Some Aspects of the Development of Christian
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Abstract. This text tries to draw a general view of the development of the Christian th th Orthodox art in the 16 and 17 centuries. The author represents in brief the main SOME ASPECTS OF THE DEVELOPMENT monuments and artists during the above OF CHRISTIAN ORTHODOX ART IN THE period on the Balkans as well as the 16th AND 17th CENTURIES: THE TESTIMONY interactions between different cultures in historical context. Special interest is given OF CHURCH INSCRIPTIONS to the art appeared on Mount Athos and the AND ARTISTS’ SIGNATURES role of Patriarchate of Constantinople as a political and spiritual factor in the Ottoman empire and their influence in the Trans- Danubian principalities. Most of the existing bibliography on this subject is presented and analyzed. In his critical reading of the available publication E. Moutafov suggests for instance that it is more accurate to speak about Cretan Emmanuel Moutafov1 painters on Mount Athos, rather than about the presence of a Cretan school in the (Sofia) artistic processes there. On the hand, when speaking of Western/ European influences, on the Balkans, inscriptions on frescoes in he believes that the influencing side should Orthodox churches continued to be the be interested as well, i.e. the West should same in the 16th century as the ones during have been interested in its influence over the two previous centuries. This means for the Christian East, which is not Moutafov that the ethnic profile of painters, documented. It is important to note the clergy, and users of this art remained the observation made here, that during the same. A century later, however, a preparation of the mural programs for the hellenization process began with varying temples in Bulgarian lands, the artists used intensity and two forms of manifestation – a Greek-language painter’s manual of the by the direct use of Greek and manuals in type of the First Jerusalem Manuscript, or Greek or by encouraging the use of the of the so-called hermeneia of the priest local language, for instance in the Daniel. Also interesting noting is that the monuments in Romania from the 17th Russian “лицевые подлинники” appeared century. In this the author agrees with around the same time, which is evidence for Helen Evans’ insight that the year 1557, a common need of established models when the term “Byzantium” appeared in across the Orthodox world, regardless of research, was in fact an important date for the political situation of the lands where the the Christian East because it marked the specific monuments were located. Until end of the medieval Orthodox tradition and then for the author there was no need for its transition into the pre-modern period. written manuals since the tradition was alive and art was passed on from teacher to Keywords: Artists’signatures; Christian student and by imitation from good models. Orthodox Art; Church in Dobrasko village; This does not mean that painters did not Church inscriptions; Church of St Demetrios make preparatory sketches (anthivola) or of Boboshevo village; Docheiariou did not collect them. One thing is certain monastery; Dzordzis; First Jerusalem though: in spite of the Ottomans’ presence Manuscript; Frangos Katelanos; Great REV. ROUM. HIST. ART, Série BEAUX-ARTS, TOME LIV–LV, P. 47–64, BUCAREST, 2017–2018 47 Lavra, Gyromeri monastery; Mount Athos; remained the only sustainer of Orthodoxy Hellenisation process; Hermeneia of the during the period of the Ottoman rule, priest Daniel; St Niketas’ church in Cucer because the Trans-Danubian principalities village; Theophanes the Cretan. were subjected to the Sultan but kept only their internal governance. Therefore various Back at the end of the 15th century the Moldowallachian rulers were founders or Sultan Mehmed II conferred on the donors of churches on Mount Athos. This Patriarch of Constantinople Gennadius fact determines the tolerant attitude of the Scholarios the right to represent all Greek clergy to the ministry and writing in Christians subjected to the Sublime Porte. Church Slavonic in the first centuries of the Thus the Ecumenical Throne became the Ottoman occupation on the Balkans. In only legitimate Orthodox institution within some areas, however, the Phanariot policy the Empire. To an extent the Patriarchate of replaced it by stimulating the creation of a Constantinople, with the Ottomans’ help, local literary tradition, as it has happened in the lands of present-day Romania from the gained for the first time independence from th 2 political power as well as control over the 17 century onwards . old autonomous Slavic churches, which had been unthinkable prior to the 15th c. This Before it was conquered by the was marked in a peculiar manner when in Ottomans in 1669, the island of Crete was 1526 Ioannes, a tailor from Ioannina, was also a powerful artistic centre. Between tortured and burnt by the Ottomans in 1453-1526, the existence of 120 painters in Istanbul, thus becoming the first new Heraklion was documented. They