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THE TEXIANS AND THE TEXANS

THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS INSTITUTE OF TEXAN CULTURES AT SAN ANTONIO ..

The University of Texas Institute of Texan Cultures at San Antonio 1981 •

THE TEXIANS AND THE TEXANS A series dealing with the many peoples who have contributed to the history and heritage of Texas. Now in print: Pamphlets- The Indian Texans, The German Texans, The Norwegian Texans, Th e Mexican Texans (in English) , Los Tejanos Mexicanos (in Spanish), The Spanish Texans, The Polish Texans, The Czech Texans, The French Texans, Th e Italian Texans, The Greek Texans, The Jewish Texans, The Syrian and Lebanese Texans, The Afro-American Texans, The Belgian Texans, The Swiss Texans, The Chinese Texans and The Anglo-American Texans.

Books - The Irish Texans, The Danish Texans and The German Texans .

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The Chinese Texans Principal Researcher: William T. Field Jr.

©1978: The University of Texas Institute of Texan Cultures at San Antonio

Jack R. Maguire, Executive Director Pat Maguire, Director of Publications and Coordinator of Programs

First Edition , Second Printing, 1981 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 77-28587 International Standard Book Number 0-933164-91-2

This publication was made possible, in part, by a grant from the Houston Endowment, Inc.

Printed in the United States of America. Great Wall of China.

THE CHINESE TEXANS to "traditional American life ." At the same time they were obviously To the average nineteenth-century American, descendants of an old and highly cultured civili­ Chinese immigrants presented an interesting but zation, but it was a civilization that was isolated paradoxical portrait. They were heirs of one of and remote from the rest of the world. The the world's great civilizations, but everything Great Wall of China, a tremendous construction they did seemed to be backward. They read achievement, was but one obstacle making the sentences from right to left and their books from country a closed society. Governmental attitude back to front. They introduced themselves using and policy closed the country to foreigners for their surnames first instead of last. They many years. Great geographic distances as well mounted horses from the right side instead of as cultural differences within the provinces also from the left. Even the needles on the com­ contributed to the development of an isolated passes they carried pointed south instead of society. north. Recently, however, Chinese immigrants have Their physical appearance- even the color of been welcomed into American life. Following an their skin-was different from that of their neigh­ extended period of discrimination, exclusion bors. They wore pigtails hanging down their laws and antipathy toward all things foreign , backs, a practice imposed by the Manchu Americans recognized that, in addition to their Dynasty during the seventeenth century. Their industry, honesty and thrift, the Chinese people clothes were cotton, pajamalike garments, and possessed a fascinating and unique cultural heri­ their belongings were carried in wicker baskets tage. Some of their customs have now become on their shoulders. Their language, their a part of American tradition. One example, the customs and their religion bore no resemblance custom of exploding firecrackers in celebration of

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placed over a modern gas burner. Chinese restaurants are widely distributed throughout the state. As many younger Chinese have come to prefer American foods, their neighbors from other ethnic groups have discovered the enjoy­ ment of Chinese cooking. NEW ARRIVALS FROM AN ANCIENT WORLD Early Spanish explorers met Chinese traders on the Pacific coast. It was not until the 1840's, however, that a substantial immigration of new settlers from China began. Britain had defeated China in the Opium War, which lasted from 1839 to 1842. The Manchu Dynasty, although it would continue into the twentieth century, was perceptibly weakening. The social structure of China was deteriorating; a series of rebellions plunged the country into intermittent civil war for more than 20 years. Then from California came news of a great gold strike. Adventurous Chinese began prepar­ ations to make their fortunes by heading east to the "west's" gold fields. In 1850, 25,000 Chinese immigrants sailed on forty ships from Hong Kong to California. Few women came; most of the arrivals were men who hoped to gain wealth and then return home or bring their fami­ lies to America. Few, if any, Chinese made their way to Texas in this early period. By the 1870 United States Census, only 25 Chinese were listed as living in " \ Texas. In 1880 the number climbed to 136. For \ the next several decades, the number of Chinese \ \ . in Texas remained small but relatively stable. 1890- 710 Chinese Immigrants on board the steamship Alaska. 1900- 836 the Fourth of July, did not originate among An­ 1910-595 glo-American colonists in 1776. Firecrackers 1920-773 were introduced by Chinese in San Francisco 1930 - 703 when celebrating the admission of California to 1940- 1,031 the Union in 1850. Chinese cuisine has been 1950- 2,435 appreciated by Texans for a long time . One Chinese dish, chop suey, is actually a Chinese­ In 1960, 4 ,172 Chinese were recorded of­ American creation and almost unknown to the ficially, and the figure reached 7,635 in 1970 Chinese mainland. And the great old German including both native and foreign born. In the dish, sauerkraut, had its origins in China and is a middle 1970'sestimates by Chinese themselves favored Oriental food of long standing . suggested a population of some 15,000 Chinese Traditional ingredients of Chinese cooking are in Houston alone and some 3,000 in San An­ easily obtained in many Texas cities, as Oriental tonio. In addition, there were several thousand import shops stock a diversified array of cooking more in El Paso, Dallas, Fort Worth and in ingredients from China. The Chinese wok, or smaller towns throughout the state. The total frying pan, originally used over a charcoal stove, number of Chinese in Texas was estimated at has now been replaced with a built-in wok 22,000.

2 AN ANCIENT CULTURE BLENDS IN A MODERN SETTING

Today one of the distinguishing traits of Chinese Texans is an enthusiastic participation in all as­ pects of modern culture. But they have become Americanized in thought, speech and dress with­ out sacrificing all elements of their own cultural identity. They still surround themselves with symbols of their heritage. Prompted by a genuine interest in their cultural traditions - and helped by a written language of unusual stability -they are among the few people who can commonly read a calligraphic scroll over a thousand years old and a modern newspaper. Wedding customs are still observed, although the beautifully embroidered Chinese wedding gowns are often replaced by the white western style. Traditional practices that are still followed include sending invitations engraved in gold on red paper, dressing the bride in jade and gold family heirlooms, formal acknowledgment by the couple of their obeisance to the parents of the groom, and the exchange by the two families of moon cakes and Chinese pastries. In the past Chinese were expected to marry Chinese, but intermarriage between the Chinese and other ethnic groups has increased considerably among the younger generation.

Chinese Dragon Head mask for use in New Years Day Celebration.

The "red egg" party is also celebrated on occa­ sion. Friends and relatives are invited to the event, which commemorates the first cutting of a month-old baby's hair. After the infant's head has been shaved, a red egg is rubbed over it for good luck. Red is the color symbolizing happiness and good fortune, and red eggs are given to the guests as favors. An important birthday celebra­ tion is the parents' seventieth. The traditional gift is money in a red envelope.

