Krishnanattam: An Overview* A.PUR USIIOTH AM AN. A . HARINDRANATII

Among the petfo tma nces. Krishnanattam is auspicious. IfRamanattam starts. defects .....ilIfollowdefin itely. -Kuncan Nambiar, Krishnalila

riShnanattam orKrishnattarnis a temple art. now performed at Ternple asa K votive offering by atroupe underthe management of GuruvayurDevasworn(Guruvayur­ 680 101, Dt, , India). The performance is based on Krishnagiti, a text of slokas and padams in . composed by Manavedan, the King of Calicut, in 1654. 's story as described indetail in the Tenthand Eleventh Cantos ofSrimad Bhagavata, Mahabharata and Harivamsa is presented as song. dance and acting in a cycle of eight plays in eight days. The plays are Avatararn, Kaliyamardanam, Rasakrida, Karnsavadharn, Swayamvaram, Banayuddham, Vividavadham and Swargarohanam (Akaroka Swabhaviswa is the mnemonicto rememberthe namesin order). An excellent critical article concerning the various aspects of this temple art and its appreciation is Preparing fo r Krishna by Dr. Rustom Bharucha (I ). Krishnanauam. the Malayalamcommentaryto Krishnagitiby Prof. P.c. Vasudevan Elayath (2) includes an excel­ lent introduction Krisbnattapravesakam. Krishnouam, a book by Dr. Martha Bush Ashton Sikora and Robert P. Sikora (3)summarises the historical development. training of the artists. description of performances, views of the artists as well as otheraspects of Krishnananarn.

Preliminary' Rituals Kelikottu is the first event of the play. Kelikottuis carried out by playing drums (maddalams). gong (chengala) and cymbals (elathalam) in the evening during daytime at the East Nada of the temple. This is to inform the people in the neighborhood about the performance sched­ uled in the night.A lamp is lit in the makeup room at dusk.Actors (all male) put on theirmake up. sitting on the floor, around another lamp lighted from the lamp in the makeup room. As soon as the daily rituals of the temple are completed and the Sanctum Sanctorum is closed for the day (about 10to 10.30p.m.), the Kali Vilakku (An Oil Lamp of the Play)is kept in front of performance space in the Temple on the North sideof the Sanctum Sanctorum.The Kali Vilakku is lit by a Brahmin from the lamp in the make up room. Stage hands place the musical instruments (drums. gong and cymbals) on the ground behind the Kali Vilakku. The maddalam players touch them respectfully. lift them up. playa couple of beats on both sides to invokesabdabrahma and hang the instruments around their waists. Then Kelikkayyu is performed using rnaddalarns. chengala and elathalam.

"Copyr ig ht (or text and photographs rests with the authors.-Ed.

Sangut Natal Vol. XXXIX. No. 4. 2005

48 A . PURUSHOTHAMAN. A. HARINDRANATH

After kelikkayyu, a colourful rectan gular Thirassila (curtain) is held behind Kali Vilakku by two stage hands. Then Todayam is performed behind the screen by the women characters appearing on that day's play. Todayam is a prayer dance performed by the dance" accompa­ nied by music to invoke the blessings of the Lord. Todayam is not for the spectators, For Todayam, the lines starting with Narayana Narakantaka Narakaparayana in the fifth padam of the play Kaliyamardanam are sung. All performances begin with the recital of the sloka starting with Souvamatbhuta as the mangala sloka (Auspicious Beginning). AfterTodayam it is timefor Purappatu, a piece of pure dance choreography. Either Krishna or Balarama or both,or alongwith other characters, dance withgestures of hand and face and special steps. InAvataram, the first scene (Brahma and Bhumi Devi) is considered as Purappatu. In other plays, the scene in which either Krishna or Balarama or both appear first on stage is coosidered as Purappatu. In Kamsavadham, Purappatu is in the midd le of the play. In Yividavadharn, there are two Purappatu, first in the beginning (Balarama and wives) and the other after some time (Krishna, Bhima andArjuna). In Swargarohanarn, there is no Purappatu, The characters performin g Purappatu for the plays are as follows : Play Characters in Purappatu Avatararn Brahma and Bhumi Devi Kaliyamardanarn Krishna, Balarama, Nanda and Upananda Rasakrida Krishna Kamsavadham Krishna and Balarama Swayamvaram Krishna and Balararna Banayuddham Krishna. Satyabharna and Garuda Vividavadham I. Balararna and wives 2. Krishna, Bhima and Arjuna Swargarohanam N~

