A CONSPIRACY OF SILENCE? lloyd george and basil zaharoff

There is not a single reference to Sir Basil Zaharoff in Lloyd George’s War Memoirs & Ll G’s biographers completely ignore him. Yet the two men were closely associated throughout World War 1 and during the whole period of the 1918–22 Coalition Government. It is curious that objective biographers should have ignored this enigmatic onald McCormick’s Basil Zaharoff was considered The Mask of Merlin was by many to be a Machiavellian fig- figure who, as much as Dpublished in 1963, some ure – disreputable and notorious for eighteen years after David Lloyd his consistent use of corrupt busi- anyone, was responsible George died and forty-one years ness practices – although newspa- for the events which after he left prime ministerial per tycoon Lord Riddell called him office. Yet, although Zaharoff’s ‘a wonderful man’.3 French Prime caused Lloyd George’s obituary in The Times described Minister Clemenceau once called 4 1 his relations with Lloyd George him ‘the sixth power in Europe’, fall from power. Cecil as being ‘close and cordial during and one historian has written that Bloom traces the story the War’, 2 this book represented Zaharoff had become ‘a figure of the first attempt to cast light on European legend (or demonology) of Zaharoff and Lloyd the nature of Lloyd George’s asso- long before his death’.5 It was once ciation with this very rich arms claimed that through Lloyd George George. dealer. he had the same influence on the

22 Journal of Liberal History 86 Spring 2015 A CONSPIRACY OF SILENCE? lloyd george and basil zaharoff

British government that he had pre- number of fiction writers using his papers released by the Wiltshire and viously had on the French thanks character in their novels. Andrew Swindon Archives Service in 1975, to Clemenceau; and it was said that Undershaft, the unscrupulous arms together with a number from both he knew most of the British Cabi- dealer in ’s the National Archives and Parlia- net and was a personal friend of play Major Barbara (1905) has, for mentary Archives, make it clear Bonar Law and of Cabinet minister example, been said to be based on that Lloyd George used Zaharoff Walter Long. The writer Osbert Zaharoff, and many other eminent to conduct secret negotiations with Sitwell met him several times and novelists including Upton Sinclair, the Turks – with the aim of brib- has recorded that when he first saw Gerald Kersh and have ing their leaders, eventually to the him there was ‘something evil and portrayed his character in their extent of $25 million dollars – to imposing about his figure’ and that books. Nevertheless, he was gen- get them to make peace with the he resembled ‘a vulture’.6 erous and gave large sums to good Allies; and, as a result, Zaharoff did His place of birth is shrouded in causes as well as endowing uni- receive a number of honours. The mystery. He was probably Turk- versity chairs – however it must archives also show the vigorous ish, born in 1849, but he some- be borne in mind that, in all likeli- attempts made by Zaharoff’s sup- times claimed to be Romanian, hood, such generosity was princi- porters in government to gain such Greek, Polish or Russian. He died pally intended to foster a favourable honours for him. He was awarded in in 1936. He started reputation. first the Grand Cross of the British selling armaments in in 1877 So why were Lloyd George’s Empire, then the Grand Cross of for the Anglo-Swedish company connections with Zaharoff kept the Order of the Bath, and eventu- Nordenfelt, and stayed with the quiet over so many years? The ally a knighthood. company when it was taken over by Times reviewed McCormick’s In 1965 McCormick followed up the British Corporation in book in September 1963, but it was on his first book by writing a biog- 1897, continuing to work for Vick- a very short review that accused raphy of Zaharoff entitledPedlar ers for thirty years and becoming McCormick of failing to pro- of Death, in which he repeated his a director. There he formed a close vide evidence for the charges laid earlier statement that Lloyd George association with its financial direc- against the former prime minister had sent Zaharoff on various secret tor, Sir Vincent Caillard. and pronounced that a degree of missions during the war. In this Zaharoff was said to have been questionable judgement seriously book Zaharoff is described as ‘a despised by King George V, yet he reduced the value of the biography. super spy in the Lloyd George cir- received a knighthood from him.7 The book did not ignite any inter- cle’.8 However it appears that Zaha- He became obsessed with gain- est in a possible follow-up on the roff’s early connection with Lloyd ing state honours; after receiving story until some years later. How- George was a hostile one: Lloyd a number from the French gov- ever, McCormick seems to have George was attacking the pre-war ernment, one of his key objectives overlooked one crucial aspect of activities of munitions manufac- became the acquisition of British the relationship between the two turers and Zaharoff saw him as a honours, which he termed ‘choco- men: he records simply that during dangerous enemy. Later, though, late’ when referring to the mat- the war Zaharoff was sent on ‘vari- he decided that it was in his inter- ter in confidential documents. His ous secret missions’ by the prime Left: Basil est to befriend the man he believed unsavoury reputation resulted in a minister, but gives no details. Yet Zaharoff in 1928 was going to become a key figure

