International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET) Volume8, Issue12, December 2017, pp.895-905, Article ID: IJCIET_08_12_097 Available online at http://iaeme.com/Home/issue/IJCIET?Volume=8&Issue=12 ISSN Print: 0976-6308 and ISSN Online: 0976-6316

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THE STRATEGY OF CREATING URBAN ELECTRIC VEHICLE: CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS

Vladimir Fedorovich Kamenev, Alexey Stanislavovich Terenchenko, Kirill Evgenievich Karpukhin, Alexey Fedorovich Kolbasov Federal State Unitary Enterprise, Central Scientific Research Automobile and Automotive Institute "NAMI" (FSUE «NAMI»), Avtomotornaya Street, 2, , 125438,

ABSTRACT One of the key challenges in today's is the problem of reduction of harmful emissions at road transportations. The development of new powertrains, able reducing CO2 emissions when operating motor vehicles, formed the basis for the development strategy of the automotive powertrain proposed by Central Scientific Research Automobile and Automotive Institute "NAMI". The second important issue in the strategy development was the fact confirming the reduction in global oil and gas reserves. Environmental protection forces the automotive industry to explore the possibilities of applying alternative energy sources and alternative fuels. Present article describes the basic developments of NAMI in the use of alternative fuels in accordance with the proposed 2007 strategy for both passenger cars, freight vehicles, and dual-purpose vehicles as well as substantiates main advantages and disadvantages of energy-efficient and environmentally friendly transport. Keywords: Vehicle, Electric Vehicle, Hybrid Vehicle, Hydrogen Vehicle, Energy Efficiency, Hydrogen, Fuel Cells, Charging Stations, Environmental Regulations. Cite this Article: Vladimir Fedorovich Kamenev, Alexey Stanislavovich Terenchenko, Kirill Evgenievich Karpukhin, Alexey Fedorovich Kolbasov, The Strategy of Creating Urban Electric Vehicle: Challenges and Solutions, International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology,8(12), 2017, pp. 895-905. http://iaeme.com/Home/issue/IJCIET?Volume=8&Issue=12

1. INTRODUCTION In 2007, NAMI proposed a strategy for creating a city car of the future, illustrated by the diagram in Fig. 1.

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Figure 1 Development strategy of automotive powertrain for urban transportation. The developed strategy assumes creating an environmentally friendly fuel-efficient vehicle, i.e. the vehicle with minimum harmful impact on the environment and human health based on the use of energy-saving technologies. This means the minimum emission of harmful substances polluting city atmosphere not only from fuel-driven internal combustion engines, but also from other sources, such as, for example, the emission of harmful particles from tire wear and friction parts of the clutch and brake mechanisms, as well as the reduction of vibroacoustic load on the environment from vehicle components. Thus, the most important strategy parameters include environment, energy efficiency, active safety, and comfort operation of the vehicle.

2. METHODS In this article the authors use an empirical scientific method, which includes information acquisition, scientific analysis, development of hypothesis, and creation of theory. In addition, the authors have carried out stage-by-stage modeling and manufactured experimental prototypes.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION An indicator of such vehicle priority is energy-saving of natural resources consumed by its powertrain when starting moving and driving. It means reducing consumption of hydrocarbon fuels produced from non-renewable natural resources like oil and gas. One of the ways to achieve energy saving in the transport sector may be based on the fact that the driver of the vehicle, when traveling from point A to point B, should be minimally involved in the operation of the vehicle and its aggregates providing operating parameters of the vehicle at minimal possible personal involvement of the driver in the driving process. Therefore, when creating such a vehicle it is impossible to avoid the use of intelligent control systems, which maximally limit the involvement of the person as the driver in the controls of the vehicle. This is possible when the desired vehicle speed is achieved by regulating power consumption from