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Gilded King Lung in Hong Kong.

The dress of Chinese Texans has changed over the years as American articles a£ clothing another occasion in El Paso , in 1909, a hun­ have been gradually combined with the tradi­ dred-foot-long dragon highlighted the Presiden­ tional costume. The chipao, still worn at times Ual Parade honoring President William Howard by Chinese women, has been adopted by many Taft and Mexican President Porfirio Diaz. westerners. It is attractive and comfortable and Individual Chinese families often hold Lunar cut in classic lines that never go out of style . New Year Celebrations. The home is thoroughly The Ten-Ten Celebration (tenth day of the cleaned and an elaborate festive dinner planned. tenth month) is held on October tenth, a national Early on the eve of the new year, the men of holiday commemorating the founding of the the family seek out their friends and settle their Chinese Republic. accounts so that they can greet the new year with a clean slate. Shops remain open a little THE KING LUNG AND THE CHINESE longer that day to make sure no one loses face LUNAR NEW YEAR by not paying his debts. New Year's Eve dinner, the last meal of the The Chinese Lunar New Year is observed with year, is eaten leisurely. Doors of the house are feasting and merrymaking. Banquets are held in sealed with red papers for good luck, and every­ fraternal halls and community centers in cele­ one remains awake to await the new year. At bration of the event. Banners, firecrackers,and midnight family members exchange cere­ small papier-mache dragons and lions are often monious greetings. Children bow low to their part of the occasion. parents and wish them a happy new year. The In recent years interest has been revived in the parents present gifts of small amounts of money parade of the large dragon featured in celebra­ in bright red envelopes decorated with gold em­ tions in San Francisco and New York City. The blems that wish the recipients new happiness for dragon, or ''king lung ," represents both joy and a new year. sorrow. It has been a traditional part of Chinese Then the family retires. Early the next morn­ parades, funerals, holidays and other com­ ing the seals on the doors are broken, and there­ memorative events. In El Paso king lungs have mainder of the day is often devoted by some to been a part of Chinese activities in the past, the worship of ancestors. It is considered bad notably in connection with the funeral proces­ luck on New Year's Day to raise one's voice, tell sion of a Chinese resident of the city . On a lie or use indecent language.

4 Work on the Pa cific Railroad.

At the company's expense, workers were fur­ CHINESE CAME AS nished a specified daily ration of food as well as RAILROAD BUILDERS lodging in tents and huts. They worked 26 days a month, most often as graders preparing the rail­ Railroads brought the first Chinese to Texas, but road's right of way. as laborers, not as passengers. They were em­ The Chinese laborers kept to themselves both ployed as construction workers on a railway line while working and off the job. They lived in their in the Brazos valley. Some 300 Chinese laborers own camps and prepared and ate their own led by General John G. Walker left St. Louis food. A meal might consist of rice, pork or dried aboard the steamer Mississippi in 1869. This fish, vegetables and tea. They wore light cotton marked the second stage of a long and arduous blouses and loose pants and plaited their hair in a journey that had begun in California. queue. Their straw hats were the shape of in­ Walker was the contractor for the Houston and verted washbowls. Texas Central Railroad . Calvert, Texas, was the They observed their own holidays, including a railhead at the time. The line was to be com­ Chinese Lunar New Year's Eve celebrated at pleted to the city of Dallas . Walker arranged for a Bremond, Texas, on January 30, 1870. "In full three-year contract, providing fare for all con­ Chinese costume, including large umbrellas, they struction workers, including the return trip to San promenaded the streets 'to the delight of the Francisco. The workers were guaranteed $20 a juveniles without distinction of race or color.' " month plus food. According to the contract, a Their aim, originally, had been to return to store stocked with Chinese goods was to follow China with the money they earned. But the rich the laborers as the work on the railroad pro­ Brazos valley farmland proved quite an attrac­ gressed. tion . After they worked about six months and en-

5 there when the town was a part of the Texas fron­ tier. During the 1880's there was even a "Chinatown" in Toyah, along the route of the Texas and Pacific Railway. The Texas and Pacific was chartered by the United States Congress in 1871. Work began at Texarkana in 1873, and by 1881 the line ex­ tended deep into west Texas. Chinese laborers were employed all along the route. As many as 3,000 Chinese were at work on the tracks at one time- and they were not listed in the census. A settler recalled coming upon a Chinese sec­ tion crew along the railroad tracks. 'They were working like bees along the dump. The men looked immaculate. Their full white sleeves were gathered to loose fitting cuffs. Their shirts, Gate to the Temple of Confucius in Ching- Hai. resembling the American sport shirt of the 1960's, hung loose over the top of their trousers. Some of them had their queues wound around the top countered labor problems, their contract was of their heads under their stiff hats, but most of terminated. A number of them returned and them hung down their backs. The most impres­ settled near the starting point of their labors. sive sight of all was presented by a Chinaman on Others came later from China to join their coun­ one of the black flat handcars going down the trymen as farm workers. Although figures for the track so fast that he seemed to be flying . As he total number of Chinese in the Brazo~ valley at rapidly worked the handbar the wind puffed out that time are not available , it is known that 150 his sleeves like two huge white balloons and blew Chinese registered to vote in Hearne in 1874. ·his black queue almost straight out behind." A typical labor contract was drawn up by As time progressed members of the Chinese James S. Hanna, a plantation owner in Robertson community of Toyah drifted away to other areas. I County, on December 13, 187 2: But they left behind many recollections of neigh­ I "Sin Yong and John See have this day agreed borliness and good will . During New Year with James S . Hanna as follows . The said Sin Celebrations, it was recalled, the strains of Yong and John See agree to cultivate thirty acres Chinese music could be heard throughout the I. of land on said Hanna's Plantation State & town . When their neighbors visited them at this i County aforesaid in a farmerlike manner for the time, the Chinese would give them priceless II year of 1873. Twenty acres in cotton, ten acres in porcelain dishes that were kept as remembrances corn under the superintendence of James S . for many years. I I Hanna or his authorized agent and they further A third railway, the Southern Pacific Railroad, agree to crib the corn , pick, gin and pack the used Chinese construction workers. The line was I cotton upon the following terms viz: The corn to completed with the driving of the last spike near I be divided by the wagon load - one load for said the first Pecos River high bridge in Val Verde Hanna, one load for said Chinamen. The cotton County on January 12, 1883. Two groups had I to be divided at the screw or sold on joint account performed the difficult pick and shovel construc­ - and proceeds divided at Calvert -one half for tion work, the Irish, working their way west, and said Chinamen . .. James S. Hanna on his part the Chinese, who worked their way east from El I agrees to furnish said Chinamen sufficient team Paso. ! and tools to cultivate the land and also corn to In addition to the difficulties encountered from '' feed the team until corn crop of 1873 can be the rugged trans-Pecos environment, the Chinese used and he further agrees to make them reason­ workers were often faced with hostility from their able enough advances throughout the year for fellow laborers. One Chinese worker was mur­ such things as they require ..." dered near the Pecos River, and when the The Houston and Texas Central was not the incident came to trial Judge Roy Bean delivered only railroad in Texas to employ Chinese labor. the opinion that there was no law in Texas against Residents of Toyah, in Reeves County, recall "killing a Chinaman." There were other dangers. stories of Chinese railroad workers who came On December 31, 1881, a roving band of