Journal of Liberal History 86 Spring 2015 23 a conspiracy of silence? in British politics. He took steps to to be the UK and – but he Zaharoff’s nominal suzerainty in some form find out as much as he could about then decided that Zaharoff should over Palestine. Lloyd George – his weaknesses and proceed with his mission. Some principal Nothing came of Zaharoff’s his secrets – and for this he used disclosure of these events did occur Turkish mission in 1917 but, with Arthur Maundy-Gregory, later to before the release of the official involve- Lloyd George’s connivance, he feature on Lloyd George’s behalf archived documents, but what is made a further attempt to bribe the in the so-called honours scandal. less well known is that, as part of ment with Turks in the following year. Before It has been suggested that Zaha- this deal, Lloyd George was pre- this, however, a separate effort was roff had a hold over Lloyd George pared to consider allowing Turkey Lloyd George made to explore the possibility of because of a brief affair with Emily to retain some form of light suze- peace with Turkey, but this did Ann Burrows, Zaharoff’s former rainty over Palestine. One further began when not involve Zaharoff. This effort wife, but it was in 1915 when Lloyd thing that emerges from the papers is described in Lloyd George’s George became Minister of Muni- now available is the very considera- the latter War Memoirs as being ‘not satis- tions in Asquith’s administration ble extent to which the correspond- factory’ and consisted of a meet- that Zaharoff’s relationship with ence regarding Zaharoff’s activities attempted ing in Switzerland in December Lloyd George strengthened.9 was kept secret from most govern- 1917 conducted by Philip Kerr, one Zaharoff’s principal involve- ment ministers and civil servants to bribe the of Lloyd George’s additional pri- ment with Lloyd George began – and for this purpose Zaharoff Turkish lead- vate secretaries. Kerr was empow- when the latter attempted to bribe was given the code name ‘Zedzed’, ered by Lloyd George and General the Turkish leaders headed by with ‘Chairman’ and ‘Treasurer’ ers headed Smuts, a member of the War Cabi- Enver Pasha with large sums of being used on a number of occa- net, to negotiate with Dr Parodi money to give up hostilities against sions to indicate the prime minister by Enver of Geneva, who was acting on the Allies, and it is this aspect of the and the chancellor of the excheq- behalf of opposition elements in relationship between the two men uer respectively. In return for act- Pasha with Turkey, about the possibility of a that forms the principal thrust of ing as an intermediary, Zaharoff peace deal. Parodi had had several this article. But even before this, was to receive some ‘chocolate’, and large sums conversations with members of Zaharoff had been deeply involved his obsession with gaining Brit- the Turkish Red Cross Mission in with the British government ish honours is referred to in the of money Switzerland and he believed that, when Asquith was prime minis- correspondence on a number of while Enver Pasha was a pure mili- ter. Through Caillard, he told the occasions. Lloyd George did not to give up taristic Germanophile who was government in November 1915 that usually deal directly with Zaha- confident of German victory, one £1.5 million would allow him to roff but used Caillard as intermedi- hostilities small part of the Turkish govern- bribe the Greek government into ary because of the latter’s business ment – an Ententophile section – joining the Allies and start fighting links with Zaharoff, and all was against the was interested in seeking peace if the Bulgarians, thus shortening the coordinated in Whitehall by Wal- they could get moderate terms for war. As a result, money was trans- ter Long, the Colonial Secretary, Allies. this. These terms would allow for ferred to Zaharoff – but eventually who was the principal individual the establishment of Syria, Meso- Asquith rejected Zaharoff’s plan. charged by Lloyd George to deal potamia and Palestine as autono- Soon afterwards, however, Zaha- with both Caillard and Zaharoff. mous provinces – either as separate roff went back to Asquith with a Long was an important politician entities or federated together – more ambitious scheme to bribe and could well have succeeded but under the Turkish flag, which the whole of the Young Turk party Balfour as Conservative leader in would have to be preserved as a (of which Enver Pasha was a lead- 1911. He became a strong admirer symbol of the unity of the Otto- ing figure) with £4 million, for of Zaharoff and pressed on many man Empire. Kerr informed these which they would hand over Con- occasions for him to be awarded an Turks, via Parodi, that while the stantinople and the Dardanelles honour. Allies were determined to have to the Allies before bolting to the Two separate attempts were Turkish administration with- .10 However this pro- made by Zaharoff, acting on Lloyd drawn from these countries, they posal to bribe the Turks does not George’s instructions, to bribe the ‘might be willing in the event of appear to have been followed up Turks – the first in 1917 and then an immediate peace to consider until, in May 1917, an intelligence later the following year. The plan, the retention of the Turkish flag as officer who had been involved in as before, involved the Young the symbol of Turkish suzerainty the Greek discussions drew Prime Turks, who would flee with their provided it carried no executive Minister Lloyd George’s attention money to the safe haven of the authority’. However nothing came to it after dialogues with Zaharoff United States. The scheme to get of these negotiations and there is and Caillard. the Turks to give up hostilities is no suggestion that any monetary Lloyd George certainly became now well documented and Archival sums were involved.12 interested in the possibilities with papers provide important evidence Initially, Lloyd George did regard to Turkey, although initially of the use of Zaharoff in negotia- have some doubts about Zaharoff he did have some doubts about the tions with the Turks conducted in meeting the Turks for a second project, believing that any arrange- Switzerland in 1917.11 Discussions time, but early in December 1917 ment would, at the very least, have took place between the Turks and Caillard received Lloyd George’s to involve internationalisation for Zaharoff, who was empowered not personal views on the strategy Palestine – putting it under the just to discuss a separate peace with now to be used towards Turkey. protection or control of two or the Turks, but to suggest to them Part of the plan was that Arabia more nations, presumably intended the possibility of Turkey retaining should be made independent but

