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Gynandropsis Gynandra (Cleomaceae) on Monday 16Th December 2019 at 13.30 Pm in the Aula of Wageningen University, Generaal Foulkesweg 1A, Wageningen

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Gynandropsis Gynandra (Cleomaceae) on Monday 16Th December 2019 at 13.30 Pm in the Aula of Wageningen University, Generaal Foulkesweg 1A, Wageningen You are kindly invited to the public defence of my thesis entitled Orphan no more: Ethnobotany and genetic analysis of leaf yield and secondary metabolites content in Gynandropsis gynandra (Cleomaceae) on Monday 16th December 2019 at 13.30 pm in the Aula of Wageningen University, Generaal Foulkesweg 1A, Wageningen You are most welcome to join the reception that will be held after the ceremony. E. O. Dêêdi Sogbohossou [email protected] Paranymphs Lotte Caarls [email protected] Ayodeji Deolu-Ajayi [email protected] Propositions 1. The evolutionary history, reproduction strategy and medicinal properties of Gynandropsis (Akaya) are perfectly summarized by the Fon proverb “Akaya man non kou do da wiwi min” which translates as “May you live as long as Akaya”. (This thesis) 2. Beyond financial resources, a key element to promote orphan crops is collaboration between enthusiastic stakeholders. (This thesis) 3. Assessing end-users feedback on research results should be a mandatory ‘development’ component of ‘research for development’ projects. 4. Advocacy for informed and accessible music education is as important as research-based music therapy. 5. The biggest contradiction of the century is the claim that climate change can be dealt with within the constraints of a capitalist system. 6. The only person worth competing with is the one we were yesterday. Propositions belonging to the thesis entitled: “Orphan no more: ethnobotany and genetic analysis of leaf yield and secondary metabolites content in Gynandropsis gynandra (Cleomaceae)” EOD Sogbohossou Wageningen, 16 December 2019 Orphan no more Ethnobotany and genetic analysis of leaf yield and secondary metabolites content in Gynandropsis gynandra (Cleomaceae) E. O. Dêêdi Sogbohossou Thesis committee Promotor Prof. Dr M.E. Schranz Professor of Biosystematics Wageningen University & Research Co-promotor Dr E.G. Achigan-Dako Associate professor, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences University of Abomey-Calavi, Benin Other members Prof. Dr J.J.B. Keurentjes, Wageningen University & Research Prof. Dr S. Neugart, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Germany Prof. Dr P. Van Damme, Ghent University, Belgium Dr A.B. Bonnema, Wageningen University & Research This research was conducted under the auspices of the Graduate School of Experimental Plant Sciences. Orphan no more Ethnobotany and genetic analysis of leaf yield and secondary metabolites content in Gynandropsis gynandra (Cleomaceae) E. O. Dêêdi Sogbohossou Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor at Wageningen University by the authority of the Rector Magnificus, Prof. Dr A.P.J. Mol, in the presence of the Thesis Committee appointed by the Academic Board to be defended in public on Tuesday 16 December 2019 at 1.30 p.m. in the Aula. E. O. Dêêdi Sogbohossou Orphan no more: Ethnobotany and genetic analysis of leaf yield and secondary metabolites content in Gynandropsis gynandra (Cleomaceae) 214 pages. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands (2019) With references, with summaries in English and French ISBN 978-94-6395-132-6 DOI https://doi.org/10.18174/501019 CONTENTS Abbreviations 7 CHAPTER 1 9 General Introduction CHAPTER 2 25 A roadmap for breeding orphan leafy vegetable species: a case study of Gynandropsis gynandra (Cleomaceae) CHAPTER 3 45 Drivers of management of spider plant (Gynandropsis gynandra) across different socio-linguistic groups of Benin and Togo CHAPTER 4 71 Association between vitamin content, plant morphology and geographical origin in a worldwide collection of the orphan crop Gynandropsis gynandra (Cleomaceae) CHAPTER 5 91 Natural variation in secondary metabolite production in the leafy vegetable spider plant (Gynandropsis gynandra L. (Briq.)) CHAPTER 6 107 The draft genome of Gynandropsis gynandra (Cleomaceae) provides insights in whole- genome duplication, population genetic structure and genome- metabolome associations CHAPTER 7 129 Mapping Quantitative Trait Loci controlling vitamin content, flowering time and morphological traits in the orphan leafy vegetable Gynandropsis gynandra (Cleomaceae) CHAPTER 8 153 General discussion References 163 Summary 197 Résumé 201 Acknowledgments 205 List of publications 209 About the author 211 Education statement 212 Abbreviations AFLP Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism AGRA Alliance for Green Revolution in Africa AOCC African Orphan Crops Consortium CGIAR Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research cM Centimorgan CSI Cultural Significance Index DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GBS Genotyping-By-Sequencing