosophy, the term

phenomenal refers to the world as it appears in experience.

phenomenal field An expression employed by Rogers to refer to the entire range of experiences that are part

of a person’s life. phenomenology A philosophical orientation and a method for approaching a subject of interest. The method

seeks to discover what is given directly in experience itself in contrast to intellectualized content. philosophy A term likely coined by Pythagoras from philo (meaning love) and sophia (meaning knowledge or

wisdom). Hence, the love of wisdom. phi phenomenon Apparent movement illustrated by successive activation of two stationary lights placed in close spatial conjunction. Phenomenally, what is seen is movement from the first to the second light. phrenology Literally, science of the mind. A theory developed by Franz Joseph Gall and Johann Kaspar

Spurzheim that character and personality traits are related to specific regions of the brain. It was also believed that the surface features of the skull (e.g., protrusions and indentations) can be used as a means of assessing character. phrontistery A list of technical observation and measurement tools and techniques.

Piaget, Jean (1896–1980) Swiss epistemologist who advanced a popular developmental theory of serially

progressive stages of human cognition.

all time, remembered, among other things, for his emphasis on the importance of reason as a means of

discerning the formal abstract nature of truth. Advanced an early conflict model of mental illness and

speculated on numerous psychological topics such as memory and sensation.

Plotinus (205–270 CE) Founder of neo-Platonic philosophy and author of a six-volume series entitled Enneads.

The works of Plotinus are a rich source of psychological thought on topics such as perception, sensation,

memory, and thinking. pleasure principle Freud argued that the pleasure principle is the dominant feature of the human mental

apparatus. The pleasure principle calls for immediate release of tension and acquisition of those goals that

fulfill needs. pluralism The belief that there are many real things and many different orders of reality. Contrast with

monism.

pneuma Refers to the air we draw in as we breathe, but also refers to those vital principles that make life

possible.

Popper, Karl Raimond (1902–1994) Mathematician and philosopher noted for a hypothetico-deductive

approach to science. His book The Logic of Scientific Discovery is one of the classics in the philosophy of

science. positive psychology The scientific study of positive human experience, positive human functioning, and fulfillment among individuals, families, and communities. pragmatism A U.S. philosophical movement associated with the work of Charles S. Pierce and William James.

James emphasized the close connections between empiricism, pluralism, and pragmatism. According to

pragmatism, concepts must be judged in terms of their cash value or the practical work they do in the

world. Thus, truth is judged by utility and the practical consequences achieved by an idea. preconscious A feature of the mental apparatus, according to Freud, containing materials not now in

consciousness but readily available to consciousness.

different orders of reality. He believed, for example, that mind and body do not influence each other but

they are always congruent. Leibniz believed that God had ordered the world in such a fashion as to permit

the simultaneous and harmonious operation of many independent principles of existence. presentation According to Brentano, consciousness of an object marked by simple awareness of the presence

of the object. presentism An orientation toward history emphasizing the pervasive influence of current prejudices on the

interpretation of past events. primary attention According to Titchener, primary attention is involuntary and typically activated by a sudden

or strong stimulus. primary memory According to William James, primary memory is memory associated with nerve vibrations that have not yet ceased. It is memory associated with the specious present, what is immediately held in consciousness, and somewhat akin to an afterimage. primary process Freud’s term for images and memories of objects that serve to satisfy needs. A dream rich in imagery is an example of primary process material. primary qualities Qualities such as figure, extension, and solidity that are presumed to inhere in objects.

privilege The cultural advantages that come to some individuals based on their perceived identities, such as gender, ethnicity, and income. productive thinking Wertheimer’s term for a bold and radical centering of a problem that results in creative

new ideas, breakthroughs, insights, or solutions. Einstein’s revolutionary theory of relativity serves as a

classic illustration of productive thinking. projection A defense mechanism of the ego manifested when personal faults or weaknesses are externalized

or ascribed to objects, events, or other people. Thus, a married person tempted to be unfaithful may

ascribe the wish to be unfaithful to the spouse.