24 Journal of Liberal History 86 Spring 2015 a conspiracy of silence?

Palestine should become a protec- their name was ineffaceably linked Turkish representatives.22 Derby torate similar to pre-war Egypt and in human history.’15 also told Balfour in October that that there should be autonomy for Lloyd George became an Zaharoff had met Enver.23 In April Armenia and Syria. Caillard was admirer of Chaim Weizmann, the 1918 Balfour wrote to Caillard to instructed to tell Zaharoff that he Zionist leader, when, as minis- thank him for sending him a mes- should proceed with his second ter responsible for munitions, he sage from Zaharoff, although there mission.13 Lloyd George had previ- became acquainted with Weizmann is no indication as to what this mes- ously emphasised the importance through the latter’s work on ace- sage contained24 and Balfour sent a of retaining possession of Meso- tone production. He wrote that he further letter to Caillard that same potamia but was, apparently, now considered it an honour to reckon month to thank him for Zaharoff’s prepared to consider some form of Weizmann as one of his friends.16 In ‘last’ report that was of great inter- internationalisation for Palestine. March 1917 Balfour told Weizmann est and importance, and Caillard The second mission, however, came that in Cabinet Lloyd George had was asked to pass on to Zaharoff to naught and the Turks withdrew taken the view that it was of great Balfour’s appreciation of his ‘cour- from discussions importance for Palestine to be pro- age in carrying through a journey Interestingly, what appears to tected by Britain,17 and later, at a of this kind’, with Balfour adding be a quite separate attempt at reach- secret session of the House of Com- that he was hoping to see Sir Basil ing peace with Turkey was made mons in May 1917, Lloyd George [sic] shortly.25 by the Foreign Office. Just seven was emphatic in stating that allow- There appears, however, to have days after Kerr’s meeting with ing Turkey to continue to rule been a conspiracy of silence sur- Parodi, orders were despatched on over Palestine post-war was unac- rounding the whole issue of Lloyd 25 December 1917 to the British ceptable.18 Yet just a short while George’s attempts to seek a separate minister in Berne to develop peace after this, he backed an initiative peace with Turkey. Zaharoff is not approaches towards the Turks and that could have resulted in Tur- even mentioned in Lloyd George’s these specified that the government key being able to retain a degree of comprehensive two-volume War was not prepared to guarantee the control over Palestine. The Zion- Memoirs (neither is Caillard) and, Turkish flag in Palestine after the ists were never in favour of a peace while there are five references to war although it would reconsider with Turkey because they clearly Enver Pasha, none relate to the the possibility of leaving Syria and understood that a comprehensive bribery attempt – although Lloyd Mesopotamia within the Otto- Turkish defeat was the best way to George does emphasise the need man Empire. It does not appear that rid Palestine of despotic Ottoman to rid countries in the region of this peace effort got far.14 Why the control. Weizmann and his col- Turkish rule. He wrote, ‘The his- Berne minister was chosen for this leagues would have been appalled tory of the Mesopotamia Expedi- task is unclear. and dismayed had they known that tion is the condemnation of Turkish The whole episode, how- Turkey may have been allowed to rule in that part of the world. The ever, raises questions about Lloyd retain some form of control over same applies to Syria, Palestine, George’s sincerity towards Zion- Palestine and they would have felt Armenia. The Turks must never ism. has gone grossly betrayed. Yet it appears that be allowed to misgovern those down in history as probably the such a retention of control was con- great lands in future.26 In his later most sympathetic towards Zion- templated by the same man who work, The Truth about the Peace ism of all British prime ministers. There later wrote that ‘Turkish misrule’ Treaties, a statement referring to A. J. Balfour’s strong support for in Palestine ‘changed a land flowing Allied peace proposals in January Zionism really arose after he gave appears, with milk and honey’ into ‘a stony 1917 is included that asserts that up being prime minister and some and unsightly desert’.19 there should be liberation of the historians have argued that the dec- however, to So where does Balfour fit into non-Turkish people who then ‘lay laration made in the latter’s name this affair? There is no sugges- beneath the murderous tyranny of should in fact have been called the have been a tion that he was complicit with the ’.27 The only Lloyd George Declaration. From Lloyd George’s use of Zaharoff official reference to the possibility early in his career, Lloyd George conspiracy of to seek peace with Turkey, but he that the Turkish flag could remain showed an understanding of the must have been aware of Zaha- flying in Palestine is given in Kerr’s Jewish problem and of the need for silence sur- roff’s activities to a certain degree report in the War Memoirs. Lloyd a Jewish homeland in Palestine. because there are letters to him George is, of course, given as the In his official biography of Lloyd rounding from the British Ambassador in book’s author, but was he really George, Malcolm Thomson wrote , Lord Bertie, who saw a lot of aware that this statement went that he had always been a Zionist the whole Zaharoff. One letter from Bertie to into his memoirs? Was this book supporter. ‘Reared from infancy issue of Lloyd Balfour stated that he had handed edited by others? And why was he on Holy Writ, and with his mind Zaharoff the insignia of the Grand apparently happy to disclose Kerr’s impregnated with the sayings of George’s Cross of the Order of the British attempt to negotiate (if, indeed, he the Hebrew prophets and psalm- Empire on 19 April 1918,20 and a was party to this disclosure in his ists, he instinctively associated Pal- attempts to further letter in August 1918 from War Memoirs), yet completely omit estine with the Hebrew people and Lord Derby, Bertie’s successor as Zaharoff’s two efforts? looked forward to the day when seek a sepa- British ambassador in Paris told It is of interest to note that in in fulfilment of ancient prophecy Balfour that Zaharoff had been in his Memoirs of the Peace Conference, they should return to the land with rate peace contact with Enver.21 Another letter published in New York in 1939 which, though they had been exiled a month later mentioned that Zaha- as a reprint of The Truth about the from it for nearly two millenniums, with Turkey. roff was visiting Switzerland to see Peace Treaties, the reference to the