6 Apache Indians encountered a surveying crew of 11 Chinese at Eagle Pass and killed them all. The tunnel construction necessary to lay the track in the Pecos River canyon was done by the Chinese laborers. Today little evidence of their efforts remains - a few broken rice bowls and other scattered fragments of their material cul­ ture. Even the tunnels, engineering marvels for their time, are now closed and abandoned for a shorter route. As in other similar construction jobs, when their work was completed many of the laborers retraced their steps and settled for awhile in towns along the route, later moving to other areas that seemed to promise greater op­ portunities.

SAM MARDOCK COMES TO EAST TEXAS

Many of the Chinese railroad construction work­ ers found success in their later years in other vocations. Typical of these was Sam Mardock, one of the first Texans of Chinese descent to settle in east Texas. Sam was born with the name of Mar Dock near Canton, China, in 1863. He came to the United States at the age of 14 and studied English while he was working on a ranch in California.

Sam Mardock family.

Sam came to Texas as a railroad worker in 1880. He found employment as an interpreter in El Paso and in Galveston, and then in 1890 he moved to Tyler, where he opened the first of six restaurants. He began other restaurants later in Longview, Kilgore and Gladewater. The restau­ rant business, like the laundry business at that Chinese immigrants at San Francisco custom house. time, was one of the few occupations open to

7 , o I J J .. ,. - I Sam Mardock children. Julian. Lucille , and Sam.

'I Chinese. Neither required American citizenship , For many years the Mardocks were the only i I, as some professions did, for those who partici­ Chinese Texans living in the community. Their ,,1 pated in them. In addition, restaurant and laun­ neighbors appreciated their industry and self­ dry workers were not in direct competition with sacrifice and assisted them wherever possible . In i . , large numbers of American citizens . later years Sam became known for his philan­ In 1900 Sam returned to Canton to find a thropies, at one time donating land to the city of wife . In a "family arranged" wedding, he was Tyler for an important project, the Beckham 'I married to Wong Shee. Because of American Poplar Overpass. immigration restrictions in existence at that time, The Mardock children were also successful in he could not bring his bride back with him to the their own professions-Lucille, an artist and real United States. But he was so delighted with her estate manager; Sam, manager of rental pro­ that he built her a house in Canton and staffed it perty and of an import store; and Julian, a dis­ with servants. He also arranged to visit her at tinguished surgeon in Dallas. Sam and Julian five year intervals until he could bring her to were pilots during World War II. Julian was the Tyler. first Chinese-American pilot of World War II and A large crowd gathered at the old Cotton Belt one of the first , if not the first , Chinese-American Depot in Tyler to welcome the lovely "bride," pilot in aviation history. dressed in her native garb and with her feet Throughout most of his life , Sam Mardock bound in the traditional Chinese manner. Foot­ dreamed of becoming an American citizen. In binding had been a mark of gentility and correct 1882 the Chinese were the first Asians to be ex­ fashion among Chinese women for almost a cluded from the United States. But they were thousand years. The process of acculturation also the first to become legally eligible for immi­ worked immediately and decisively at this point. gration and naturalization in 1943. Sam died in Mrs . Mardock later recalled that she quickly re­ 1942, without realizing his dream; but his suc­ moved the bindings from her feet. "What a cess in virtually everything else he set out to do relief, " she said. "I never wore them again." served as encouragement for many others.

8 THE RAILROAD WORKERS SAN ANTONIO ATTRACTS COME TO EL PASO OTHER CHINESE

On October 16, 1885, the Lone Star of El Paso The beginning of the San Antonio Chinese com­ announced: "Born-In this city, Wednesday munity dates back to the completion of the morning, Oct. 14, 1885, to the wife of Sam Southern Pacific Railroad. By 1890 some 50 Hing, a fine healthy boy. This is probably the Chinese had established themselves in the city as first Chinaman ever born in the state of Texas." restaurant owners, laundrymen and truck far­ Sam Hing was probably the most influential mers. Their success attracted other Chinese to Chinese Texan of his time in El Paso. He owned San Antonio. One of these was Don Wong, a a general merchandise store, was an active native of Kwantung Province, who migrated to lodge organizer, and served as a private banker the United States in 1908. for the Chinese community. Wong worked and learned English in Watson­ Hing made his fortune by operating as a ville , California. He brought his wife, Lee Shee, labor contractor supplying Chinese workers for and small daughter, Mae, from China in 1912 Southern Pacific Railroad construction crews. and moved to San Antonio. There he establish­ When the line was completed to El Paso on May ed a bakery in the Produce Row area. Six sons 19, 1881, several hundred Chinese laborers re­ and one more daughter were born to the Wong mained in the city, forming the nucleus of a family . Each child was given a savings account colony. to teach diligence and economy and to help pay By 1889 there were 312 Chinese Texans in the cost of his later education. Don Wong was El Paso. They owned restaurants, grocery stores aware of the importance of education; he was and laundries and worked as physicians, cooks, one of the organizers of the Chinese School of barbers, farmers, gardeners and writers. A local San Antonio. paper described the city as "the Chinese Mecca of the Southwest. " Of the 18 laundfies in El Paso in 1889, all were owned and operated by Chinese. One laundryman, Wong Wun, identified his customers by personal descriptions rather than by name. In Chinese characters in a rice-paper book, he described them variously as "Fat man with long fingernails," "Freckled gentleman with loud voice," and "Sneezing man who scratches head." Through the years since that time, the Chinese population of El Paso has remained numerically stable. Some have felt it important that their children learn their native tongue, so the Chinese language is still spoken, along with English and Spanish. But, at the same time , the Chinese group has been thoroughly assimilated into American culture. Many have established successful careers in medicine, law, engineering and education. The Chinese Benevolent As­ sociation, made up of El Paso citizens of Chinese descent, has been one of the factors in this suc­ cess. The association is primarily a social organ­ ization, but during its earlier years its main pur­ pose was to provide relief for needy Chinese. During the Great Depression, all Chinese were provided for; no El Paso Chinese were placed on welfare rolls. Jade Lorraine Wong.