Concluding Rituals Except Swargarohanarn, all plays end with Dhanasi. The characters in the last scene of the play perform Dhanasi by dancing in a particular way accompanied by singing the lines starting with Narayana Na rakantaka Narakaparayana in the fifth padam of the play Kaliyarnardanam. The characters performing Dhanasi for the plays are as follows : Play Characte rs perfonning Dhanasi Avataram Krishna and Yasoda Kaliyarnardanarn Krishna and Nandagopa Rasakrida Krishna and Balararna Kamsavadham Krishna and Balararna Swayarnvararn Krishna and Satyabharna Banayuddham Krishna, Pradyurnna and Aniruddha Vividhavadham Krishnaand Rukmi ni Swargarohanarn I\d

50 A. PURUSHOTHAMAN. A. HARII' DRANATH

Afterthe characters exit from the stage. a sloka is sung as mangalam (Auspiciousend) Play Mangala Sloka Avataram Kelilola (last sloka in Avataram) Kaliyarnardanarn Kelilola (last sloka in Avatararn) Rasakrida Daivereva (sloka in Rasakrida) Kamsavadharn Sandrananda (sloka in Rasakri da) Swayarnvararn Kelilola (last sloka in Avataram) . Banayuddham Kelilola (last sloka in Avatararn ) Vividavadharn Sandrananda (s loka in Rasakrida) Swargarohanam Kelilola (last sloka in Avataram ) The play is concluded by playing a couple of bea ts on the madd clom j ust as in the beginning.

Some Featllres about the Performance The actorsdanceand actbehind the Kali Vilakku while the singers sing standing behind­ this is the general nature of the play.The lead singer sings, playing the gong. the second singer repeats playing the cymbals. Accompanied by suddha maddalam, toppi maddalam andedakka, bothsingers sing theslokas andpadams of Krishnagiti one by one, once. Some padarns and slokas are sung more than once. For example, 5101:1s starting with Atha tou datha tau, Ghora tara kopa bhara (Swayamvaram), Dharan i Ramaniya (Vividavadham). All the slokas and padams of Krishnagiti are not used for the play. By tradition many are omitted. There was a tradition of actors singing along with the singers at three places (4): One in Kaliyamardanam, pallavam of padam 5.jMtanayaka and two in Rasakrida, pallavam of padam 3, jaya iava ramaramana and six slokas starting with Padou tou, Vaktram netra. Cillinam jagata. lhni manasaharini, Lavanvam tadavamaniyom and Sa strinam (2). These days, the actors do not sing. Inthe performance space, betweenthe singersand K ali Yilakku . the actorsdance and act wearing multicoloured costumes. Dancing and ac ting in general, do not confirm 10 the "text' being sung. but are according to ragas (tunes) and talas (beats). In Krishnanattam, five types of facia l make ups, Paccha (Green). Pazhuppu (Orange). Kathi (Knife). Minukku and Karl (Black) and masks are used. A l'acchafacial make up is used for Krishna. Vasudeva, Kamsa, Nan dgopa, Uddhava, Muchuk unda , Dandavakthra, Rukrni, Arjun a, Jarasundha etc. A Kathi facial make up is used for bad but kingly characters (Sankhachuda in Rasakrida, Sisupala in Vividavadham, Bana in Banayudhham). Incidentally, in Swayamvarcm. Sisupala appears ali Paccha. Pazhuppu is for Balarama, Siva andBhima. ~ Ijnukk u is forall women. Narada. Sandipani, Yavana, Kucela, etc. Thereis no facialmake up for Tod dy Tapper and Kucela (Vividav adham). For Yasoda, Bhu mi Devi, Radha and Satyabhama green colour is applied on the face and a chuni is provided. In earlier days. Devaki and Rukmini used to have chuni on their face. These were converted to MinuUu C-Q

. - '.:t... Dharmaraja{Yamal Jambavun

Ghanu l amas Murasura 52 A . PURUSHOTHAMAN. A. H ARl ~ D R A N ATH during the time of A.C.G Raja Kari is for Putana (mask - Avataram ) and the hunter Jara (Swargarohanam). In someplays, the sameactorappears indifferentroles. Forexample. inSwayamvararnthe same actor appears as Sandipani and Rukmini. The roles of Dhantavakthra and Satrajit are played by the same actor. The roles of Uddhava , M uchukunda, Sisup ala and Rukm i are also played by one actor.