Journal of Liberal History 86 Spring 2015 25 a conspiracy of silence?

Kerr–Parodi discussions is omit- Indeed, the most bizarre aspect as Lloyd George for fifteen years, ted. Had he now spotted the ref- of this whole affair is the curious part of which was during the writ- erence in his War Memoirs to the silence maintained about Zaha- ing of the War Memoirs, and yet possibility that the Turkish flag roff’s wartime activities on the part he makes no mention of Zaharoff, could remain flying in Palestine of historians and others who wrote Caillard or Enver.37 Frances Ste- post-war? Furthermore, no effort about the period under considera- venson became Lloyd George’s appears to have been made in pub- tion; and it is puzzling that Lloyd personal secretary and mistress in lic to challenge Lloyd George’s George’s association with Zaha- 1913 and was on the government description of events. In the preface roff and his attempt to bribe the payroll until 1922. They married in to his War Memoirs, Lloyd George Turkish leaders both in 1917 and in 1943 after his wife’s death and she wrote that his memory was falli- Shortly after 1918 have not attracted the atten- wrote a diary that was published in ble and ‘I may have made a mistake tion of many of the biographers 1971.38 The diary covers the years in some details’ but that he would Zaharoff’s of Lloyd George. A large number 1917–1944, but some years such as welcome corrections.28 He issued death, the of books have been written about the key one of 1918 are missing, for a new edition of these memoirs in Lloyd George’s premiership, as well which there is no explanation, and January 1938 in which he stated Peterbor- as about his life and the politics there are no references to Zaharoff, that this new edition had allowed of the time (over fifty such works Caillard or to Enver. Frances Ste- him ‘an opportunity for checking ough column have been identified), and there are venson also wrote a memoir, The the statements published in the first some that should certainly have Years that are Past, in 1967, which edition in the light of public criti- in the Daily made reference to his association includes a chapter titled ‘LG at No. cisms, of facts brought to light by with Zaharoff but did not do so. 10’39 – but again there is nothing on subsequent writings, and of the Telegraph Kenneth O. Morgan’s monograph the Turkish venture or on Zaharoff. numerous letters written to me by about Lloyd George in the Oxford Yet there are at least two extant let- men who took an active part in the carried a Dictionary of National Biography, for ters hand-written by Zaharoff and events I narrate’, but he did not, in example, does mention Zaharoff, addressed to Frances Stevenson that the event, find it necessary to revise short piece in but merely as a ‘sinister’ figure who indicate an association between or correct anything in the first edi- ‘hovered’ around Lloyd George.33 Zaharoff and Lloyd George.40 So tion. He added that his aim was to which Peter- Whitehall Diary by Thomas it is clear that Stevenson must cer- tell the naked truth about the war.29 Jones, published in 1969, purports tainly have been aware of Zaha- If there had indeed been any objec- borough to be a diary of the events of the roff, and that the omission can only tions about what he had omitted, he time. Jones joined the Cabinet sec- point to a deliberate decision on her clearly chose to ignore them. claimed that retariat in 1916 and was deputy part to exclude Zaharoff from any Intriguingly, a long review of secretary of the Cabinet from 1916 aspect of Lloyd George’s life. Wal- these memoirs appeared in Interna- he had just to 1930, so one assumes he was cog- ter Long wrote his memoirs in 1923 tional Affairs in 1935 written by Lord seen letters nisant of all government dealings and his book also contains no men- Meston, who had been a prominent at that time. He mentions a ‘secret tion of Zaharoff, despite his many civil servant during the war years. and papers mission’ carried out by General efforts to procure British honours Meston did refer to Lloyd George’s Smuts and Philip Kerr to meet for Zaharoff. Long wrote, ‘I shall policy on Turkey, but made no that showed Mendsdorff, the former Austro- rely first of all on my memory and mention of the attempt to bribe Hungarian ambassador in , then upon the records which I have the Turks.30 Meston quoted Lloyd that Zaha- to discuss possible peace with Aus- faithfully kept of various episodes George’s statement that the Turks tria, a mission carried out at about in my life.’41 But the Zaharoff epi- should never be allowed to misgov- roff had met the same time as that of Kerr with sodes were apparently not to be ern these great lands in future, so Parodi, but the latter mission is revealed. A. J. Sylvester first knew the presumption must be that Mes- Enver Pasha not included in Jones’ diary.34 Fur- Lloyd George in December 1915. ton was unaware of Lloyd George’s thermore, Zaharoff, Enver and He became Hankey’s private secre- original plan even those eighteen in Switzer- Caillard have not a single mention tary a year later, joined the Down- years later. Yet Zaharoff’s efforts to in the book. Jones earlier wrote ing Street secretariat in 1921, and bribe the Turks had not been kept land and had a biography of Lloyd George in became one of Lloyd George’s sec- entirely secret. Shortly after Zaha- which there is also no reference to retaries in 1923. In The Real Lloyd roff’s death, the Peterborough col- lengthy talks Zaharoff, although there is a sim- George he mentions that Zaharoff umn in the Daily Telegraph carried a ple statement, ‘A ten million pound was ‘a remarkable man’ and great short piece in which Peterborough with him but [sic] to Enver at the right moment admirer of Lloyd George and that claimed that he had just seen letters it has been said might have changed the two men had once had lunch and papers that showed that Zaha- that Enver’s the policy of Turkey.’35 He did in together, but that is all.42 The only roff had met Enver Pasha in Swit- price of this biography make reference to chink of light is a footnote in Lord zerland and had lengthy talks with Kerr’s discussions with Parodi but Beaverbrook’s Men & Power (1956) him but that Enver’s price of about about £1 mil- he omitted any mention of the pos- that refers to negotiations for the £1 million pounds was consid- sibility of Turkey retaining suze- surrender of Turkey being con- ered to be too high.31 However this lion pounds rainty over Palestine.36 ducted by Zaharoff.43 report apparently sparked no inter- Malcolm Thomson published Apart from the Peterborough est within any student of history. was consid- his ‘official’ biography of Lloyd column, it was not until the 1970s Similarly, when the full archive of George in 1948 ‘in collabora- that there appeared the first specific documents on the matter was made ered to be tion’ with Lloyd George’s second disclosure that Zaharoff had been available in 2005,32 this also did not wife, Frances. Thomson him- used by the government. Morgan’s produce much interest. too high. self worked under the same roof 1970 paper referred to ‘the initiative