9 As the Wong children matured, they began to Howard Wong, whose father came to San realize the value of their father's efforts. Three Antonio from Canton by way of California and sons in San Antonio engaged in such businesses established himself as a grocer in the Produce as an auto parts store, a motel and a grocery. Row area in 1914. Another became an anesthesiologist. One son Howard Wong graduated from The University went into building contracting in Austin . Of the of Texas at Austin in 1956 and then spent two remaining children who survived, one be­ several years studying with architect Eero Saari­ came a chemical engineer in New York and the nen at Blumfield Hills , Michigan , and with Louis other a California housewife. Before his death Kahn of the University of Pennsylvania. In San Don Wong saw his children fulfilling the promise Antonio he continued his work with Texas archi­ of success that brought him to Texas. tect O'Neil Ford. The Texas Society of Archi­ Another native of China, Fook Sune Lee, tects Honor Award for Excellence in Design has moved to San Antonio in 1915 to open a restau­ four times been given to him . One award was rant. He returned to China in 1920 to marry Lui for his design for the First Christian Church in Shee. The couple returned to the United States Denton, Texas, and another was for the Inter­ in 1921 with their young son, Thomas Jeffer­ Continental Motors Building on Broadway in son Lee . San Antonio. The design of the Southwest Re­ Tom Lee, like many children of Chinese par­ search Institute facilities and St. Andrew's ents, was given an excellent education. He Presbyterian Church, both in San Antonio, are studied at The University of Texas at Austin, the also fine examples of his work. University of Notre Dame, and at St. Mary's A daughter, Lenora Sue Wong, became the University , where he received a degree in ac­ first San Antonio woman to be accepted by one counting in 1956. He was awarded an LLB de­ of the military service academies. She entered gree from St. Mary's Law School in 1960. the United States Air Force Academy at Colora­ Tom Lee was the first Texan o.f Chinese do Springs, Colorado, in 1976. descent to serve in the Texas Legislature when he was elected to the House of Representatives CHINESE PRESERVE THEIR HERITAGE from Bexar County. He was also the first officer of Chinese descent in the United States Navy. While Chinese have adapted readily to Texas, I A respected San Antonio architect, who is they have maintained a strong awareness of their II also a colonel in the United States Air Force Re­ own unique heritage. The Chinese School of I', I serve, is descended from an early arrival to the San Antonio was founded in 1922 to train stu­ I San Antonio Chinese community. He is dents in the many aspects of Chinese history and

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Thomas Jefferson Lee. Howard Wong,

10 culture. By 1928 40 to 50 students attended classes from 4:30 to 7:30 p .m.six days a week. • • This class work was in addition to their regular studies in the public schools. ,!rl Reading courses included the study of the ~ ~ enduring classics basic to Chinese culture and philosophy. Chinese calligraphy was taught with ~...., traditional brush and ink stone. i{ u Theodore H. Wu came to San Antonio in the ~ late 1920's as teacher for the Chinese School. He became a prominent merchant; his first .~ at grocery was located near the San Antonio River i! in what is now the HemisFair area. He was also one of the founders of Boysville . During World War II Wu worked as a volun­ teer translator of Chinese calligraphy for the ~ ~ United States Post Office . He opened the Tai ~i Shan Restaurant in 1946. - ~ As the Chinese were assimilated increasingly ~ (,~ into the city's population, class attendance de­ /~ ..,. clined, and in 1947 the school was closed. By .. f; { popular demand and through support by the Chinese Community Council, the school was re­ 11&' opened in 1971 in a new modern building and ~ with an excellent faculty . Chinese history, ,geog­ raphy, philosophy and cul ture are taught along ~ with the Mandarin, Cantonese and Toysan !17 dialects. ~ :t- The expanding population of Chinese Texans t.- in Houston coincided with an increased interest in .. _ the establishment of a similar school in that city. In j~ }ij ~ 1970 the Chinese School of Houston was founded, with classes l}eld at Rice University. '(!!7 Like the school in San Antonio, classes are open ,e. to the public. The general reception has been Jil ~~ i._ enthusiastic,and class membership has continued to grow. }.{- "~tl . SOCIAL AND FRATERNAL ORGANIZATIONS WERE IMPORTANT 'X 'f1 Early Chinese immigrants to America, set apart by their traditions, language and physical ap­ -* ~h. pearance, were isolated in what many perceived 'lf to be a hostile atmosphere. Relatives and neigh­ •j ~ bors in the same areas banded together, both for social activity and physical security. In time, i ~jk their meetings became formalized , and lodges, known as tongs, were formed. In the beginning tongs provided the Chinese collectively what they could not obtain indivi­ iJ dually . Tongs furnished members the services they expected but did not obtain from the cities k_ in which they lived: protection from economic rt sanctions, protection from rampant crime and C hinese calligraphy.

11 9M. .Members and Cjoullli8rs t/ S41t arz;/:.onio O.hinese Sckool . lg 28 .

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12 even protection from slavery. One of the most prestigious, the Chinese Tongs assumed strong positions of leadership American Citizens Alliance, was founded in San among the Chinese people, ultimately control­ Francisco in 1895 as the "United Parlor of the ling crime in the Chinese communities ignored by Native Sons of the Golden State." Its purpose is local governments. Tongs even became identi­ to promote fraternal fellowship and to foster mu­ fi ed with crime, preventing certain violations but tual interest among Americans of Chinese allowing and abetting others. An intense rivalry descent. C. B. Albert Gee, Houston export-im­ arose among tongs, and bloody tong wars were port and real estate development executive, was the result, particularly in the larger cities. News­ the first national president of the Chinese paper headlines sometimes exaggerated the American Citizens Alliance to be elected outside seriousness of the situation, but tong wars did the state of California. Gee, born in Detroit in pose a serious problem, and they continued 1920, spent his childhood in New Orleans and intermittently on up to the 1930's. then moved to Houston, where he was active in

Chung Kuo Kuomintang.