Masks in Krishnananam Colourful masks areused in Krishnanattam, Play Masks Avatararn Brahma ( 4 face ). Putana ( Black ) Kaliyamardanam Bakasura ( Bird ). Brahma ( 4 face ) Rasakrida No mask Karnsavadham No mask Swayarnvararn Dharrnaraja ( Green ), Jambavan (white monkey face) Banayudharn Murasura (5 faces, all different ), Narakasura (Red Beard ), Ghantakarna ( two different black), Sivabhutas (Black ) Ylvldavadham Vividha (Black ) Swargarohanarn Brahma( 4 face )

Props Besides bow. arrow, mace,sword, shield, lance and chakra . Krishnanattam uses many items and props for the performance. To beat the child Kri shna. Yasoda takes a real stick! Dolls for new born babies - blue for boy (Avataram and Swargarohanam) and orang e for girl (Avataram). Kaliya in Kaliyamardanam (do ll of snake). Anantha ofSwargarohanam (doll of seve n hooded snake). branch of areal tree (Kaliyamardanam, Vividavadharn andSwargarohanam) are some of the props. Brahrna, Vishnu. Siva and Bana have arti ficialanns. Bakasu ra andGaruda have painted wings. Jambavan, tiredby fighting withKri shna, uses a walkingstick! Kucela carries a palmleaf umbrella and walksusing a walkingstick. In Vivida vadham. Yudhishtiru washes the feet of Kri shna actually with water! Later, Kri shna washes the feet of Kucela. In Swa yamvaram, Jamba van and Krishna tight using branche s of trees. In Vividhavadharn, Vivida and Balarama does the sarne. In Vividavadham, the toddy tapper brings a pot of toddy and packet of pickles to Balarama. Krishna gives a signal to Bhima to kill Jarasandha by tearing a leaf in two halves. In Swargarohanam, while Krishna sits part ly hidden by the Thirassila below a tree. the hunter Jara shoots an arrow at Kri shna's feet.

Tableaus In Krishnanattam , there are some beautiful tableau. As the play Banayuddham begins with lowering of hand heldcurtain halfway. a three level tableauis revealed. showingGarud:1 with green face, red beaks and wings on the ground level. Above Garuda. on middle level

54 A .PURUSHOTH AM AN. A. HARIND RANATH

Satyabha rna is seen with green face bordered with chutti.On top level. Krishna is seen holding a conch. Alavattoms are held at the back of Krishna's head. This spectacular scene depicts Krishna riding on Garuda with Satyabharna on his way to Pragjyotishapura, the city of Narakasura. Kailasa inBanayuddhamis another beautiful scene. Krishna goes to Kailasa to meetSiva. As thehand held curtain is removed, Siva, Parvati, Subrahmanya and Ganapathi are seen. Two tiny Sivabhootas sit on thefloor. In Swargnrohanam. there are two breathtaking scenes of Vaikunta. In the first scene, Krishna and Arjuna visit Vaikunta. Vishnu stands with the seven hooded Anantha hovering overhis crown,alongwi th SriDevi. Bhumi Devi, Siva. Brahmaand Naruda. In(he last scene of Swargarohanam. Vishnu reclines on Anantha. Sri Dcvi. Bhumi Dcvi. Brahma andNaradaarepresent. Sivaand Garudaare on either side. Daruka sits ononeside and a parshada ontheother. The singers and drummers siton either side. Several oil lamps are lit in front. Fumes from the burning incense rise up creating an ethereal atmosphere.

Special Dance Compositions Mullappoo Chuttal (Adorninggarland of Jasmine) is the most famous special dance cornpo­ sitionof Krishnanattarn (2).This is performed inAvatararnby Krishna, Balararna,Yasuda and Rohini and gopis and in Rasakrida by Krishna and gopis, Kutti Etuttu Attam (dance holding the baby), twice inAvataram,before and after Putanamoksham and Kuvalayapidam dancein Kamsavadham are other dance forms special to Krishnanattam (5).

Use o[ Thirassila (Curtain) The halfcurtain is integral to the stage mechanism employed by Krishnanattam in its attempt to represent Krishna's divinity(5,6).In Krishnananam, thecurtain has specific and subtlefunctions thai are often imbued with metaphysical significance. In Avataram, when Gods praiseKrishna. while still in Devaki's womb, the stage hands hold the curtain at a lower level hiding theactor's legs, making themmanifest figures.Religious traditions hold that thegods.even whentheyreveal themselves do not touch the earth with their feel. In Kaliyarnardanarn. Curtain is heldat a lower level behind Krishna, suggesting the representation of the water surface and facilitating the occasional introduction of Kaliya. In the scene where Krishna steals the clothes of Gopis,the curtain is held ata lowerlevel suggesting the Gopis standing in water upto theirwaist The curtain also facilitates impressive Thiranottam for Kamsa, Sankhachuda.Murasura and Narakasura. In Swargarohanarn,in the scene of'Balararna's departure to heaven, the curtain is heldhalf way suggesting two distinct spaces, earth and heaven. When l ara the hunter approaches Krishna. the curtain is held full to divide the stage in two parts. The front side depicts the forest where l ara wanders and the back side where Krishna sits under a tree. After Jara shoots an arrow hitting Kri shna's toes projecting below the curtain. the curtain is lowered revealing Krishna in sitting posture. Mullappoo chuttal Rasakrida 56 A . PURUSHOTHAMAN. A . HARINDRANATII