26 Journal of Liberal History 86 Spring 2015 a conspiracy of silence? in wider diplomatic policy [that] gives full details of the negotiations Maundy by many people as notorious and rested even more firmly with the that Zaharoff conducted with the not to be trusted? That in his War Prime Minister who used unortho- Turks and he seems to be the first Gregory was Memoirs he mentioned the Decem- dox aides such as Kerr and Zaha- to point out that after Zaharoff’s ber 1917 Kerr–Parodi talks aimed roff.’44 Morgan followed up this death the Peterborough column in also in the at seeking peace with Turkey but paper with a book published in the Daily Telegraph did refer to these omitted Zaharoff’s efforts to bribe 1979 in which he wrote that Lloyd negotiations but that this gave no pay of Zaha- the Turks to leave the war surely George employed a number of rise to concern elsewhere.48 points to a deliberate decision on ‘unexpected’ advisers such as Zaha- Apart from Warman’s paper and roff; indeed, his part not to mention Zaharoff’s roff but gave no further informa- Rothwell’s and Allfrey’s books, no involvement. To that end, an inter- tion about the association between disclosures about Zaharoff’s nego- McCormick esting consideration arises in the the two men.45 tiations with the Turks then appear figure of Arthur Maundy Gregory, The first book that did con- to have been made until the 1993 claims that the only person to be convicted tain pertinent information about publication of the ‘Missing Persons’ under the Honours (Prevention Zaharoff’s negotiations with the addendum to the Oxford Dictionary Gregory was of Abuses) Act 1925 (and whose Turks came a year after Morgan’s of National Biography, which contains behaviour in 1918 and central role 1970 paper when V. H. Rothwell a short piece on Zaharoff that refers a ‘listen- in the honours scandal occasioned published his British War Aims and to negotiations with Enver.49 The ing post’ the act). Maundy Gregory was the Peace Diplomacy 1914–1918. Rothwell 2004 edition of the Oxford Diction- key person used by Lloyd George disclosed that Zaharoff became a ary of National Biography, however, for Zaharoff to elicit money from wealthy men friend of Lloyd George and gave an does carry a full monograph on in exchange for national honours. account both of Zaharoff’s Turk- Zaharoff’s life that states that, with during the However, Maundy Gregory was ish activities and of his influence Lloyd George’s cognisance, he was also in the pay of Zaharoff; indeed, with the prime minister, revealing sent to Switzerland to bribe Turk- war and for McCormick claims that Gregory full details of the negotiations with ish leaders with £10 million in gold was a ‘listening post’ for Zaharoff Enver. Rothwell pointed to Zaha- so that they would cease hostilities. some years during the war and for some years roff being authorised to put for- There is, however, no reference to afterwards.53 ward terms to the Turkish leaders the proposal regarding eventual afterwards. Beaverbrook was the only per- – who were definitely assured that control of Palestine.50 son associated with Lloyd George’s Turkey might retain nominal suze- And why has the issue of Turk- government who made any ref- rainty in Mesopotamia and, appar- ish suzerainty over Palestine not erence in subsequent writings to ently, also Palestine, although with been discussed by the many histo- Zaharoff and no explanation can no voice in the administration. As rians who have written on Zion- be offered for all the other par- far as can be determined, Rothwell ist history? Isaiah Friedman, for ticipants making no reference to is one of the few writers to have example – one of the foremost plans to bribe the Turks. Not one commented on the secrecy of the writers on Zionist history with of these writers ever referred to Zaharoff negotiations. He wrote: three important books on the sub- any other connection between the ject published in 1997, 1998 and two men. Even Peterborough’s The fact that this curious epi- 2002 respectively – makes no ref- disclosure, published soon after sode has, apparently, never erence to the possibility that, Zaharoff’s death, did not prompt previously been brought to under Lloyd George’s plans, Pales- these writers to mention this light owes much to Zaharoff’s tine could have remained to some association and this does suggest undoubted skill in political extent under Ottoman control. As there were many participants in intrigue, to the fact that both far as can be determined, only two the politics of the time who were Enver and Zaharoff returned such books mention the possibil- prepared to shield Lloyd George the money to its source and to ity that Turkey could have retained from a disclosure of a relationship Enver’s evident belief that Zaha- some form of control of Palestine with a notorious individual. Lloyd roff was not a British agent and after the war. David Fromkin, in George’s acceptance that Pales- was working for the French.46 A Peace to End all Peace, published in tine could post-war still fall under 1989, seems to be the first writer on some sort of control by Turkey A year later, in 1972, Roberta War- Zionist history to draw attention to may also have been another, albeit man was also clear about Zaharoff’s the matter as well as to Zaharoff’s minor, factor in the reluctance. As involvement in negotiations with role in the whole saga.51 Jonathan for the many distinguished his- the Turks. She outlined that during Schneer’s The Balfour Declaration, torians who have written about the last two years of the war Lloyd published in 2010, discusses in some Lloyd George’s time as prime min- George did negotiate via Zaharoff detail Zaharoff’s role in the attempt ister, it is strange that mention of with the Turks on a separate peace to get the Turks to sue for peace.52 his association with Zaharoff has and that there was no evidence Indeed, Schneer’s book has more on rarely been made – and it almost that the Foreign Office was aware Zaharoff’s role and his relationship suggests that they were according of this. Caillard was said to be the with Lloyd George than any other Lloyd George a degree of protec- usual point of contact between publication. tion from disclosure of a rela- Lloyd George and Zaharoff. There So why did Lloyd George hide tionship with an unsavoury and is, however, in Warman’s paper no his attempt to bribe the Turks? Was notorious individual who strutted indication of the offer of suzerainty he anxious to avoid any disclosure the international stage. Certainly to the Turks.47 Anthony Allfrey’s of his relationship with a highly both Malcolm Thomson, who Man of Arms, published in 1989, controversial figure, a person seen wrote the ‘official’ biography, and

