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The Past and Present Society The Past and Present Society Early Germanic Warfare Author(s): E. A. Thompson Source: Past and Present, No. 14 (Nov., 1958), pp. 2-29 Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of The Past and Present Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/650090 Accessed: 15/10/2008 11:47 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=oup. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit organization founded in 1995 to build trusted digital archives for scholarship. We work with the scholarly community to preserve their work and the materials they rely upon, and to build a common research platform that promotes the discovery and use of these resources. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Oxford University Press and The Past and Present Society are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Past and Present. http://www.jstor.org EARLYGERMANIC WARFARE THREE TOPICS ARE DISCUSSEDIN THE FOLLOWING PAGES: (i) WEAPONS and Tactics,(ii) SiegeWarfare and (iii) Food and Strategy. lButit is necessaryto begin by stressingthe immense technicalsuperiority of the RomanEmpire over all its neighbours. Throughoutthe heyday of their civilisationthe Romansmade a comparauvelysmall contributionto the developmentof mechanical techniques; but their capacityfor absorbingand developingthe inventions,and particularlythe weapons,of others arousedwide- spreaddiscussion in the ancientworld and indeedbecaIrse something of a commonplacein Greco-Romanliterature. 1 When Roman armies first enterednorth-western Europe in force, the naiives of that region were astoundedand often demoralisedby the sheer technicalability of the invaders. Againand againin his BG Caesar remarkson the astonishmentof the Gauls, Britons,and Germansat the techniquesof his troops.2 Now, the techniquesof the Gauls themselveswere by no means primitiveby Romanstandards, and the Gauls were quick to learn from their conquerors.3 But they could only imitatewhat they had the technicalresources to mbe for themselvesand what their Roman prisonerscould teach them to construct(though they mightbe impressixrepupils)4; and when their countryhad risen in its last assaulton the invaders,the Gaulsbelieved that they had been beatennot by Romancourage and disciplinebut by Romantechnical superiorit-r, especially in siege operations.5 ()n everyfrontier the barbarianssllffered from this sameinEeriority. The Dacians,6the steppenomads,7 and even the greatPersian Empire itself8 were no match for the Romans in technicalachievements. Moreover,apart from techniciansand technical skill the Romans also had at their disposalfar greaterquaniities of the raw materials essentisl to war than had any of their neighbours. (Two passages which will well repay study in this connexionare Herodian,Hist. iV. IO. 4, and Libanius,Or. lix. 66 ff.). Considera randomentry iIl a late Roman chronicle. A certainAristus, commanderof the Illyricantroops in 499, marchedout with IS,OOO soldierstO fight the Bulgarswho were devastating Thrace in thatyear; and he broughtwith him no fewerthan 520 wagorlsloaded with the weaponsalone which wereessentual for the campaign.9 No otherancient State had soldiers with such "fire-power"as these figuresimply. More thall half a millenniumearlier Julius Caesardid not concealthe effortswhich EARLY GERMANICWARFARE 3 he madeto impressupon the Gaulsthe vastnessof the resourcesof Italy-any losses which the Romansmight sufferin war could be replacedover and overagain.l? Now, the Gauls, to say nothing of the Persians,had reacheda higherlevel of materialdevelopment than the Germansat the time whenboth alike dashed withthe armiesof JuliusCaesar. In Caesar's time the use of iron among the Germanswas severelylimited, at any rateby Romanstandards. Indeed,it has been said thatGerman weapons,both defensiveand offensive,were characterised by poverty of metal; and Tacituspoints to their weaponsto provethe shortage of iron among the German communities.ll Germanicus could encouragehis men without absurdexaggeraiion by pointingout to them that the Germanwarriors had neitherbreastplates nor helmets, that their shields were not strengthenedwith iron or leather but were mademerely of wickerworiand thin, paintedboards, and that the spears of many of them were not tipped with iron at all but were merelyhardened by fire.l2 In fact, the characterof German weaponswas elucidated many years ago by i9S.Jahn in his fundamental