Music Krishnagiti has 62 padas and 93 padyagitarns (musical verses) with specific raga and tala, In addition. there are 321 verses and 2 Dhandakas to be rendered in ragas (2, 5). Play Siokas Padarns Padyagitams Avatararn M 14 NU KaJiyamardanam 49 10 4 Rasakrida 57' 10 TI Kamsavadham 46 7 17 Swayamvaram:O 5 15 Banayuddham 28 7 7 Vividavadham 21 3 15 Swargarohanam 24 6 8 TOlal 321 62 93 * two Dhandakas Krlshnagiti is the earliest (1654) composition in Kerala in which the composer prescribed both ragaand tala.Venkatamakhin formulated theschemeof 72 melakartasaround thesame rime. Thus Krishnagiti predatesthetrinityofCamatic music(5, 7). Manavedan isa noteworthy figure among thepre-SwatiTinmal composersof classical music. Manavedan brought several unfa­ miliarragas like Kanakurunji, Indisa, PantayiriandKedarapantu intovogue in Krishnagiti (8). L.S. Rajagopalan in his cssay Krishnonothile Pcutu (7) notes thai about 30 padams are now sunginragas different from those specifiedby Manavedan. Some of theragas such as Indisa. Kedarapanru. Pantayiri,Samantarnalahariand Ghandara MaJavi are lost now. The ragas used now in Krishnanartam are Ahari, Anantabhairavi, Kanakurunji, Karnbhoji. Kalyani. Kedaragowlam, Ghantaram,Todi, Devagandaram, Dwijavanthi, Natta, Nattakurunji. Navarasam, Neelambari, Pantuvarali, PatioPuraneer, Bilahari, Bowli, Bhoopalarn, Bhairavi, Madhyamavati, Mayamalavagowlam, Mukhari, Mohanarn, Ragamalika, Yadukula Kambhoji, Varali. Sankarabharanam, Saveri,Sarangam andSaurashtrarn. The talas used now in Krishnanattam are Adanta, Chempa, Chempata and Panchari. Theragas and talas used now for each padam and padyagitam are listed in (9) separately. Themode of singing in Krishnanarrarn adheres to the sopana style practiced in Keralaand Tamil Nadu. Kavalam NarayanaPanikkar( 10)notes that two line structure ofTyani in Kottipadi Seva is basic to the singing in Krishnanartamand . Hand and facial gestures are most importantin KathakaJi for acting the meaning of thewords of thetext in detail. Thuseach line has to be sung by the singer several times to allow the actor to express the meaning through Bhavibhinaya Since this kind of acting is almost absent in Krishnanattarn, the text needs 10 be sung only once by the lead singer and then repeated by the second singer. Devotion is the essence of Krishnanattam and the Sopana style suits it best

Krishnanattam and Kathaka/i (2, 10) The Krishnanattarn performance is based on the text of Krishnagiti by Manavedan in San' KRISHNANATfAM,ANOVERVIEW 57