painted martyr of the transformed Byzantine mostly icons, adhering either to the strict Church. The cult towards him immediately Byzantine tradition, or to the Maniera spread throughout the empire and gave rise Italiana. Urban centers in the Balkans did to a multitude of new martyrs, not have such conditions because the strengthening the influence of the Greek Ottomans imposed restrictions on the Patriarchate. Thirty years later the Patriarch construction of new churches and short Joassaph founded in the Ottoman capital a deadlines for repair works on the old priest school, thanks to the financial temples. Exceptions were some urban support from Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible, centers such as Ioannina (until 1611) and with which the Greeks filled both the Athens, where due to certain privileges for the local population greater construction religious and the education gap in th Orthodoxy at the time. During the second took place in the 16 century. half of the 16th c. small parish schools also Thus the centres of artistic activity operated in Athens, Thessaloniki, Ioannina, naturally became monasteries where the islands of Chios and Patmos, etc. In monumental art and architecture developed 1577 a Greek college was founded in Rome following the medieval patterns. Representatives of the so-called Art school as an attempt to attract the Sultan’s subjects th to Catholicism, but also as recognition for of Castoria from the late 15 and the early 16th c. worked on the old katholikon of the the prestige of the Greek element and the 3 Greek language in Orthodoxy, which was Transfiguration monastery in Meteora , on the St Nikita church, in the village of why the college was equipped with a 4 printing press and the Holy Bible was Chucher (Fig. 1), etc. Donors and founders translated into the common Greek were mostly representatives of the high language. The Constantinopolitan Patriarch clergy. The Voevods of Moldowallachia Jeremiah II appointed the Moscow bishop and Russian tsars were supporters of the Job for patriarch in 1589 as token of the canon and tradition and they donated funds for the decoration of churches mostly in the support provided for preserving Orthodoxy 5 48 within the Ottoman Empire. In fact Russia Holy Mountain . Fig. 1 – Detail of the mural decoration at the St Niketas’ church in Cucer village, FYROM, 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople in Ottoman The painting of the first layer of the hands was an event that stained European decoration of the old katholik on of this culture and shifted its balance, which monastery can be attributed to the same naturally had an impact on art in Mount workshop. An image of the Dormition of the Athos. From the 16th century on the Virgin Mary has survived as well. It is Athonite monasteries, unprepared for such located at the entrance of the Protaton church burden, would replace the Constantinopolitan from 1511-1512, where all the stylistic centers as leaders because they were features later typical for the so-called Cretan granted a special status and privileges in the School, named after the origins of its two Ottoman legislation. On the other hand, most renowned representatives6 were already their main patrons and donors became the present. rulers on the other side of the Danube Also noteworthy is the fact that a little because the dynasties of Byzantine rulers in before the appearance of Theophanes the Constantinople were wiped out. These two Cretan, a painting workshop functioned on factors became fundamental to the design of the monastic peninsula, transferring the new monumental painting in the most through its brushes entirely different important spiritual center of Orthodoxy – traditions and perception of the world. Its Athos – and this would reflect on the art work included the frescoes in the St John across the Balkans because of the undeniable the Baptist chapel in Protaton (1525-1526), theological authority of the ascetic and the ones in the St Blasios church in the monastic peninsula. The frescoes from the Great Lavra (1528-1529) and in chapels, in refectory of the Xenophontos monastery have the cells of Flaskas in Karies and of been preserved since the late 15th century. Fakinos close to the Pantokrator monastery. 49 Fig. 2 – St Menas the Egyptian, by Theophanes Strelitsas-Bathas, Katholikonof the Stavronikita monastery, Mount Athos, 16th century. The style of these painters is characterized without exception the repainting of existing by a purity of line and bright colours, and mural ensembles in the landmark cult their work is rightfully linked to the centers of Mount Athos and in Thessaly to influence of Ohrid and its painting heritage the artistic teams of the Cretan painters from the 15th century.7 Theophanes Stelitzas-Batas and Dzordzis. During the reign of Suleiman the It is through them that during the second Magnificent (1522-1560) there were and third quarters of the 16th century, mural favourable conditions for cultural and painting would have its second prosperous economic growth of subjected populations.