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 896 [email protected] Vladimir Fedorovich Kamenev, Alexey Stanislavovich Terenchenko, Kirill Evgenievich Karpukhin, Alexey Fedorovich Kolbasov the powertrain using autonomous unit of indirect impact on the engine via the onboard computer using the electronic gas pedal and the maximum employment of the satellite communication options such as GLONASS in the development of optimal driving route. Such technology eliminates the unskilled and non-optimal distribution of power generated by the engine between all aggregated of the vehicle, which affect its safe motion and ensure minimum driving time on a given urban route at low fuel consumption and minimal harmful effects on the urban environment. The strategy envisages three development stages, providing smooth transition from the use of traditional automotive powertrain, i.e. fuel-driven internal combustion engine that uses hydrocarbon fuel of oil and natural gas origin, to the most promising electric-driven vehicle that is to the electric-driven vehicle in its purest form. The short-term first stage of the concept involves the use of all the currently available innovative technologies for the modernization of the vehicle in order to improve maximally the above basic parameters. At this stage, when developing strategy, NAMI considered vehicle with a traditional internal combustion engine as a powertrain. If taking for a basis the most popular mass passenger car with the capacity of 50–75 kW manufactured before 2007, it complied with the regulations of EURO-3 and had average fuel consumption in the conditional urban cycle of Rules 83 of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) equal to 9 l/100 km. However, due to the extreme saturation of the vehicle fleet and traffic, the operating conditions of vehicles in big cities, where the average speed drops to 15– 20 km/h and the engine is operating in unfavorable low load modes in terms of its efficiency, i.e. in the modes of deep throttling for gasoline engines at the maximum large losses on gas exchange, fuel consumption actually increases, for example, in Moscow – up to 10-15 l/100 km. Over the past 7 years, there has been a significant leap in powertrain of the vehicle. In the course of improvement of automotive powertrain, the gasoline engines were equipped with continuous variable valve timing, integrated 2-stage turbocharging, more advanced systems of direct fuel injection and neutralization of harmful substances with new generation electronic control system, while diesel engines were equipped by fuel control unit of the "Common Rail" type, which provided multiphase fuel injection at a pressure 200-250 MP to each cylinder individually, two-stage advanced turbo intercooling, and the integrated system of neutralization, which included diesel particulate filter system with regeneration system, and the SCR-converter with AdBlue additive as oxides’ reducing agent. The operating process of these engines was controlled by the MP-systems of the new generation. At this stage, the process of improvement of traditional engines through the implementation of new innovative technologies continued. This had allowed modern vehicles to achieve the level of ecological requirements of EURO-6 and the average fuel consumption in the urban cycle conditional to UNECE Rules 83 equal to 4-5 l/100 km. To date, it has been ten years since the development of the strategy. How has the strategy been implemented and what has happened during this time? In NAMI the strategy was implemented on a phase-by-phase basis. The first short-term stage was noted by modernization of vehicle design and its powertrain that provided a gradual transition to constantly toughened environmental requirements of EURO-4 to currently existing oversea standards of EURO-6 and EURO-5 adopted in Russia. At the same time, the existing infrastructure for the vehicles’ operation was pulled up in accordance with these requirements [1]. For example, Fig. 2 shows data on the total emissions of harmful substances by various categories of vehicles in the city of Moscow at the

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 897 [email protected] The Strategy of Creating Urban Electric Vehicle: Challenges and Solutions regulatory requirements of EURO-3 being in force up to 2007, as well as the forecast of total emissions upon enforcement of EURO-5 norms. At that, one should take into account that more than half of actively exploited vehicles in Moscow are modern foreign models that meet the EURO-5 and EURO-6 requirements. Thus, if we take 2007 as the reference point for comparison, then we can state that the emissions of harmful substances by motor transport in Moscow have decreased in seven-year period by an average of 2.5 times, while fuel consumption – twice. This was influenced by the improvements made in the vehicles’ design (use in engines of the distributed fuel injection system instead of the fuel carburettor system, the implementation of electronic control system of the powertrain, the transition to a more environmentally friendly fuels (gasoline and diesel fuel) complying with the requirements of EURO-4 and EURO-5, as well as the alternative gas fuels (compressed and liquefied natural gas of oil origin).