Journal of Liberal History 86 Spring 2015 27 a conspiracy of silence?

Lloyd George’s second wife, who As for Zaha- although ‘he will be considered Cross of the most Honourable wrote two books on her husband’s next time’.59 Long then pleaded for Order of the Bath.’69 political life, have much to answer roff, he once an honour to be awarded to Zaha- One additional piece of infor- for. Has there been a conspiracy of roff in the next honours list because mation: Prime Minister Stanley silence regarding Lloyd George’s said that he he ‘is in feeble health’.60 At about Baldwin was asked in parliament dealings with Zaharoff and in par- the same time, Caillard told Zaha- by a Conservative MP to appoint a ticular those relating to the nego- had burned roff that he had spoken to Lloyd tribunal to inquire into allegations tiations with Turkey? George and been told that it ‘would by Zaharoff’s former secretary that Lloyd George continued his diaries cov- be difficult to takeimmediate action’ Zaharoff had made corrupt pay- association with Zaharoff after (‘immediate’ underlined), but he ments to servants of the Crown. 1918, and this gave rise to a good ering fifty believed he could convince Lloyd Baldwin refused to agree to this.70 deal of criticism from political George of its necessity.61 opponents – especially in the House years of his More letters were written on of Commons – but these attacks did the subject in 1918, with the cor- Acknowledgements not specifically refer to the Turkish life and The respondence involving, amongst I am grateful to the Wiltshire bribery efforts. As for Zaharoff, he others, Lord Stamfordham, the and Swindon Archive Service for once said that he had burned diaries Times com- king’s secretary. A letter from permission to refer to the Long covering fifty years of his life and mented that Long to Lord Robert Cecil stated papers and I would also like to The Times commented that ‘those that Zaharoff wasvery anxious thank Gavin Fuller, the Daily diaries must have contained a good ‘those diaries (‘very’ underlined) to have the Telegraph’s librarian, for providing deal of the history of our times’.54 GBE at once and that Zaharoff did me with the information on the must have not think any harm would be done Peterborough column. Cecil Bloom, a professional chemist, was if he received it.62 Caillard must Technical Director of a major multina- contained a have written to Buckingham Pal- 1 Donald McCormick, The Mask of tional pharmaceutical and agricultural ace at about this time because Lord Merlin (MacDonald, 1963), p. 201. chemical corporation. In retirement, he good deal of Stamfordham replied to him to 2 The Times, 28 Nov. 1936, p. 17. researches many aspects of history, espe- say that the king could do noth- 3 J. M. McEwen (ed.), The Riddell cially Jewish history, and his papers have the history of ing until the prime minister made Dairies 1908–23 (Athlone Press, 1986), been published in journals in the UK, a recommendation.63 Long then p. 157. US, Israel, South Africa and Australia. our times’. wrote to Lloyd George to tell him 4 New York Times, 28 Nov. 1936, p. 16. that Zaharoff was anxious for the 5 V. H. Rothwell, British War Aims and GBE and that he (Long) under- Peace Diplomacy 1914–1918 (Clarendon stood that the Foreign Office were Press, 1971), p. 175. Appendix willing.64 A letter from Long to 6 Osbert Sitwell, Great Morning Zaharoff had an obsession with Zaharoff informed him that the (Macmillan, 1948), pp. 267–8. receiving honours from Britain and king would receive Zaharoff on 2 7 H. C. G. Mathew and B. Harrison part of his motivation in negotiat- August 1918.65 Two days later Long (eds.), Oxford Dictionary of National ing with the Turks was the lure of wrote to ‘Eddie’ (presumably Biography, vol. lx (Oxford University a British honour. He refers to the someone in government or monar- Press, 2004), p. 982. possibility of being rewarded in this chy service) that the Foreign Office 8 Donald McCormick, Pedlar of Death way for his efforts in a number of had ‘made a mess’ over the GBE – (MacDonald, 1965), p. 146. his letters; and, in correspondence it should have been the GCB since 9 Anthony Allfrey, Man of Arms with Caillard, used the code ‘choc- ‘the King cannot knight foreign- (Wiedenfeld & Nicolson, 1989), p. olate’ while complaining bitterly ers’.66 And then in October Lord 114. at his difficulty in getting an award Stamfordham wrote to Long to 10 A. J. Maiolo and T. Insall, ‘Sir Basil for his work. In a telegram to Cail- tell him that the king consented Zaharoff and Sir Vincent Caillard lard, he said that if Lloyd George to Zaharoff assuming the title ‘Sir as Instruments of British Policy considered his latest report to be Basil’ and being called this in the towards Greece and the Ottoman as important as he had stated, then even though Empire during the Asquith and Lloyd he should ‘spontaneously there and he had not formally received the George Administrations, 1915–8’, then do the chocolate fraternities’.55 accolade.67 Long wrote immedi- The International History Review, 34 He told Caillard in another letter ately to Caillard in a letter marked (2012), pp. 1–8. that he feared that ‘chocolate being ‘Very Confidential’ to tell him 11 All details of Lloyd George’s done’ would not occur.56 that the king had consented to instructions to Zaharoff and the He first seems to have raised Zaharoff assuming the title and latter’s negotiations with the the issue in July 1917 but, at this that he could continue to call Turks are given in: The National point, Lloyd George refused to take himself and be called ‘Sir Basil’, Archives (henceforth TNA), FO immediate action.57 Long also first although this decision would not 1093/52 fos. 193, 196, 216, 246, FO asked Lloyd George in July 1917 to be officially communicated (by 1093/54 fo. 346 and FO 1093/57 award the Grand Cross of the Order whom is unclear) to Zaharoff.68 fo. 392 held at the Public Record of the British Empire to Zaharoff,58 The Times eventually reported in Office, Kew; Parliamentary but a reply came from J. T. Davies, May 1919 that ‘Sir Basil [sic] Zaha- Archives (henceforth PA), Houses of one of Lloyd George’s secretaries, roff was received by H.M. King Parliament, LG/F/6/1/6, LG/F/6/16b, stating that no foreigners would be George V who invested him with LG/F/6/1/16c, LG/F/6/1/7 and included in the forthcoming awards the Insignia of a Knight Grand LG/F/6/1/16c; and Long Papers