Protagoras (c. 485–c. 410 BCE) A sophist (teacher) who emphasized the doctrine of relativism. Protagoras

argued that the world is conditioned by our senses and hence truth is relative.

psyche According to Jung, the totality of a human personality. The Greek term for soul or mind. Includes

mental processes such as thought, memory, sensation, and perception. psychical reflex An early term used briefly in Pavlov’s laboratory to describe conditioned responses. See action

at a distance. psychoanalysis The system of psychology and/or the treatment procedure set forth by Sigmund Freud. The

term also has a broader meaning, referring sometimes to any group of psychologies that share some of

the basic concepts associated with Freud’s psychology. psychogenic emergentism The idea that mental processes develop or emerge with the development of the

body. psychogenic identity theory A theory of the origin of psyche that stresses the continuity or identity of the

psychically endowed biological substratum of the organism and the later mature, self-reflective, fully

conscious adult. psychogeny Literally, the origin of psyche. Theories of the origin of psyche.

psychoneuroimmunology The study of the interactions between the brain, behavior, the immune system, and

the social and physical environments. The field was launched by Robert Ader and colleagues in the 1970s

and 1980s. psychophysical parallelism A mind–brain doctrine that assumes the independent existence of mental and

physical events. According to parallelism, the mental and the physical are, by definition, congruent. They

do not interact with each other; rather, they are like two clocks that always agree on the time, but are

nevertheless independent systems. psychophysics The formal study of the relationship between the properties of stimuli as measured by a

physical scale and the psychological impressions of those stimuli.

cosmology that was widely accepted for over 1,400 years. purposive behaviorism An orientation advanced by Tolman in which behavior is regarded as the proper

subject matter of psychology, but behavior is construed as goal-directed.

Pyrrho (c. 360–c. 270 BCE) Founder of a systematic philosophy of skepticism. Also emphasized the importance

of finding means to live a calm and untroubled existence.

Pythagoras (c. 580–c. 500 BCE) An enduring figure in Western intellectual history who did his work around 570

BCE. He is remembered for his emphasis on the importance of quantification and for specific contributions

such as the famous Pythagorean theorem. His beliefs in the primacy of reason and the nature of the soul

were influential later in the work of Socrates and Plato. qualitative research A collection of research methods that incorporate rich and deep examinations of human experience.

Quételet, Jacques (1796–1874) Early pioneer in statistics who was one of the first to realize that there were

quantitative procedures applicable to human behavior. He understood that there are lawful regularities

operating in moral and psychological arenas earlier regarded as capricious. radical empiricism The name William James employed to characterize his larger philosophic vision. Radical

empiricism emphasizes the primacy of experience and argues that things genuinely encountered in

experience must not be excluded from philosophical and scientific inquiry. Radical empiricism treats

various monisms as hypotheses.

Ramón y Cajal, Santiago (1852–1934) Spanish physician, histologist, and anatomist who discovered the

synapse and developed the modern theory of the neuron.

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) An early form of cognitive-behavioral therapy developed by Albert

Ellis. Initially called Rational Therapy, this system gained its formal name in 2004. rationalism A philosophical orientation deriving from the Latin ratio, meaning to reason or think. Rationalist

philosophers emphasize a priori knowledge, deduction, and an active mind that selectively organizes

sensory data.

plausible explanations designed to excuse weaknesses or errors. reaction formation A defense in which the ego masks awareness of an anxiety-provoking motive by emphasizing its opposite. For example, a parent who harbors hostility toward a child, may become overly indulgent or overprotective. reality principle Social and environmental demands, constraints, or pressures that place limitations on alternative modes of action. real self In Horney’s theory, the true source of healthy and positive growth in a human being.

reflexology A psychology based on the reflex as the fundamental category of inquiry in psychology.

Reformation A sixteenth-century religious movement founded by Martin Luther and motivated by an attempt

to reform the Catholic Church. Luther’s failure to bring about the changes he desired ultimately led to a

major split in the church and the beginnings of Protestantism. regression Return or retreat to an earlier stage of development and reinstatement of attitudes or behaviors

characteristic of an earlier stage.