Chinatowns today are model cities in mmm­ the restaurant business for more than 20 years. ture. Serious crime is rare, and juvenile de­ He later became engaged in the importation of linquency has never been a problem. China­ foodstuffs and other commodities from Taiwan. towns have become tourist meccas, authentic In addition to his work in CACA,Gee has main­ showplaces that contribute to overall city de­ tained an active interest in Houston civic affairs, velopment. In place of tongs, there are now and he has been honored on numerous occasions social and fraternal organizations that care for for his outstanding contributions to the city. the needs of all Chinese. Many of these organizations are national in scope, and some of them have chapters in cities CHINESE CHURCHES IN TEXAS in Texas. These include the Chinese American Citizens Alliance; Chinese Freemasons, Chi Buddhism, Mohammedanism, Taoism and Kung Tong; Chinese Optimist Club; Kuomin­ Christianity were among the religious beliefs of tang; Hip Sing Association ; On Leong Mer­ early immigrants from China. Christianity has chant's Association; and family associations. largely displaced the other beliefs among

13 Chinese living in Texas. Both Protestant and Catholic churches gave considerable assistance to Chinese settlers. Southern Baptists, in particular, paid close attention to their needs and offered help through their Home Mission Board. As early as 1896 a Baptist Chinese Mission was in operation in El Paso. Along with its reli­ gious activities, the mission became the center for the instruction of Chinese children in Confucian philosophy, Chinese art and history, and the Cantonese dialect. The mission grew until in 1964 it became the Grant Avenue Baptist Church. In San Antonio the Chinese Baptist Church was begun in 1923, the first of its kind in the southern and southwestern areas of the United States. Services were held for a time in the old Spanish Governor's Palace. In 1976 the 200 members of the congregation still conducted a portion of their services, including the singing of hymns, in Chinese. Chinese and English services are also con­ ducted in the Chinese Baptist Church 9f Houston. The church members began meeting in 1939 and organized the church in 1953. In 1976 the congregation had grown to some 300. wor­ shippers. Grace Chapel in Houston, an interdenomina­ tional church, also conducts services in both the Chinese and English languages. In addition to meeting the spiritual needs of its members, the church supports missions in Taiwan and Hong Kong.

GENERAL "BLACK JACK" PERSHING AIDS THE CHINESE

The Mexican revolutionary, Pancho Villa, had a significant influence on the story of Chinese set­ tlement in Texas. Following his attack on Columbus, New Mexico , on March 9, 1916, the United States government dispatched a punitive expedition into Mexico under the command of General John J . "Black Jack" Pershing. His in­ structions were to capture Villa dead or alive. The expedition camped near the small pueblo of Casa Grande, and its members were soon supplied with candy, cakes, cigarettes and ser­ vices not usually offered to troops in enemy terri­ tory. The benefactors were Chinese who lived in the small cities and towns of northern Mexico at that time . Restriction acts and other statutes enforced by the United States had been respon­ sible for keeping Chinese immigrants across the Altar in Chinese Joss-House , San Francisco.

14 border. But that did not prevent them from resid­ ing nearby, awaiting the time when they might be allowed to enter the United States. The meeting of the Chinese settlers and the American troops was fortuitous , but its effects proved to be lasting. The Chinese, some in two­ horse wagons and others afoot, followed the Pershing expedition from bivouac to bivouac across the dusty trails of Chihuahua. When sup­ ply routes were disrupted, they brought food and other necessities from the Mormon community of Colonia Dublan. They operated restaurants and laundries and even served as soldiers in one encounter with Villistas , fighting bravely and vic­ toriously. Villa swore to hang every "Chino" in northern Mexico . General Pershing and his men returned after 11 months of unsuccessful pursuit of Villa . Among the 2, 700 refugees following the expedi­ tion back to the United States were 527 Chinese. Under the existing laws of the United States, they were not eligible to enter the country as immi­ grants. Exclusion acts, occasioned as a result 9f depressions and a general fear of lack of sufficient jobs for America's labor force, had barred Chinese entry since 1882. Pershing and ..other influential friends petitioned Congress to grant an exception to these refugees who had been of Reception for General Pershing at Ellington Field . such great assistance to the expedition. The grati­ tude of these immigrants for General Pershing's championing their cause was heartfelt and enduring. Many named their sons for him , as in the case of Pershing Yium and Black Jack Wong.

Chinese and Mexicans following Pershing, 1917.

15 Except for General Pershing, the man who devotion to their benefactor, General Pershing. In made the greatest contribution to the welfare of early December 1919, William Tracy Page wrote the newly arrived Chinese Texans was William a letter to his Chinese friend , Ng Hing, advising: Tracy Page. Page, born in about 1872, was the "Chuck, Louie Sun and a few other refugees son of Elizabeth Page and John Henry Page, Sr., are going to meet me downtown this after-noon a general officer in the army of the United States. at four o'clock to buy a Christmas present for He was educated at Cornell University and later General Pershing. I don't know what we are served as an Immigration Bureau official in the going to get but it will be something nice . I will let Philippines. Page was assigned as civilian advisor you know later on what was decided on. I am to the Chinese refugees when General Pershing going to suggest a silver pitcher. They are always placed them under military discipline in nice things to have and are useful." Columbus, New Mexico . "Speaking in Spanish, smiling in Chinese," the General Pershing came to Texas in 1920 on a refugees arrived in San Antonio by special train speaking tour, making stops in San Antonio, El on June 7, 1917. Several of their countrymen Paso, Dallas and Fort Worth . While reviewing had returned to China, some had gone back to troops at Houston's Ellington Field, he noticed a Mexico , and a number of them had been able to group of men standing to one side. He was told establish themselves as independent merchants that these were 36 Chinese from the group he elsewhere in the United States. had brought out of Mexico in 1917. Pershing A critical need existed for labor at army instal­ then greeted each man, urging him to learn lations in San Antonio at that time, and the War English and to become a good citizen . Later, Department provided a temporary work program while touring southern military posts in January for the Chinese at Fort Sam Houston. Each 1922, he visited with a group of almost a hundred refugee was given a certificate of identity, admit- Chinese in San Antonio, advising them to ting him as a temporary resident. '" become "good citizens." The refugees were sent to Camp Wilson, an . Public Law 29, signed by President Warren G. addition to Fort Sam Houston and later renamed Harding on November 23, 1921, granted the Camp Travis . Its purpose was to house part of the refugees the "right to be and to remain within the national army being assembled under the draft United States." It gave them the legal right to laws of 1917. The Chinese refugees were em­ participate in a community beyond themselves ployed by the United States government. They and also provided the first step toward their were paid a regular wage for their work as labor­ permanent integration into American society. ers, laundrymen, carpenters, blacksmiths and Between January 27 and February 3, 1922, 281 cooks. William Tracy Page was to declare later Chinese men were given Certificates of that all members of the camp voluntarily took the Registration as provided for in Public Law 29. oath of allegiance to the United States and that, to the best of his knowledge, all had remained The San Antonio Chinese found working con­ loyal. ditions in the city to their liking. Many entered the Page resigned his position in July 1919 to retail grocery business, and, with the aid of a become treasurer and an associate in an engi­ jobbers' cooperative that they managed, they neering enterprise in San Antonio, but he con­ were successful in their ventures. The entire com­ tinued to try to secure citizenship for the Chinese munity assimilated well into the life of the city, immigrants. He made coherent their pleas for and members began taking positions in a large legal acceptance in the United States, and he variety of occupations. freely gave his time and energy to make the In 1943 the Chinese exclusion laws were re­ project a success. pealed. Immigration from China was still strictly limited, but all Chinese who had made previous legal entry into the United States were granted the right of naturalization. Thus all remaining THE CHINESE REGISTER AS Chinese refugees who had been brought into the AMERICANS country by General Pershing became United States citizens. When General Pershing died in About half of the Chinese refugees at Camp July 1948, the largest floral offering on his grave /, Wilson chose to remain permanently in San at Arlington National Cemetery was from his San Antonio. They continued to maintain a strong Antonio Chinese friends . I.:/1 16 CHINESE CHOOSE URBAN LIFE