skrit. The Kathakafi performance texts areAtrakarhas, based on stories in ltihasas. Puran.1s and others in Manipravalam, a mixture of Sanskrit and , In Krishnanattam, maddalam, chengala, elathalam and idakka are used. Chenda is nor used in Krishnanattarn, Chenda is important in Kathakali. In Krishnanattarn, mostly, the beginning of the story is Purappatu. In Kathakali, for Purappatu, it is not essential to have the characterinthebeginningof theplay.anycharacter will do. In Kathakali. there is Melappadarn after Purappatu, In Krishnanauam, there is no MeJappadam (2). In Krishnanauam, facial make ups of Paccha, Pazhuppu,Kathi,Minukku and Kari(Black) arc used. Besides these, Kathakali has the additional facial make ups of That; (Beard) and Ninam (Bloody appearance). In Krishnananam, a thin churti is used for the women characters. Yashoda, Radha and Satyabhama. ln Karhakali, chuui is not used for women characters at all. Extensive use of masks is a special feature of Krishnanauam tBmhma. Putana, Yuma. Jambav an, etc.), The singers sing standing behind, the actors act and dance; this is lhe nature of Krishn anauam and Kathakali. The actors do not sing or speak in both. In Krishnanattarn, theprincipal singer sings a lineonce and the second singer repeats it. There are only few occasions of actingof the word meaning using hand signs and expres­ sions in Krishnanatrarn, (In Avataram, Kamsa orders his men to search out and kill the new born babies (Elakiyauam of Karnsa),in Swayamvaram,Yavana and Rukmi ridicule and insult Krishna, inVividavadham. Sisupala mocksatKrishna and inSwargarohanarn, Kri shnagives advice to Uddhava (2)). Hence repeating each line once is sufficient. The singing is in the Sopana style. where devotion is prominent (10). Krishnanattam is a dance play while the detailed and varied performance using hand signs andSatvika acting is a unique feature of Kathakali. In Kathakali, thelines are sung repeatedly. For the integral presentation of Angikaand Sarvika acting. eachstep of the line should be sung separately by the principal singer and second singer and eulogized (10). Krishnanattarn is performed only by a single troupe (managed by Guru,'. }'urDevaswom). There are several troupes performing Kathakali (Kalamandalam, Kottakkal etc.),

Performance: Place. Time and Dares In Guru vayurTemple, theplays are performed as votiveofferingsof devotees, The charges for one play is Rs. 1500 (in 20(5). A play can be booked one year in advance. As and when requested. Krishnanattam is performed outside the Guruvayur Temple as well. The charges areextra forsuch plays. Details canbeobtained fromAdministrator. Guruvayur Devasworn, Guruvayur-680 IOJ. Usually there is no play on Tuesdays. But during Aranagetam. when all 8 plays are performed in the temple. plays are perform ed on Tuesday also. Aft er perform ing Swargarohanam on the eighth day, Avataram is perfonned on the ninth day. May 31st is the A. PUR USHOTfIAM AN, A. HA RI NDR ANATH

lastdayof performance inthe Temple. June is the monthof vacation, During July-August. 41 days are the training period for the players. Plays are performed in the temple from 1st September onwa rds. Traditionally. Banayuddham is performedon Sivaratri at the Siva temple of Mnmmiyur, nearGuruvayur. Avataram is performed on Ashtamirohini, at the Melputtur Auditorium of East Nada. Guruvayur. On Krishnagiti day, one play is performed at the Auditorium.

MWJU\'e,I(ln--a Biographical Note (2.11.12) Manavedan. born inA.D. 1585 has a prominent place among the Sanskrit poets of Kerala, He waseduca ted in Poetics. GrammarandLogics by Anayatt KrishnaPisharoti. Manavcdaa composed two texts: Purva Bharatha Campu (16-14) and Krishnagiti (165-+). During the composing of Purva BharathaCarnpu,Manavedan's uncle, Sakthan Manavikraman was the Zarnorin King. On the death of Sakthan Manavikraman. another Manavikrarnan became theZamorin King. When this King expired(28thAugust 1655), Manavedan became the Zarnorin King.Atthis time,the King of'Cochinwasplanningto attack Zarnorin.Manavedan prepared forwar withthe Cochin King. but didnotlive \0 leadthe war. He expiredatTrichur on 15th February 1658, He was cremated at the Zamarin Palace at Guruvayur, (This palace, supposed to be built by n (13), was demolished in 1977. A monument for Manavedaa was built (16th November 1987) at this place by Guruvayur Devaswom), Manavedan refers to histeacherAnayutt KrishnaPisharoti. uncleSakthan Manavikraman and the deitiesofZamorin family in Purva Bharatha Campu (slokas 110 lti.quorcd by Ulloor ( 12)), Purva Bharutha Carnpu, a work of 12 sthabhakas is composed following the model of Bharatha Campu by Anantha Bhatta. Bharatha Carnpu deals with the story of Mahabharata starting from King Pandu and ending withthe reign of King Yudhishtira . In Purva Bharatna Campu, (published by Manuscripts Library, Kerala University, 1963) Manavedan deals with the Mahabhurarastoryfrom thebeginn ingupto thebirth of Dhritarashtra. Pandu andVidura. Acommentary to Purva Bharurha Cumpu. Krishneeyarn, was composed apparently by Anayatt Krishna Pisharoti (12), Manavedan mentions his teacher (2nd sloka) and uncle (4th sloka) in Krishnagiti as well. In composition and style, Manavedanhas followed the models givenb)' Gila Govindam (Jayadeva), Narayaneeyam (~ Iclputtur),Srikrishna,"asam(Sukumara). Srikrishnavijeyam(Sankara),Bala!>h:Jr.lU (Agasthya Bharta) and BharataCarnpu (Anantha Bhatta). To understand the significance ofthe muhifoldcontributionsof Manavedanto literature. music and an, it is necessary to have a brood perspective of the Indian cultural background (2, 14), landmarks in early MalayalarnLiteratureand the majorhistorical events duringthis period (15).