Reid, Thomas (1710–1796) Leader of Scottish commonsense philosophy that sought to reconcile the

conflicting claims of empiricism and rationalism. reinforcement A term highly subject to theoretical interpretation but generally referring to those objects or

events that result, for whatever reason, in an increased probability of responding. relativism The doctrine that knowledge is not absolute; rather, it is a product of human mental processes with

all their inherent limitations. Thus, according to relativism, truths change as a function of time, place, and

circumstance. religious mode of existence Kierkegaard’s expression for an orientation to life marked by a deep sensitivity to

one’s contingency and dependence on God.

Renaissance Literally, rebirth. That period in history from approximately 1300 to 1600 marked by the

rediscovery of Greek classics, a new interest in mathematics, expanding geographic knowledge, and a

wider epistemology.

shifted from theological figures to human figures, and in music as the subject shifted from the sacred to

the secular. In science, there was a new interest in physiological and anatomical studies and a general new

focus on topics of human concern. repression An ego defense mechanism in which dangerous thoughts, memories, or perceptions are forced out

of consciousness and into the unconscious realm. reproductive thinking Wertheimer’s term for the routine reproduction of familiar solutions that result in blind

conclusions with no sense of direction. resistance Failure to cooperate with the therapist presumably because of the trauma of dealing with

unconscious materials that are about to be brought to the surface. respondent conditioning Pavlovian conditioning that investigates correlations between unconditioned and

conditioned stimuli. response compression In psychophysics, equal intervals on a physical scale may be experienced as a

diminishing series. Illustrated in the experience of a diminishing series associated with a three-way light.

Rhazes (c. 854–c. 925) Physician and author of medical texts. Argued against demonology, superstitious

religious beliefs, and the arbitrary use of authority in science. He advocated a rational and empirical

approach to the problems of medicine and psychology.

Rogers, Carl R. (1902–1987) One of the most innovative figures in the tradition of humanistic psychology,

remembered for his revolutionary attempts to wed psychotherapy with more traditional experimental

psychology. His radical emphasis on the person represented a unique war against the authorities of

institutions and systems.

Rychlak, Joseph F. (1928–2013) A leader in the humanistic psychology tradition who argued for a rigorous

humanistic psychology. He saw no necessary contradictions between humanistic psychology and rigorous

scientific practices.

among the first to understand the role of emotions in physical and psychological health.

Scott, Walter Dill (1869–1955) American psychologist and a critical early figure in the study of applied and

industrial psychology as well as the psychology of advertising. secondary attention According to Titchener, secondary attention is learned and persists under difficult

conditions (e.g., staying alert while studying even under noisy circumstances). secondary memory In James’s psychology, secondary memory is memory proper or memory of past events

that are not in present consciousness. secondary process According to Freud, plans and strategies of the ego that provide compromised means for

the expression of id impulses. secondary qualities Powers of objects that contribute to specific sensations such as colors, tastes, and sounds.

self According to Jung, the self is the unifying component of the psychic apparatus. The self is that which seeks

optimal development, integration, and wholeness. self-actualization A term employed by psychologists such as Kurt Goldstein, Carl Gustav Jung, and Abraham

Maslow. The term generally refers to fulfillment of positive potentials. self-esteem A topic explored by William James and discussed in his work as a function of the ratio of success to

pretensions. self-transcendence The capacity of an individual to critically examine her or his worldview and its limitations in

relation to more comprehensive and inclusive multicultural perspectives. sensation According to Wundt, an element of consciousness referring to simple awareness of stimulation.

sex The biological category to which children are assigned at birth. Typically male, female, or intersex. shadow According to Jung, the dark side of the personality that appears antagonistic to the social goals of the

ego. Includes primitive materials from the collective unconscious; these materials may provoke negative

emotions such as fear or anger.

psychologists that included internship and certification standards. His “Shakow Report” formed the core of

the Boulder model of clinical education.

Sherif, Muzafer (1908–1988) An early social psychologist in the Gestalt tradition. He studied social norms with

the autokinetic effect, and he organized the famous boys’ camp studies of prejudice.

Sherrington, Charles (1857–1952) Sherrington was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1932 for his monumental work

on the integrative action of the nervous system. He laid the foundations for modern work in

neurophysiology and coined many of the terms that are common in the field today. similarity The perceptual tendency to group figures or Gestalten that are similar.

skepticism One of the major systematic approaches to philosophy following the death of Aristotle. The

concerns of the skeptics were largely focused on the problems of epistemology and the good life.