Chinese in Texas adapted themselves well to urban life and a large percentage of them chose to settle in cities. They did not congregate in Chinatowns, however, except for the small one in Toyah and the one in El Paso that has since become a part of the city. With the arrival of Pershing's refugees, Bexar replaced El Paso County as the Chinese population center of the state. By 1940 Bexar County was the home of 47 percent of the Chinese residing in Texas, and almost all of these were living in San Antonio. Their industry, perseverance and thrift gained for them financial security and, among some, wealth , which they regularly shared with family

Mary Eng.

Dr. Tin g L. C hu. Dr. Shirley Chu with children Dora and Daniel.

17 members back in China. They also nurtured a plied Science at Southern Methodist University continuing interest in China's political affairs. in Dallas. During the anti-Japanese war of resistance from The Chus, natives of Peking, left the mainland 1937 to 1945, Chinese throughout the state in 1948. But they didn't meet until Shirley be­ sponsored fund-raising activities for China war came Ting's student at Duquesne University in relief. Individual Chinese, often at considerable Pittsburgh. Their three children were born in sacrifice, toured the country in search of the Pittsburgh, and Ting was employed for a time much-needed funds. One of the first and most there as manager of the semiconductor depart­ successful of these was Mary Eng of San Anto­ ment of the Westinghouse research laboratory. nio. At one time Shirley was the only woman in the Mary was the first Chinese baby born in United States in possession of a U.S . Energy Re­ Shreveport, Louisiana, and the first Chinese search and Development Administration con­ student to graduate from high school in Shreve­ tract for research in solar energy. port. She had the first Chinese wedding there The city of Houston is now one of the four or when she married Joseph Eng in 1940. While five large Chinese population centers in the she was still in high school, Mary's father sent her United States. Although Chinese Texans pre­ to the village of Toy Sun, in China, to learn to ferred residence in urban areas, there were few speak and to write Chinese. Then she returned in Houston until the depression years of the to Louisiana to finish high school. 1930's. A general southward movement of Chi­ In 1937 Mary began the career of public ser­ nese in the United States brought job hunters to vice that was to continue for the remainder of Houston. A second group came with the wave her life. She made an extended tour of southern of immigration following World War II . states making speeches before civic and other From 1943 until 1968, although thousands of service clubs on behalf of needy Chinese.. refu- Chinese emigrants entered the United States as gees. exceptions, the formal limit was 105 Chinese a Shortly after their marriage , the Engs moved year. In 1968, the immigration laws were once to San Antonio and soon began holding open again changed. The national quota system was house the year round for servicemen and abolished and a grand total was set of 170,000 students. In 1944 Mary organized the Young people per year from anywhere with a 20.000 Chinese League, a social and civic club where person limit per country. Chinese immigrants the younger generation could meet in the chap­ were finally fully on par with others. The eroned situation required by Chinese custom. change in law probably helped account for the The young people often met at her home for 1970 Harris County total of 3,677 people. parties and dances. Floats decorated by league Years before, one of the pioneer Chinese members won awards in numerous parades. immigrants in Houston was Harry Gee, Sr., Mary Eng was the representative for the San who arrived in 1915. He had immigrated to the Antonio Chinese community during HemisFair '68. She has been named one of the outstanding women of the year in San Antonio. In the 1970 Census, Dallas County recorded the third largest Chinese population in the state. Only six Chinese residents of Dallas County were listed in the 1880 Census, but the population began to expand considerably with the wave of immigration in the wake of the Com­ munist takeover of China in 1948 and 1949. In that period many students and professional peo­ ple fled their homeland. Representative of this group were Ting and Shirley Chu. In the 1970's the Chus sought a modern solu­ tion to an age-old problem, the conversion of energy into useful power. The kind of energy studied was solar energy, and the site of their re­ search was the School of Engineering and Ap- Harry Gee and family.