28 Journal of Liberal History 86 Spring 2015 a conspiracy of silence?

(henceforth LP) 947/600 held 26 David Lloyd George, War 9/33/1/25. FO 1093/54 fo. 317. by the Wiltshire and Swindon Memoirs, vol. 1 (Nicolson & 41 Viscount Long, Memories 56 Letter from Zaharoff to Archive Service, Chippenham. Watson, 1933), p. 1051. (Hutchinson, 1927) pp. ix–x. Caillard, 13 Jan. 1918, TNA, FO 12 David Lloyd George, War 27 David Lloyd George, The Truth 42 A. J, Sylvester, The Real Lloyd 1093/54 fo. 275. Memoirs, vol. 2 (Nicolson & about the Peace Treaties, vol. 1 George (Cassell, 1947), p. 170. 57 Letter from Caillard to Watson, 1933), pp. 1504–9. (Heinemann, 1938), p. 58. 43 Lord Beaverbrook, Men & Power Zaharoff, 10 July 1917, TNA, FO 13 Letter from Caillard to 28 Lloyd George, War Memoirs, vol. (Hutchinson, 1956), p. 193 1093/52 fo. 216. Zaharoff, 14 June 1917, TNA, 1, p. ix. 44 Kenneth O. Morgan, ‘LG’s 58 Letter from Long to Lloyd FO 1093/52 fo. 193. 29 Lloyd George, War Memoirs (new premiership: a study in Prime George, 5 July 1917, LP, 947/778 14 Jukka Nevakivi, Britain, France edn., Odhams Press, 1938), p. v. Ministerial Government’, The fo. 503a. and the Arab Middle East 1914–1920 30 Lord Meston, ‘Mr Lloyd Historical Journal, xiii (1970), p. 59 Letter from Davies to Batterbee (Athlone Press, 1969), p. 48. George’s Memoirs’, International 138. (Long’s secretary), 6 July 1917, 15 Malcolm Thomson, David Affairs, 14 (2), March–April 1935, 45 Kenneth O. Morgan, Consensus LP, 947/778 fo. 503g. Lloyd George Official Biography pp. 241–4. and Disunity: The Lloyd George 60 Letter from Batterbee to Davies, (Hutchinson, 1948), p. 273. 31 Daily Telegraph, 30 Nov. 1936, p. Coalition Government 1918–1922 9 July 1917, LP, 947/778 fo. 503g. 16 P. Goodman (ed.), Chaim 12. (Oxford University Press, 1979), 61 Letter from Caillard to Weizmann (Victor Gollancz, 32 Ibid., 1 Apr. 2005, p. 8. p. 112. Zaharoff, 9 July 1917, TNA, FO 1945), p. 9. 33 Mathew and Harrison (eds.), 46 Rothwell, British War Aims, p. 1093/52 fo. 216. 17 Leonard Stein (ed.), The Letters Dictionary of National Biography, 178. 62 Letter from Long to Lord and Papers of Chaim Weizmann, vol. xxi, p. 900. 47 Roberta M. Warman, ‘The Robert Cecil, 21 Jan. 1918, LP, vol. 7 (Oxford University Press, 34 Thomas Jones, Whitehall Diary, Erosion of Foreign Office 947/778 fo. 503d. 1975), p. 347. vol. 1 1916–1925, ed. Keith Influence 1916–1918’,The 63 Letter from Stamfordham 18 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Middlemass (Oxford University Historical Journal, 15 (1972), p. 143. to Caillard, 12 Feb. 1918, LP, Churchill Companion, vol. 4 1917– Press, 1969), p. 42. 