Skinner, Burrhus Frederic (1904–1990) One of the foremost behaviorists of the twentieth century, who argued

that scientific psychology must concern itself with the analysis of behavior rather than the study of the

mind. social interest The term employed by Adler referring to the capacity of the individual to identify with the larger

social good and the altruistic goals of society. social self In James’s view, a dimension of selfhood born in various social contexts. Thus, the self in the

presence of a parent may be different in some respects than the self in the presence of a friend.

Socrates (c. 470–c. 399 BCE) Teacher of Plato and so important in Greek thought that all philosophy before him

is called pre-Socratic. He reacted against the relativism of Protagoras and taught that reason is the basis of

true knowledge. He emphasized the importance of self-knowledge and is thus an important figure in the

history of psychological thought. solipsism A subjective philosophical position that makes the claim that the only possible knowledge is self-

knowledge.

successfully. They often offered plausible but fallacious arguments. Hence, terms such as sophistry and

sophistic refer to arguments that appear to be sound but are later found to be superficial or fallacious. specific energies of nerves Early belief that nerves are highly specialized so that they can carry out only one

kind of function.

Sperry, Roger W. (1913–1994) Biological researcher who studied the effects of split-brain operations on

animals and humans with epilepsy.

Spinoza, Baruch (Benedict) (1632–1677) A key figure in the rationalist tradition, Spinoza sought to

demonstrate the artificiality of many of the dualisms introduced by Descartes. For Spinoza, there is no gulf

between God and the world or mind and body. He believed that most dualities result from problems of

language, but different language systems may simply represent different ways of looking at the same

reality. spiritual self In James’s view, the self that is “the home of interest” or that sits in judgment of other selves.

The spiritual self, for James, is also the source of effortful striving.

spontaneous recovery Following extinction trials, a conditioned stimulus may lose its ability to produce a

conditioned response. However, following a period of rest, the conditioned stimulus may once again elicit

the conditioned response.

Spurzheim, Johann Kaspar (1776–1832) A student and disciple of Franz Joseph Gall, Spurzheim helped develop

and popularize the theory of personality and character known as phrenology. Spurzheim developed

elaborate charts designed to assess personality via analysis of the shape of the skull. statistics Literally, characteristics of the state. A branch of mathematics devoted to the study of appropriate

means of collecting and interpreting data. A common focus is on establishing the probability of occurrence

of a given event.

Stensen, Niels (1638–1682) Sometimes known as Nicolaus Steno. He exposed the anatomical errors of

Descartes by demonstrating that animals have pineal glands and that the pineal body is not richly supplied

possibly move from side to side. Such findings dealt a severe blow to Descartes’s theory of nervous action. stereoscope An instrument that produces a three-dimensional effect by simultaneously presenting slightly

different two-dimensional views to the left and right eyes. stimulus generalization Stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus may also elicit a conditioned

response. stimulus intensity dynamism A term employed by Clark Hull referring to the capacity of a stimulus to energize

or direct behavior. stoicism A major post-Aristotelian philosophy emphasizing discipline and suppression of desire as means to the

greatest happiness and virtue. stream of thought A concept advanced by William James that illustrates his view that consciousness is not composed of static elements. According to James, even a strong stimulus, such as a clap of thunder, is not pure; rather, it is “thunder-breaking-upon-silence-and-contrasting-with-it.” James regarded consciousness as ever changing; each successive thought, even of the same object, changes by some degree. structuralism A system of psychological thought associated primarily with Edward Bradford Titchener, who attempted to model psychology after the more mature sciences, especially chemistry. Structuralism employed the method of introspection to search for the elements of consciousness and the rules by which elements combine.

Stumpf, Carl (1848–1936) Student of Brentano and pioneer in the psychology of music. His holistic orientation

focused on meaningful mental phenomena rather than arbitrary elements of consciousness. style of life Adler’s term referring to unique personality qualities (including plans, strategies, and projects)

designed to accomplish specific goals in life. sublimation According to Freud, any of a variety of socially acceptable activities such as work, play, or

philanthropic activities that represent a rechanneling of sexual energy into socially acceptable forms. In

general, sublimation involves the substitution of a higher, more socially acceptable activity for a less

socially acceptable one.

a doctorate in psychology in the United States. superego According to Freud, that part of the personality consisting of internalized social norms, values, and

ideals. Like the id, the superego is not rational. It serves the goal of perfection and attempts to

appropriate ego activities to serve its goal.