GC-MS Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry GGE Genotype main effect plus Genotype by Environment interaction GO Gene Ontology HPLC High-Performance Liquid Chromatography ITS Internal Transcribed Spacer KASP Kompetitive allele specific PCR KENRIK Kenya Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowledge LC-MS Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry LD Linkage Disequilibrium LOD Logarithm of odds MAGIC Multi-parent Advanced Generation Inter-Cross MI Management Index NAD(P) Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (Phosphate) PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction PDA Photodiode Array PROSEA Plant Resources of South-East Asia PROTA Plant Resources of Tropical Africa PVE Phenotypic Variation Explained QTL Quantitative Trait Locus RAPD Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA SNP Single Nucleotide Polymorphism SSR Simple Sequence Repeat TILLING Targeting Induced Local Lesions IN Genomes UAC University of Abomey-Calavi USD United States Dollar USDA United States Department of Agriculture WHO World Health Organization CHAPTER 1 General Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction 1 In just 30 years, nine billion humans will have to compete for the limited available resources on our planet. Hopefully we can find and implement sustainable solutions to this crisis that incorporate curbing population growth, reducing income inequality, preserving biodiversity and promoting human well-being and health. The 2018 report of the FAO on the state of food security and nutrition in the world highlights that the prevalence of malnourished people in the world has been on the rise since 2014 increasing from 10.7 to 10.9% of the world population. At the same time, obesity is worsening with more than one in eight adults in the world being currently obese. Food insecurity contributes to malnutrition, including both obesity and undernutrition, with high rates coexisting in many countries. The higher cost of nutritious foods, the stress of living with food insecurity, and physiological adaptations to food restriction partially explain why food insecurity leads to increasing risks of overweight and obesity (FAO 2018). Moreover, overweight and obese individuals can also be affected by micronutrient (vitamin and mineral) deficiencies, often referred to as “hidden hunger” because there may be no visible signs of it. It is estimated that over two billion people in the world are affected by one or more forms of micronutrient deficiency (von Grebmer et al. 2014). Feeding the world will therefore not only be about quantity, but critically about ensuring a diversified diet with micronutrient rich crops. Such crops are too often overlooked in the evaluation of everyone’s diet. We currently rely on just thirty staple crops to provide 90% of food calories, while the global flora includes over 12,000 edible plants, including many fruits and leafy greens (Ozturk et al. 2018). In Africa alone, the Plant Resources of Tropical Africa Foundation listed approximately 8,600 edible species (Prota 2010). Khoury et al. (2014) analysed the evolution of global change in spread and abundance of fifty-two commodity crops over fifty years (1961-2009) and found that there was an increasing homogeneity in national food supplies. Oil commodities such as soybean, sunflower, palm oil, and rape/canola oil were among the crops showing the greatest average increase in relative abundance in national food supplies whereas “minor” crops including millets, rye, sorghum, yams, cassava, and sweet potato showed the largest declines. Several locally important crops are often referred to as “minor”, “underutilized”, or “orphan” crops. They provide multiple benefits to local communities including nutrition and food, income and medicinal uses. Furthermore, they are often suitable for low-input agricultural systems and adapted to local and marginal environments. The paradox of poverty in tropical areas of the world, where the bulk of plant diversity is present, calls for smarter and more sustainable ways to use the local flora to attain food and nutritional security. During the last decades, orphan crops have increasingly become a focus of interest and research around the world. Minor staple crops, including cereals (e.g. sorghum, tef, fonio; Chanyalew et al. 2019; McCormick et al. 2018), legumes (e.g. cowpea, Bambara groundnut, pigeon pea; Bonthala et al. 2016; Spriggs et al. 2018; Varshney et al. 2017a) and roots/tubers (e.g. cassava, yam species; Umber et al. 2014; Wang et al. 2014b) are increasingly studied for breeding purposes (e.g. nutritional quality, yield, resistance to pests and diseases). However, several minor vegetables and fruits that remain the main sources of micronutrients in tropical regions of the world are still largely overlooked by agricultural research agendas. 10 General Introduction Promoting orphan leafy vegetables to help achieve food security 1 and climate –resilient agricultural systems Most traditional dishes in Africa
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