18 United States in 1909 at the establishing the Journal. age of 14. Before settling Chinese newspapers are read permanently in Houston, he backward from their English moved to Detroit, where counterparts. The front page he operated a Chinese restau­ is in the position of the last rant. In 1919 he returned to page of an English language Houston and opened the newspaper. The fold is on Peking Restaurant. Gee re­ the righthand side, and the turned to China in 1926, paper opens from the left. married, and brought his The headlines usually read bride back to Houston. Harry from top to bottom, although Gee, Jr. developed into one they can be aligned hori­ of Houston's outstanding at­ zontally. The body type torneys, serving at one time reads from top to bottom, as assistant attorney general right to left. Lee uses 5 ,600 Dr. Joyce Fan and'her family. in the state capital. different characters in type , Chinese Texans have long been conscious of although there are at least as many as 12,000 the value of education. A high percentiil.ge of Chinese characters in all. young Chinese Texans are college graduates or There are several Chinese dialects, but fortunately are attending college. One of the recognized all Chinese is written the same-only the pro­ Chinese educators in Houston is Dr. Joyce Fan. nunciation of the characters is different. Dr. Fan was born in Foochow, Fukien, in 1919, the daughter of a Baptist missionary. She re­ CHINESE ART AND ARTISTS ceived her higher education in America-at Wheaton College and the State University of Chinese art expression has been esteemed for Iowa. She held teaching positions at universities thousands of years. Many persons of Chinese in Iowa, Illinois, California and Texas. Her hus­ descent have continued this tradition in Texas. band, Dr. Paul Fan, was appointed as head of One of the most successful artists and designers the Geology Department at the University of in the state is Rose Chin Wong, known to art Houston. patrons as R.C . Wong. She was born in Boston in 1915 and it was in Boston that Rose met her A CHINESE NEWSPAPER ESTABLISHED husband, Fred Wong, the second son of Don Wong of San Antonio. The couple lived first in The Houston Southwest Chinese Journal is one San Antonio but moved to Austin in the late of only three Chinese-English language news­ 1950's. papers in the United States, the others being in Although she was always interested in art, New York City and San Francisco. Gene Lee Rose did not become a serious painter until her · began the Journal in February 1976, and it children were grown and she was able to study proved successful beyond expectations. art at The University of Texas. Her first exhibit Lee migrated to this country as a student from was part of a group of paintings shown by the southern China in 1949. He served two years in University Art Department at Laguna Gloria Gal­ the Armed Forces, became an American citizen, lery in 1959. married a German girl , Hedy, and returned to As Rose Wong she helps design the apartment Houston to open a grocery store. The couple complexes her husband constructs. As R.C. opened a printing shop and stationery store. Re­ Wong she has a large following in south Texas cognizing the excellent possibilities for a Chinese for her landscapes, portraits and still lifes ex­ newspaper in Houston, they set about the task of ecuted in both pastels and oils.

19 Hsiao-Hsia Tsai began the study of calligraphy as a Chinese girl of three. She continued this dif­ ficult art form through her high school years. By the end of World War II , she had received a B A degree from the National College of Arts in China and was awarded a scholarship to study in America. She spent almost a year in parts of India be­ fore finding transportation to America. It was there, however, that she became acquainted with India's foremost artist, Goojar, and she posed for several portraits by him. Finally in the United States, she studied at the University of Oklahoma, where she received a

Master of Fine Arts degree, and at Del Mar Col­ David Yee. lege in Corpus Christi. She and her husband, Dr. Charles C . Hobbs, make their home in Corpus Christi. Hsiao-Hsia Tsai began exhibiting regularly while in college. Her paintings, mainly abstracts in oils , have been shown in major cities of the United States as well as in China, India and Canada and in almost all of the countries of Europe. David Yee of Houston is considered one of the foremost art experts in the United Sta'tes. He is also the owner of one of the finest Chinese art collections in the country. He is coauthor of a book that is used as a standard reference work by numismatists, and he is an art consultant to universities and other institutions. Yee arrived in the United States from China as a youth of 14 in 1928. Because of his interest in art, he enrolled in the Boston Art Institute. He is well-known for the beautiful watercolors which he paints at his home in Houston. Yee lived in San Antonio for many years, working as a grocer and restaurant owner. He retained his interest in art, however, and began collecting rare Chinese art and artifacts while very young. His collection includes bronzes, jades, porcelains, paintings, sculptures, classical calligraphy, pottery, currency, stamps, books and antiques. He plans to make it a permanent museum collection as his contribution in return for his American citizenship.

R.C. Wo ng. 20 Chinese family.

CHINESE TEXANS ENRICH CULTURAL HERITAGE

Chinese Texans have displayed numerous note­ towns in which they reside. Although small worthy traits that have made them welcome neighborhoods of Chinese exist in many areas, wherever they have settled in the state. Because there are no Chinatowns, as such, in any of the of their close family ties and their respect for tra­ towns and cities of Texas. When the Chinese dition , they have rarely been involved in any came as immigrants, they settled and remained kind of crime. They have long adhered to a pro­ as respectable members of the community. gram of mutual assistance, and they take pride in They brought with them many remnants of tradi­ the fact that their names have not been placed tional rites and customs that have continued as on welfare rolls, even during the Depression. sources of interest and enjoyment to their neigh­ They have shared the culture of the cities and bors throughout the state.