48 Allfrey, Man of Arms, p. 173. 947/778 fo. 503f. 22 (Heinemann, 1977), p. 60. 35 Thomas Jones, Lloyd George 49 C. S. Nicholls (ed.), Oxford 64 Letter from Long to Lloyd 19 Martin Gilbert (ed.), Lloyd (Oxford University Press, 1954), Dictionary of National Biography: George, 28 Feb. 1918, LP, George (Prentice Hall, 1969) p. p. 57. Missing Persons (Oxford 947/778 fo. 503f. 70. 36 Ibid., p. 431. University Press, 1993), p. 741. 65 Letter from Long to Zaharoff, 1 20 LP 947/778 fo. 503g, 22 Apr. 37 Malcolm Thomson, David 50 Matthew and Harrison (eds.), Aug. 1918, LP, 947/778 fo. 503h. 1918. Lloyd George Official Biography Dictionary of National Biography, 66 Letter from Long to ‘Eddie’, 4 21 Lord Derby, Paris 1918: The War (Hutchinson, 1948). vol. cx, pp. 60, 982. Aug. 1918, LP, 947/778 fo. 503j. Diary of the British Ambassador, ed. 38 Frances Stevenson, Lloyd George: 51 David Fromkin, A Peace to end all 67 Letter from Stamfordham to David Dutton (Liverpool Uni- A Diary, ed. A. J. P. Taylor Peace (Deutsch, 1989), pp. 266–7. Long, 23 Oct. 1918, LP, 947/778 versity Press, 2001), p. 158. (Hutchinson, 1971). 52 Jonathan Schneer, The Balfour fo. 503x. 22 Ibid., p. 207. 39 Frances Stevenson, The Years that Declaration (Bloomsbury, 2010). 68 Letter from Long to Caillard, 23 23 Ibid. p. 217. are Past (Hutchinson, 1967), pp. 53 McCormick, Pedlar of Death, p. Oct. 1918, LP, 947/600. 24 TNA, FO 1093/55, f. 338, 22 Apr. 91–114. 150. 69 The Times, 14 May 1919, p. 15. 1918. 40 Letters from Zaharoff to Frances 54 The Times, 28 Nov. 1936, p. 17. 70 Hansard, HC (series 5) vol. 25 Letter from Balfour to Caillard, Stevenson, 12 Nov. 1928, PA 55 Telegram from Zaharoff to cccxviii, col. 1261 (2 Dec. 1936). 28 Oct. 1918, TNA, FO 1093/56. 9/31/3/28; 19 Sept. 1931, PA Caillard (date indistinct), TNA, Liberal history quiz 2014 Answers to the questions listed on page 21.

1. On Liberty 10. W. H. Smith 2. William Beveridge 11. L. T. Hobhouse 3. R. H. Tawney 12. John Milton 4. Jeremy Bentham 13. The Subjection of Women, by John Stuart Mill 5. Charles James Fox 14. John Maynard Keynes 6. T. H. Green 15. Areopagitica, by John Milton 7. Henry George 16. Harriet Taylor (later Harriet Taylor Mill) 8. Mary Wollstonecraft and Mary Shelley (author of Frankenstein) 17. Adam Smith 9. Lewes, in Sussex – Tom Paine, who wrote The Rights of Man, lived 18. Unservile State Group there from 1768 to 1774; since the 17th century, the town has had 19. John and Barbara Hammond a tradition of opposition to the monarchy and pro-republican sentiments 20. Conrad Russell

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