Indian Cultural Background (2. 14) The general cultural background of this period is given by Prof, P.c. Vasudevan Elayath in krishn anattapravesakam (2): In 16th and 17th century A.D" as a result of Vaishnava reli­ gious renaissance. many forms of performing art s originated and propagated in different KRISHNANATIAMo AN OVERVIEW

partsofIndia. Especially. theroyal familiesof Mathura, NepalandAssamjust like theZamorins of Calicut tookgreat careinthepatronage of perfonning arts relatedto vaishnavacult. Many arti sts created new art forms (as Sanakaradeva in Assam). Among these. a Sanskrit poem Krishna LilaTarangini by SriNarayana Tirtha inTamil Nadudeserves special attention. It is said that Kri shna Lila Tamngini used to be performed on Krishr mshrami day. Kri shna Lila Tarangini has many similarities to Kri shnanattam. Both originated around the same lime. Thus Krishnanattam is one among many art forms which originated as a resultof a strong inner flow ofcultural renaissance alloverIndia. An outline ofthe cultural background of this era is indicated by N.V. Krishna Varrier ( 14) as well. A popular tradition of performing arts was existing in various parts of Ind ia. Gila Govindam (Ashtapadi) composed in Orissa during 12th cemuryA.D was performed in vari­ ous parts. Later, this tradition perished in the north due 10 attacks from outside. During the 15th and 16th century. in Krishna Chaitanya's rime, the performing arts were renovated in Bengal. During 16th Century, Sankaradeva and Madhavadeva popularized Ihe va ishouva tradition of performing arts in Assam. Mclputtur Narayana Bhattathiri indicates in Prakriyasarvaswarn (krishn AvalOkOtsava krtdskauthuk imnnasamv and in a poem (karmaughOcchanda mArddangika layavasagAn \'AsanAgAnasakrAn) the possibility of existence of some kindof art forms involving music and dance based on Krishna's story in Kerala. Achutappa Naikan who ruled Thanchavoor during A.D. 156110 A.D 1614 brought Brahmins who are experts in acting and singing from Andhra to Thanchavoor. Evennow they perform the dance drama Bhagavata Me/a. Raghunatha Naikan and Vijayaraghava Naikan, the descendants of Achutappa Naikan, sponsored Bharutanatyam in Tamil Nadu. The Nawab of Golkonda.Abul Hasan Kutub Shah (A D 1672 -AD.1687)donaled a village 10 theBrahmindancers of Kuchipudi.There are ind icat ions thatthese Brahmins hadperformed the dance drama Kellka before the rulerof Vijayanagaram inA.D.1502.The Sultanof Bamini Malik Ibrahim encouraged the performance of the 'Ielugu dance drama 'Sugriva vijayam' in A.D. \558.\n Karnataka, 'Virataparva', lhe rust Yakshagana play was composed in A.D.156-1.

Landmarks in early Malayalam Literature ( 15) Malayalarnbegan to develop as anindependent Jiterar)' language aroundthesame timethat the Malayalam Era (Kollavarsham)began(AD . 825).Tolan(91h Century) wroteAttaprakaram for Kutiyattarn. Between 9th and 121h centuries, manipravalam (mixture of Sanskrit and MaJayalam) dominated the scene. Niranarn Poets and Cherusseri (author of Krishnagathaj belong to 15th century. Ezhuttacchan, Puntanam (1547-16-10) who wrote exclusively in Malayalam and Melputtur Narayana Bhattathiri(1560-16-16) who wrote exclusively in San­ skrit belonzed to sixtee-nth and seventeenth century. Melputtur composed Narayaneeyam (1588) when Manavedan wasjust threeyearsold. IIis likely that thegrammalicaltext Prakriya San'am-am by Melputtur influenced Manavedan to a large extent (2,12). Manavedan com­ pleted Purva Bharata Campu in 1644 and Krishnagitiin 1654. 60 A. PURUSHOTH AM AN.A. HARIND RANATH