Swammerdam, Jan (1637–1680) With a nerve-muscle preparation, Swammerdam performed a series of classic experiments demonstrating that a flexed muscle could not possibly grow larger because of the inflow of animal spirits. Swammerdam’s demonstrations were contrary to predictions derived from the theory of nervous action advanced by Descartes. synchronicity A term employed by Jung that describes unlikely simultaneous occurrences or events not easily explained by the usual principles of causality. synthetic a priori According to Kant, a synthetic a priori truth is known intuitively and is informative about the

world. Descartes’s statement “I think, therefore I am” may be regarded as a synthetic a priori truth. The

truth of the statement is grasped intuitively, but the statement is not a mere tautology; rather, it is

informative about the world. system An organized way of envisioning the world or some aspect of the world.

systematic desensitization Joseph Wolpe’s popular behavior therapy based on Pavlovian conditioning.

Originally called reciprocal inhibition, the methodology involves progressive-relaxation techniques paired

with an anxiety hierarchy.

Taylor, Harriet (1807–1858) Wife of John Stuart Mill. Collaborated with Mill and likely influenced his thought

on feminism. teleology Refers to purpose or design. According to Aristotle, design or purpose is an intrinsic part of the

natural order. Thus, it is the purpose of a seed to sprout under the proper conditions and grow into a

plant. Such a teleology can be thought of as intrinsic and is in contrast with the extrinsic teleology

encountered in certain religions. Extrinsic teleology implies that things do what they do because they fulfill

purposes imposed by a deity.

of Christians, and the brutality of the Roman games. Also remembered for his attacks on Greek philosophy

and his emphasis on faith as opposed to reason.

Thales An early Greek cosmologist active around 600 BCE. Thales was known for his contention that water is

the primordial substance. He was also interested in the problem of movement and the nature of motive

forces that make movement possible.

Theana An accomplished philosopher and wife of Pythagoras who played a key role in the educational

activities of the Pythagorean school. theory of forms According to Plato, there are universal and true principles comprehended through reason. For

example, the senses reveal only particular triangles, but reason reveals the principles of triangularity. A

goal of education is to uncover the true formal properties of things. third-force psychology A term commonly employed to refer to humanistic psychology viewed as an alternative

to behaviorism and psychoanalysis.

Thorndike, Edward Lee (1874–1949) U.S. psychologist who studied with James at Harvard and Cattell at

Columbia. Thorndike was a pioneer in the experimental investigation of animal behavior and advanced

one of the earliest and most influential learning theories. His practical work focused on behavior, and he

can be considered a forerunner of behaviorism. Nevertheless, he believed that psychology might be best

served by a variety of methods and viewpoints. threshold That stimulus intensity (or change in intensity) that is detected 50 percent of the time.

throwness Heidegger’s term referring to those conditions, forces, or facts that do not easily yield to human

effort.

Thucydides (c. 460–c. 401 BCE) Greek historian and author of the History of the Peloponnesian War. He worked

to achieve accurate naturalistic accounts of historical events.

system of psychological thought known as structuralism. Titchener was a dominant force in U.S.

psychology from the early 1890s until his death in 1927.

Tolman, Edward Chace (1886–1959) One of the leading behaviorists of the twentieth century, remembered for

his attempts to combine features of behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, and McDougall’s psychology.

Tolman emphasized the purposive nature of behavior. He is properly regarded as one of the precursors of

late twentieth-century cognitive psychology. transference According to Freud, this term refers to emotional attachments that patients may develop for

their therapists. tridimensional theory of feeling According to Wundt, a theory of feeling marked by three fundamental

directions: pleasure and pain, strain and relaxation, and excitation and quiescence. truncated law of effect Thorndike’s later theory that reward strengthens associations. In his later work,

Thorndike raised doubts that punishment serves to weaken associations. ultramaximal inhibition Sometimes called protective transmarginal inhibition, refers to the effects of a severe biological or psychological insult. Such insults may produce a shock-like state that Pavlov regarded as protective. Massive inhibition, in this case, may serve a protective function by blocking out further stimulation.