study; and a brief summaryof some of his conclusionswill be enoughfor our purpose. When the Germanwarrior, whether horseman or foot, went mto battlein the Erstcentury A.D., his mninweapon was a long lancewii one end sharpenedand hardetledby fire, or else fittedwith a short narrowiron point, which could be hurled or used for thrusting.l3 Some foot-soldiersalso had several spears each which they could throw;l4but only a handfulof them the morewell-to-do-could afford to carry a sword in addition.l5 These offensive weapons left them at an inferiorityto the Romans. For while the lancesand spears might possibly match the Romanpilum {which, of course, was not a thrustingweapon), the Germansword was found wanting (quite apartfrom the fact that the majorityof GermanicwarTiors possessedno sword at all): swordsappear to have been used much less frequendyin the earlyRoman period, even by those who could affordto own them, thanhad beenthe casebefore the Germmscame in contactwith the Romans. In some measurede sword as such was found to be an unsatisfactoryweapon in warfareagainst the Rornans. When their defensive armour was so scanty, it was advisableto use a long thrustingspear and so to keep one's distance ratherthan to use a swordand so be forcedto cometo gripswith the heavily clad Romans.l6 4 PAST AND PRESENT In their defensive armour the Germans were at a disastrous disadvantageto the Imperialtroops. They went into bardeeither naked or wearingonly a short cloak.l7 Helmets and breastplates were practicallyunEown.l8 Their only defensiveweapon was the light wooden or wicker shield which Germanicusspoke of with contempt. But these shields were not used only to parry their opponents'blows or to deflecttheir missiles: they werefitted with an iron boss somedamesas much as twelve centimetreshigh and so fashionedthat the shieldbecame a thrustingweapon in itself. Their smithsshowed almost endless initiative in worlungout independently of Celtic or Romaninfluences new types of boss which would rnake a thrust of the shield more effective.ls But in fact the shield of wickerworkor light boards(sometimes fitted with an iron rim) was as a rule onlyhalf a centimetrethick at the edgesand one to one anda half centimetreround the boss in the centre20,and even whenit was strengthenedmeth leather for Germanicusexaggerated when he said that this was not done-it could easily be smashedby the adversary'ssteel. In all, we can hardlyhesitate to agree with sn historianof the sixth centuryA.D. who, havingoccasion tO comment on de armsand armourof the Germans,says that tlheirarmament was paltryand such as would need no skilledtechnicians to repair it if it were damaged:repairs could be carriedOUt by the warrioss themselves.2l A11this explainsthe need for dat swift, wild rushin their wedge- shapedformaiions22 with whichthe Germanswould charge the ranks Oftheir heavily armed opponents. Their onlyhope of overwhelming a Romancommander in open country,clear of their own woodsand marshes,was to breakhis line by che impetus of their first attack; and on at least one occasiontheir chargewas so headlongas to leave the Roman troops no time to hurl deir javelins at all.23 They attackedof necessity:they daredIlOt wait to be attacked. (It was advisable,of course,to avoidthe errorof judgem.entof whichsoine of Caesar'senemies were guilty, who chargedso rapidlyover such a long distancethat when at last they arrivedat the Ronnn lines duhey were panong and breathlessand quite unalzleto fight a barde).44 But if the Germanswere caught up and entangledin a prolonged hand-to-handgrapple where their light shield and t^=StiZlg spear wereconfronted wid the heavymetal helmet, breastplate, ard she'^, and the steel sword of che Romans,their personalbravery would often availthem little.26 This was parecularlydche c&se sincc tnany of them, when once they chose or were compelledto huri their spears,would be left withoutany weaponof any kind, offensiveor EARLY GERMANICWARFARE 5 defensive,apart from their heavily bossed shields ualessthey could piclr up a spear which had alreadybeen thrownssor unless they chose to pick up stones and throw them: we even hear of German horsemfln throwingstones.27 The fact is that in open battle against Romanlegionzies the Germanicwarriors were little, if at all, more effeciivethnn the Achaeanheroes of Homerwould have been. It was uselessto fightdche Imperialarmies with the tacacs and equipmentof Achillesand Agamemnon,which
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