Major Historical Events during This Period (IS) Under the rule of Zamorin, Calicut became a strong political entity in the 14th century, Manavedan's famous ancestor. King Manavikrarnan ruled as Zamorin in the 15th century (1466 to 1471). The famo us patinettara kavikal (eighteen and half poet s) belonged to his royal court, Punam Namboodiri who wrote in Malayalam was the arakkavi (half poe t)! Famous among the eighteen are Udda nda Sastrikal, Kakkasseri Darnoda ra Bhattathiri (author of Vasurnathi Munavikramam), Chennas Narayanan NamboodiJi (authorof'Iantra Samucchayam) and the two Payyur Bhattathiris, VascodaGama arri ved at Calic ut in 1498. Beginning of 15th ce ntury, Zarnorin became the leading force against Pon ugese expansion in Kerala. Udayamperur Sunnahadoss in 1599. Dutch East India Company signed an agreement with Samuthiri on II th November 1604. Kunankurisu revolt in 1653. Manavedan comp leted Krishnagiti in 1654. Dutch captured Kollam in 1658 and Kochi in 1663.

Legends (2, 12, 13, 16, 17) According to a legend, Manavedan requested Vilwarnangalarn Swamiyarto enable him to see Krishna in person. Swamiyarfacilitated this request and Manavedan was able to see Krishna playing under an elanji tree. When Manavedan tried to embrace Krishna, the Lord disap­ peared leaving behind a peacock feather in Manavedan's hand. An idol ofKrishna was made using the wood of the elanji tree. (The elanji tree stood at the place where now, the Kurtambalam stands, on the south-east side ofthe sanctum sanctorum of the Guruvayur Temple). Accord­ ing to the advice of Vilwamangalam, Manavedan compo sed Krishnagiti sitting before the idol. The peacock feather was incorporated in the headgear of Krishna. The headgear was found to suit the heads of all actors performing as Krishna. The actor also used to get 'possessed' on wearing this headgear. It is said that this headgear perished during the attack of the Kodungallur fort by the Dutch. Another version is that the headgear perished in the fire which engulfed Ihe Zamorin Palace in 1766 (3). In 1766, the Zamorin, attac ked by Haider, burned himself and the fort palace at Cal icut. /I is said that all woode n ornaments, crown s and masks used for Krishnanattarn were de­ stroyed in the fire (3). (Dr. Sikora (3) states that a Bronze image ofKrishna is available at the Zamorin Temple of Tali, Calicut. The crown , ear ornaments and decorations such as the circular and floral pat. terns on the breast plate and hurdle of this image resembles those worn by Krishna in contemporary Krishnanattarn. However. Dr. Sikora notes two major differences: (I) Absence of the figure 's costume ofskirt. side panels and long shawl with mirrors at each end. Instead ofthese, the figure's costume is a simple dhoti. (2) Absence ofchutti on the figure's face). There is a story (13, 16) abo ut the troupe perfonming Krishnanattam at Tripunithura. The King of Cochin ordered the troupe 10 play Kamsavadham. An elephant was brought to the stage to enact (he role of Kuvalayapeedam. The actor performing as Krishna killed the elephant and went after the King. The King managed to escape somehow. It is said that after KRISHNANATIAM, AN OVERVIEW 61

this incident. Krishnartattam was never performed Southof Guruvayur.

The History of Krishnanattam Dr.Sikora (3) divides Kri shnanattamhistoryinto foureras:TbetimeofZamorins,The time of Transition,The time atGuruvayurTemple undertheManagementof A.e .G Rajaand recent times. Dr. Sikora notes thatevidence is available fortheexistenceof Krishnanattam insomeform at least by 1694 and it included dance by 1780. No details areavailable on the creators of this art, no audiovisual concept of its first production and no details of how the art developed. Under the Management of A.c.G Raja. the troupe, for the first time performedoutside Kerala and abroad(Europe and U.S.A.). During the third era, many changes took place in various aspects or Krishnanattam. These are documented in the book by Dr. Sikora (3). A documentary film was made on Krishnanattam by Adoor Gopalakrishnan. Mankada Ravi Varma wasthecinematographer. P.C.C.Elayathlook charge as the Superintendentof Kalanilayam in 1983. He introduced a microphone forthesingers. An excellent portrayal of Krishnanattamthenandnow isprovidedby retired Krishnanattam Asan, K. VelayudhanNair(l8).

Kristmagiti Day Everyyear. 30thof Malayalam monthThulamis celebratedasKrishnagitidayatGuruvayur, This is the day on which Manavedan completedcomposing Krishnagiti as indicatedby the words Grahya Sththirgathakai in the last sloka of Swargarohanam. More information is provided at hup:l/www.geocities.comlkrishnadas_a2000Ikri...nalkrishdinam.html.