21 ~~------Index ______~~~~

Apache Indians, 7 Galveston , Texas. 7 Pershing, General John J ., 14, 15, 16, 17 Arlington National Cemetery, 16 Gee. C . B. Albert, 13 Philippines, 16 Austin , Texas. 10, 19 Gee, Harry. Jr. , 19 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 18 Bean, Judge Roy, 6 Gee, Harry, Sr., 18, 19 Reeves County, Texas, 6 Bexar County, Texas, 10, 17 Gladewater, Texas, 7 Rice University, 11 Blumfield Hills , Michigan , 10 Goojar, 20 Robertson County, Texas, 6 Boston , Massachusetts, 19, 20 Great Britain . 2 Saarinen, Eero, 10 Boysville . 11 Great Wall of China, 1 St. Louis, Missouri , 5 Brazos Valley , 5. 6 Hanna, James S ., 6 St. Mary's University , 10 Bremond, Texas, 5 Harding. Warren G .. 16 San Antonio, Texas, 2. 9, 10, 11, 14, 16, 17. California, 2, 5 , 7. 10, 13. 19 Harris County, Texas, 18 18,19,20 Calvert, Texas, 5. 6 Hearne, Texas, 6 San Francisco, California, 2, 4, 5, 14, 19 Camp Travis , 16 HemisFair '68, 11. 18 See, John, 6 Camp Wilson, 16 Hing. Ng , 16 Shreveport, Louisiana, 18 Canada, 20 Hing, Sam, 9 Southern Methodist University , 18 Canton, China, 7, 8 , 10 Hip Sing Association. 13 Southern Pacific Railroad, 6, 9 CasaGrande, Mexico. 14 Hobbs, Dr. C. C .. 20 Southwest Chinese Journal, 19 Censuses, United States, 1870-1970. 2 Hong Kong, China, 2. 14 Sun, Louie, 16 Chihuahua, Mexico, 15 Houston, Texas, 2, 11, 13, 14, 16. 18, 19,20 Taft, William Howard, 4 Chi Kung Tong, Chinese freemasons, 13 Houston and Texas Central Railroad. 5, 6 Taiwan, 13, 14 Chinese American Citizens Alliance , 13 Houston , 19 Ten-Ten Celebration, 4 Chinese Benevolent Association . 9 Illinois, 19 Texarkana. Texas, 6 Chinese Community Council , 11 India, 20 Texas and Pacific Railway , 6 Chinese Optimist Club, 13 Iowa. 19 Toyah, Texas, 6 , 17 Chinese School of Houston, 11 Iowa State University , 19 Toy Sun, China, 18 Chinese School of San Antonio, 9, 10, 11 Kahn, Louis, 10 Tsai, Hsiao-Hsia, 20 Chu, Shirley, 18 Kilgore , Texas, 7 Tyler, Texas, 7, 8 Chu, Ting , 18 King Lung, 4 University of Houston, 19 Chuck (first name) , 16 Kuomintang. 13 University of Notre Dame, 10 Colonia Dublan , Mexico. 15 Kwantung Province, China, 9 University of Oklahoma, 20 Colorado Springs, Colorado, 10 Lee, Fook Sune, 10 University of Pennsylvania, 10 Columbus, New Mexico , 14, 16 Lee, Gene, 19 UniversityofTexasatAustin, The, 10.19 Congress, United States, 6 Lee~Hedy, 19 United States Air Force Academy, 10 Cornell University , 16 Lee, LuiShee, 10 Val Verde County, Texas, 6 Corpus Christi, Texas. 20 Lee, Thomas Jefferson , 10 Villa , Pancho, 14, 15 Cotton Belt Railroad , 8 Lone Star, newspaper, 9 Walker, General John G .. 5 Dallas, Texas, 2. 5 , 8 , 16 , 18 Longview. Texas, 7 Watsonville , California, 9 Dallas County, Texas, 18 Lunar New Year celebration. 4 , 5. 6 Wheaton College, 19 Del Mar College, 20 Manchu Dynasty, 1. 2 Wong, Black Jack, 15 Denton. Texas, 10 Mar Dock, Julian, 8, 9 Wong, Don, 9, 10, 19 Detroit, Michigan , 13, 19 Mardock, Lucille. 8 Wong, Fred, 19 Diaz, Porfirio , 4 Mardock, Sam, 7. 8 , Wong, Howard , 10 Duquesne University , 18 Mardock, Sam, Jr., 8 Wong, Lee Shee, 9 Eagle Pass, Texas, 7 Mardock, Wong Shee, 8 Wong, Lenora Sue, 10 Ellington Field , Texas, 16 Mississippi , steamer, 4. 14, 15, 16 Wong, Mae, 9 EIPaso, Texas, 2,4, 6, 7, 9. 14, 16,17 National College of Arts, China, 20 Wong, Rose Chin , 19 EIPasoCounty, Texas, 17 New Orleans. Louisiana, 14 World War I, 16 Eng. Joseph, 18 New York City , New York, 4. 10, 19 World War II , 8 , 9 , 11 , 18, 20 Eng, Mary, 18 On Leong Merchant's Association . 13 Wu , Theodore H. , 11 Fan , Dr. Joyce, 19 Opium War. 2 Wun, Wong, 9 Fan , Dr. Paul. 19 Page, Elizabeth, 16 Yee, David , 20 Foochow, Fukien , China. 19 Page. John Henry, 16 Yium, Pershing, 15 Ford, O'Neil. 10 Page, William Tracy, 16 Yong, Sin, 6 Fort Sam Houston, 16 Pecos River, 6, 7 Young Chinese League. 18 Fort Worth, Texas, 2, 16 Peking, China, 17

~o------Credits ____----~~~ .

Front Cover-Mrs. Mow Wah Chin in Chinese Wedding Dress; Mrs. Rose Wong Back Cover-Sharon Kay Wong; San Antonio Express News Photo Credits: Ms. Virginia Wong, 9, 13,20 Wright, G.N., China .... 1, 6 San Antonio Express News. 10 Harper's Weekly 1876 . 2 InstituteofTexanCultures, 10, 12, 15, 17, 19, 20,21 Mrs. C.C. Hobbs, 3 Mrs. P.M. Ku , 11 Calleros Estate, 4 Harper's Weekly 1871, 14 Harper's Weekly 1869, 5 U.S. Library of Congress, 15 Harper's Weekly 1877 . 7 Dallas Morning News. 17 Dr. Julian Mar Dock, 7 , 8 Harry Gee, Jr., 18 <.(@~>------Reading List____ ,~

Briscoe, Edward E. "Pershing's Chinese Refugees: An Odyssey of the Southwest." MA Thesis, St. Mary's University . San Antonio, 194 7.

"Pershing's Chinese Refugees in Texas." Southwestern Historical Quarterly. vol. 62, no. 4 , pp. 467-488. Texas State Historical Association, Austin , 1959.

Briscoe knew several Pershing Chinese refugees personally. He made good use of both primary and secondary source material.

Farrar, Nancy. The Chinese in El Paso. Southwestern Studies, Monograph No. 33. Texas Western Press, El Paso, 1972.

Written by a native El Pasoan and high school history teacher. There are no wasted words in this excellent ethnic study. --t Gordon. Marlene. "When You ' re~ ... You Try Harder." San Antonio. vol. 8, no. 11 , pp. 36-42. Greater San Antonio Chamber of Commerce, San Antonio. 1974 . . By a talented researcher and a gifted writer. Students of Chinese in Texas are in her debt for this work. which includes numerous personal interviews of contemporary San Antonio Chinese. "' Kung. Shien-Woo. Chinese in American Life .. University of Washington Pr.ess, Seattle, 1962.

Contains little information relating directly to Texas, but th e general background is quite useful. Includes almost all phases of Chinese life in America, including organizations.

Nims, Amy. "Chinese Life in San Antonio. " MA Thesis, Southwest Texas State Teachers College, San Marcos. 1941.

A fine overall assessment of Chinese life in San Antonio up to World War II. Describes a number of customs no longer practiced. Interesting and informative.

Ritter, Ed, Helen Ritter and Stanley Spector. Our Oriental Americans. McGraw-Hill Book Company, St. Louis, 1965.

Chinese cover only 45 pages in this well-known work on Orientals in the United States. The account, however, forms a good framework of reference for any study of Chinese today.

Rhoads, Edward J.M. "TheChineseinTexas." Southwestern Historical Quarterly, vol. 81, no. 1, pp.1-36. Texas State Historical Association, Austin, 1977.

An outstanding work by the recognized author.ity on Chinese in Texas. The author details many instances of discrimination and harassment of Chinese, particularly during the early days of their residence in the state.

Woo, Kenny. "The Chinese Colony in San Antonio." The Junior Historian, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 6-8. 12. Texas State Historical Association, Austin, 1955.

The Junior Historian. now The Texas Historian . has produced articles of the highest quality from its inception, and this short article is no exception. The author identifies by name many important local Chinese, including the first Chinese families in San Antonio. One of a series prepared by the staff of THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS INSTITUTE OF TEXAN CULTURES AT SAN ANTONIO