In shock-like states, subjects may feel no pain and be incapable of intelligent response. ultraparadoxical phase

Following a severe shock, some subjects display an unusual reversal of values. Thus, a formerly positive or loved stimulus is regarded negatively or hated and a formerly negative or hated stimulus is regarded positively or loved. Such conversions may be relatively permanent.

Unamuno, Miguel de (1864–1936) Spanish philosopher who was deeply concerned about the dangers of

specialization and reductionism. Unamuno also stressed the importance of affect and warned against a

purely cognitive or intellectual approach to the problems of psychology.

Umwelt Literally, the world around. Refers to the physical world or the environment.

unconditional positive regard Rogers’s term for a belief in the intrinsic worth of another individual.

unconditioned reflex (UCR) Any naturally occurring reflex to a strong stimulus. Examples include

salivation when hungry in the presence of food, withdrawal from a painful stimulus, or constriction of the

pupil with increasing light. Also known as an unconditioned response. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) A stimulus that is biologically adequate to produce an unconditioned reflex.

uniformitarianism The belief that evolutionary changes on earth occur gradually over vast stretches of time.

Unzer, Johann August (1727–1799) First to apply the word reflex to simple sensorimotor functions. Also

introduced the terms afferent and efferent.

Upanishads Vedic treatises dealing with philosophical and psychological matters. See Vedas.

utilitarianism A philosophy advanced by Jeremy Bentham emphasizing the idea that the moral basis of action

should be the greatest good for the greatest number. valence According to Lewin, the positive or negative characteristics of objects in the life space.

variability hypothesis A commonly held nineteenth-century belief that, in all things physical and mental, men

are more variable than women. The research of Leta Stetter Hollingworth effectively dismantled the

variability hypothesis.

Vedas Oldest sacred books of India setting forth many early ideas on psychological matters.

Vesalius, Andreas (1514–1564) Physician and anatomist known for his empirical approach to anatomy based

on actual dissections. He revolutionized the study of the human body much as Renaissance explorers such

as Columbus and Magellan revolutionized knowledge of geography. vital spirit In Galen’s pneuma concept of the soul, vital spirit refers to activities located in the heart that

regulate or control body heat.

Vives, Juan Luis (1492–1540) Spanish humanist who advocated an empirical approach to psychology. His book

De Anima et Vita is a rich source of Renaissance thought on psychological topics.

philosophies based on observation and experiment. His sharp attacks on untestable theories and

theological dogma continually placed him at risk. voluntarism Technical term for the system of psychology advanced by Wilhelm Wundt. Voluntary behaviors

are those that are varied to meet the demands of varying circumstances. von Ehrenfels, Christian (1859–1932) One of the first to argue that form qualities are given immediately in

experience. Although Ehrenfels believed that the whole is more than the sum of the parts, he still believed

that it was derivative and thus acts simply like another part. von Restorff, Hedwig (1906–1962) A second-generation Gestalt psychologist remembered for her study of

memory with Wolfgang Köhler. von Restorff effect Refers to superiority of recall for isolated items in a list compared to more homogeneous

items.

Washburn, Margaret Floy (1871–1939) First woman to earn a doctorate in psychology and the second female

president of the American Psychological Association. Washburn made significant contributions to the

study of comparative psychology and was well known for her “motor theory of consciousness.”

Watson, John Broadus (1878–1958) Founder of American behaviorism and twenty-fourth president of the

American Psychological Association. Watson’s system is remembered for its identity with the natural

sciences and extreme emphasis on the environment in shaping behavior. With a strong belief in

determinism and materialism, Watson argued that complete prediction and control of behavior could be

achieved by a truly scientific psychology.

Weber, Ernst Heinrich (1795–1878) Well-known nineteenth-century physiologist who was the first to establish

a quantitative relationship between the physical properties of stimuli and the experience of those stimuli.

Weber’s book, The Sense of Touch, launched the field of psychophysics.

moved over an insensitive area of the skin. By contrast, the two points appear to move together when the

compass is moved over sensitive areas of the skin.