REFERENCES

I. Preparingfor Krishna.Chapter 10,Theatreand theWorld- Pctfrrmance and the PoliticsofCulture, Dr. Rustom Bharucha, Routledge. London (1993).This essay" 35 first published in ~ Jou"!aJ of Arts and Ideas, November 16,(1988). Malayalamtranslation.Krishnanu \'rnri Orungal, IS available at hnp://v.w w.geocities.com/krishnadas_a2£XXnrishnJlorungaLpdf. The translation appeared in Bhasha Sahiti,21. l, pages41 to 82,(Jan-March 19971. JournaJ of Research ~d L iterature Studies in Malayalarn, Dept. of Malayalam, Universityof Kerala, Tnvandrum,published Sept. 2005. 2. Krishnanau.:lm. commenrary inMaJayaJam. Prof. p.e Va'iudev:II E layath, GU N V3)1.lf Devaswom, Guruvayur, Kerala,l ndia(1985). 3. Krishnattam,Dr. Martha Bush Ashton Sikora and Robert P. Sikora, Oxford and IBH Publishing ]>0,1. Ltd. New Delhi, India(1993). 4. Private Communications withAsan K. VelayudhanNair. Asan P. Parameswara Panikkar; Asan DamodaranNair andAsanT.P. Narayana Pisharoti. 62 A. PURUSHOTHAMAN, A. HARINDRANATH

5. Review of Krishnagiti of Manavedan, (edited and translated by C.R.Swaminathan and Sudha Gopalakrisnan, Motilal Banarsidass (1997» by L.S. Rajagopalan, Sangeet Natak Nos. 131-132, pp.44-50, (1999). 6. Krishnanattam (Krishnagiti), Sri Manavedan Raja, Prose Translationin Malayalam by P.C.v.Raja, published by Sri Manavedan 4th BirthCentenary Celebration Committee, Guruvayur. Distributed by National Book Stall, Kottayarn (1987). 7. Krishnattathile Pattu, L.S. Rajagopalan, Essay presented in the seminar held in Guruvayur on Krishnagitiday, 13th November 1989;Bhaktapriya, Guruvayur Devaswom, pp. 19-20,November 2001; Keli, Sangeet Natak Academy, Thrissur, August- September 2004. Available on-line at http://www.geocities.com/krishnadas_a2000lkrishnalarticlesllsrl.pdf. English translation, Songs in Krishnattam availableon-line at http://www.geocities.comlprasanna_avarothlkrishllsr~song.pdf 8. Composers ofKerala. Dr. S. Venkitasubramonia Iyer; Journal of Music Academy,Madras, Vol LV, (1984). Available on-line at http://www.sruti.comlsepoct2k1sepspot.htrn 9. KrislmattathilePadangal,Ragavum Talavum,compiled by M. Vasudevan Namboodiri,2004.Avail­ able on-lineat http://www.geocities.comlkrishnadas_a2000lkrishnalarticleslkml.pdf 10. Bhaktiyute Kala, Kavalam Narayana Panikkar, Bhaktapriya, Guruvayur Devaswom, pp. 26-28, November 2001.EnglishTranslation available on-lineathttp://www.geocities.comlkrishnada<;_a2000/ krisbna/aod.htmJ 11. The Zamorinsof Calicut, K.Y. Krishna Iyer, quoted in (3). 12. KerulaSahityaCharitram, Chapter 33, Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer; 13. On Krishnana/tam-P.K.S. Raja,Zamorin of Calicut. Availableon-lineat http://www.geocities.coml krishnadas_a2000lkrishna/artic1es/ pksrajal.html 14. Preface, N.V. Krishna Varrier, Kottayathu Thampurante Attakkathakal, commentary by Desamangalami RamaVarrier, NationalBook Stall, Kottayam, (1976). 15. Munavedon. A Historical Perspective - web article available at http://www.geocities.com! purushol:haman_

ACKNOWLEDGE~mNTS

We thank our Malayalam teacher P. Radhakrishnan Nair and retired Krishnanartam Asan P. Parameswara Panikkar for checking and suggesting changes in the preliminary Malayalam version of the sections of this article from 'Preamble' to 'Tableaus'. Wealso thank Dr. Rustom Bharucha, Kavalam Narayana Panikkar and retired Krishnanattam Asan K. Velayudhan Nair for allowing us to translate their excellent articles on Krishnanattam, L. S. Rajagopalan and P.K.S. Raja (Zamorin of Calicut) for allowing us to utilise their writings on Krishnanattam and Krishnanattam Musician M. Vasudevan Namboodiri for providing a list of the ragas and talas used for the padams and padyagitams of Krishnagiti today. We also thank Dr. P.N. Ganesh for many helpful communications.