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A History of Psychology 6th edn Glossary Abelard, Peter (1079–1142) One of the best-known university teachers in the twelfth century. His book Yes and No illustrated contradictions in the positions of past authorities. He argued for a stronger role for reason in Christian epistemology. Academy A facility purchased by Plato by a park named Academeca in Athens. Plato taught students at this facility, which became known as the Academy. The Academy flourished during Plato’s life and for hundreds of years after his death. action at a distance Any apparent effect for which one cannot readily identify material and efficient causes. active mind Refers to intelligent, self-organizing properties of mental processes. Contrasts with the “blank slate” hypothesis encountered in empirical philosophies. act psychology A system of psychological thought advanced by Franz Brentano emphasizing the forward- looking, intentional, planful character of experience. Brentano strongly rejected the simplistic characteristics of many of the early systems of psychological thought. Adler, Alfred (1870–1937) Founder of a system of psychological thought known as individual psychology, Adler emphasized the importance of overcoming early feelings of inferiority. He focused on the purposive or goal-directed nature of behavior and on the capacity of the individual to identify with the goals of society at large. Aesara One of the first Greek philosophers to emphasize the importance of balance to health. Aesculapius Possibly a historical figure, but the name comes from the Greek mythical god Asclepius, son of Apollo. Asclepius was a great physician who, in Greek mythology, was killed by Zeus because he sinned by raising a man from the dead. Many temples were built in honor of Asclepius. aesthesiometer A compasslike instrument used to measure tactile sensitivity. Two points can be stimulated simultaneously. The task of participants is to report whether they feel both points or only one. © 2017 Taylor & Francis aestheticism The belief that the principles of beauty are applicable to other arenas of thought. In epistemology, aestheticism attempts to integrate truth and beauty. aesthetic mode of existence According to Kierkegaard, the emphasis on sensual or intellectual pleasure. This mode breeds indifference and boredom and the collapse into melancholy and despair. affect (affection) According to Titchener’s early theory, affections are the elementary mental processes associated with emotions. Later, he viewed affections primarily as sensations of pleasantness or unpleasantness. afferent In neurology, the term afferent refers to movement inward toward the central nervous system. alchemy The ancient practice of transformation. Jung found inspiration in alchemical practices, believing they gave substance to his psychology, spiritual values, and ideas about psychological transformation. Alcmaeon Early Greek physician who worked around 500 BCE. He advocated an empirical, rational, and naturalistic approach to medicine. One of the first to practice dissection. Al-Ghazali (1058–1111) Author of The Incoherence of the Philosophers. Attacked the rationality of the Greeks and the concept of causality. Worked against scientific progress in Islam. Alhazen (965–1039) One of the greatest Islamic scientists whose Book of Optics is one of the most influential classic works on vision. He made many original contributions on topics such as depth perception, apparent size, and binocular vision. Allport, Floyd H. (1890–1971) A founder of experimental social psychology, Allport pioneered research in conformity, social influence, and prejudice. Allport, Gordon (1897–1967) Well-known personality psychologist interested in the development of a psychology consistent with the principles of freedom and democracy. His individualistic psychology is consistent with many of the main themes of humanistic or third-force psychologies. anal stage According to Freud, in the second and third years of life, the child develops a deep awareness of the pleasures associated with relief of bowel and bladder tension. The expression of this pleasure may be in © 2017 Taylor & Francis conflict with societal norms and thus create special difficulties that must be negotiated with care if the child is to develop normally. analytic a priori Refers to formal truths in which a predicate completely unpacks a subject. A statement such as All bachelors are unmarried is an example. analytic psychology The name of the system of psychology advanced by Carl Gustav Jung. Anaximander of Miletus (610–c. 547 BCE) Greek scientist and philosopher and one of the first to advance a theory of organic evolution. Anaximenes (c. 588–c. 524 BCE) A cosmologist who taught that air is the primal substance and that this substance is transformed into other things through condensation and rarefaction. Angell, James Rowland (1869–1949) A powerful advocate of the functionalist viewpoint in U.S. psychology. He argued that psychology should emphasize mental operations rather than the “stuff of experience.” His book Psychology and his classic article “The Province of Functional Psychology” are important expositions of functionalism. anima In Jung’s theory, the female archetype in men. animal spirits A concept that has enjoyed wide usage, especially in premodern times. In Galen’s pneuma concept of the soul, the expression animal spirits was used to account for a vital psychological function, namely, the operation of higher cognitive functions. Animal spirits contrasted with natural spirits, which account for vegetative functions. See vital spirit. animus In Jung’s theory, the male archetype in women. a posteriori Literally, from what is later. Generally refers to the belief that knowledge is dependent on experience and past learning. Contrast with a priori. apperception Historically a term with many meanings, but it commonly refers to mental processes that are more complex than those involved in perception. It implies a high level of awareness and activity of the mind so that relationships are clearly understood. Contrasts with mere passive awareness. © 2017 Taylor & Francis apperceptive mass A term employed by Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841) to refer to the goal of education to produce not only knowledge of facts but also a higher level of awareness of relationships. approach–approach conflict A type of conflict marked by the presence of two attractive but mutually exclusive goals. Thus, the achievement of one goal precludes the possibility of attaining the other. approach–avoidance conflict A type of conflict in which a positive goal is associated with some unattractive or undesirable feature. a priori Literally, from what is prior. Generally refers to the presumed capacity to discern truths through intellectual insights with minimal dependence on past experience and past learning. Contrast with a posteriori. Aquinas, Thomas (1225–1274) One of the greatest doctors of the church, remembered for his heroic efforts to reconcile faith and reason. He is also remembered for advancing an empirically based system of psychological thought. archetype According to Jung, archetypes exist in the collective unconscious. They are patterns or forms that help mold thinking about experiences with topics such as power, death, darkness, mothers, fathers, and so on. Jung assumed that the vast experiences of the entire species with such topics do not go unrepresented in the psychological apparatus of each individual. Arete Daughter of Aristippus and head of the school of philosophy at Cyrene following the death of Aristippus. Aristippus Student of Socrates who headed the school of Cyrene following the death of Socrates. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) The pupil of Plato and one of the great philosophers who is especially noteworthy for his work in physics, biology, and psychology. Aristotle also founded logic and set forth an original and comprehensive view of causality. Asch, Solomon (1907–1996) A social psychologist in the Gestalt tradition, Asch performed classic conformity studies in which participants often conformed to strangers’ mistaken perceptions of the length of a clearly visible line. © 2017 Taylor & Francis Asclepiades A popular Greek physician who practiced in Rome around 124 BCE. He distinguished between delusions and hallucinations and argued that therapy for emotional problems should be pleasant. associationism Systematic emphasis on the idea that human knowledge is not innate but grows inevitably out of the gradual buildup of associations from sensory data. attitudes According to Jung, an attitude is a pervasive social orientation. Jung identified two attitudes: introversion and extroversion. attributes of elementary mental processes According to Titchener, elementary processes such as sensations include four attributes: quality, intensity, clearness, and duration. attributive pluralism Emphasizes the varieties of descriptive modes applicable for most phenomena. For example, a sunset may be described in the language of physics, anthropology, psychology, or any of a variety of other disciplinary languages. Events can also be described poetically or musically. Augustine, Aurelius (354–430) One of the great doctors of the church who wrote extensively about a number of psychological topics including memory, grief, speech, and dreams. Aurelius, Marcus (121–180 CE) Roman emperor and stoic philosopher who emphasized the importance of enduring hardships that undoubtedly serve a larger purpose. The expression stoic resignation characterizes an important dimension
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