Weber’s law First quantitative law in psychology expressed as ∆R>R = K, where R = the amount of existing

stimulation, ∆R = the amount of stimulation that must be added to produce a just noticeable difference,

and K = a constant.

W.E.I.R.D. Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic—almost all participants in psychological research live in nations that are W.E.I.R.D.; this limits psychological scholarship to a small proportion of people in the world.

Wernicke, Carl (1848–1905) German neurologist and psychiatrist who discovered the speech comprehension

area in the left temporal lobe of the brain.

Wertheimer, Max (1880–1943) Founder of the Gestalt school of thought and author of the influential book

Productive Thinking.

Whytt, Robert (1714–1766) First to identify clearly the components of a reflex in terms of the action of a

stimulus on nervous tissue, resulting in a response.

William of Ockham (c. 1285–1349) An early philosopher friendly to empirical methods and strongly influenced

by Thomas Aquinas. See Ockham’s Razor.

Wisconsin General Test Apparatus An apparatus designed by Harry Harlow to study form discrimination in

primates.

Witmer, Lightner (1867–1956) One of Wundt’s students. Founded the first psychological clinic and coined the

expression clinical psychology.

Wolff, Christian von (1679–1754) German philosopher and author of early books titled Empirical Psychology

(1732) and Rational Psychology (1734). Wolff believed in both empirical and rational approaches to

psychology, but argued that rational approaches would be more fruitful and lead to the discovery of

principles by which the mind operates.

of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.

Wolpe, Joseph (1915–1997) Psychiatrist and founding figure of behavior therapy. His work on systematic

desensitization revolutionized therapy for anxiety disorders and placed him at the forefront of the “first

wave” of psychotherapy.

Woodworth, Robert Sessions (1869–1962) A pioneer psychologist in the functionalist tradition who greatly

extended the domain of experimental psychology. Woodworth was one of the first U.S. psychologists to

emphasize the centrality of motivation. His text Experimental Psychology may be the most important

classic in the field.

Wooley, Helen (1874–1947) American psychologist who emphasized practical social problems in her research

on educational psychology.

Wundt, Wilhelm Maximilian (1832–1920) The founder of the first psychology laboratory that functioned for a

sustained period of time. Wundt also advanced the first systematic vision of psychology known as

voluntarism. He is also the first person who, without qualification, can be thought of as a psychologist. His

Principles of Physiological Psychology is one of the great classics in the discipline. More than any other, he

can be viewed as the founder of modern psychology.

Xenophanes (c. 560–c. 478 BCE) An early Greek philosopher remembered for his epistemological skepticism.

He argued that human beings do not have certain knowledge and he scoffed at anthropomorphic

concepts of deity. yang Ancient Chinese concept representing qualities such as force, hardness, masculinity, and heat. Contrasts

with but also complements the concept of yin. yin Ancient Chinese concept representing qualities such as softness, coldness, passivity, and moistness.

Contrasts with but also complements the concept of yang.

model of color vision. He speculated that retinal structures must therefore be specialized for color

primaries.

Young–Helmholtz trichromatic theory Young’s theory that color vision is produced by separate receptor

systems on the retina that are responsive to primary colors (red, green, and blue-violet). Maxwell and

Helmholtz supported Young’s theory in the nineteenth century.

Zarathustra Major prophet of the Zoroastrian religion.

Zeigarnik effect Tendency to remember incomplete tasks better than completed ones.

Zeitgeist The spirit of the time. Contrasts with the great-person theory of history and emphasizes the

importance of time and place (Ortgeist) as conditions for the production and acceptance of new ideas.

Zend-Avesta See Avesta.

Zeno of Cyprus (c. 335–c. 263 BCE) Founder of the post-Aristotelian school of stoicism, which emphasized self-

control, austerity, and suppression as guides to virtue and happiness.

Zeno of Elea Active around 450 BCE, Zeno was a follower of Parmenides. He is remembered for paradoxes that

supposedly revealed contradictions between reason and the senses. His paradoxes of motion are

particularly noteworthy. For example, an arrow on its way toward a target presents a certain paradox. It

must first travel half the distance, but then it must travel half the remaining distance. Because Zeno

thought it is possible to divide forever, the arrow should never reach its target.