Figure 2 Change in total emissions of harmful substances of motor vehicles with consideration of their environmental hazard in Moscow upon tightening the regulatory requirements from EURO-3 to EURO-6, thousands tons The upgrading of the traffic infrastructure, vehicles’ operation and maintenance technology played an important role. At the second medium-term stage the concept envisaged the development of vehicles with a hybrid powertrain (HP) as well as electric vehicles as a transitional step to the future third long-term stage of the concept, when pure electric vehicles would become widespread; moreover, gradually, hydrogen energy technologies would be used. In the course of the second stage the vehicle was equipped with electric traction drive to complement or substitute

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 898 [email protected] Vladimir Fedorovich Kamenev, Alexey Stanislavovich Terenchenko, Kirill Evgenievich Karpukhin, Alexey Fedorovich Kolbasov mechanical transfer of energy from the internal combustion engine to the wheels. This was the intermediate stage of the transition to the pure electric vehicle. At that, disadvantages inherent in the classic electric vehicle were completely or partially eliminated. The availability of two independent power sources in the vehicle namely buffer energy accumulation unit based on power batteries and the internal combustion engine increase the driving distance of the hybrid vehicle comparing to traditional vehicle with internal combustion engine. This allows to completely exclude pollution of the urban environment by harmful emissions of internal combustion engines in heavy city traffic, since the motional energy is provided by a buffer power accumulator. Moreover, this significantly improves the vibroacoustic quality of the vehicle, as well as driving quality, smoothness and dynamics of acceleration, and simplifies controllability of the vehicle. Contemporary traction batteries and electric motors become cheaper as their mass industrial production increases. Power accumulation and storage systems become more compact while maintaining their power capacity. The simplification of the transmission and exclusion of gear box also reduce the cost of hybrid and electric vehicles that ultimately will allow reducing its price to the level of traditional vehicle with internal combustion engine. Presumably, smooth transition of public transport fleet to electric vehicles using hydrogen energy technologies will occur exactly at this stage. However, at the moment, electric vehicles are inferior to a regular vehicle in some respects and, in particular, in terms of power [2]. Their driving distance and maximum speed are much lower, while they are more expensive. Along with that, there is the need to reduce the weight of car batteries while maintaining sufficiently high battery capacity. But these few shortcomings are easily compensated by the advantages of this type of vehicles. The electric car does not emit exhaust gases while driven, does not require constant and costly maintenance, can be charged from the usual outlet, and is able to move on a distance of 150 km or even more without recharging. This vehicle is very economical and does not require refueling with gasoline. Maintenance of electric vehicles is cheaper than that for traditional fuel-driven vehicles with spark engine operating on gasoline or diesel. Moreover, service interval for electric vehicles becomes larger that leads to a reduction in costs per 1 km. The sound emission of electric vehicle is much lower. It produces little noise during movement and has high ride comfort. The electric car has the possibility of braking by the electric motor in the mode of the electromagnetic brake system without use of mechanical brake, i.e., brake mechanisms operate at reduced intensity, that again leads to a decrease in maintenance costs. The main disadvantage of electric vehicle is its high cost and low mileage from a single charge. However, due to the fact that electric vehicle runs on cheap and environmentally friendly (compared to gasoline) energy, the mass use of electric vehicles could become the solution to the problem of environmental pollution. This makes the electric vehicle an excellent alternative to a conventional car. But progress does not stand still, and we already know vehicle prototypes operating on fuel cells, which produce water as a reagent. This kind of energy is also promising, because energy generation is accompanied by production of water [3]. Currently, owing to advances in energy storage, engineers give gradually more attention to the prospects of using electric vehicles in intracity transport service. This is contributed by the fact that in recent years, fleet of vehicles in large cities has extensively increased and led almost to traffic havoc in many major cities with the population of over 5 million people. During rush hours in the morning and in the afternoon the number of vehicles doubles due to

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 899 [email protected] The Strategy of Creating Urban Electric Vehicle: Challenges and Solutions inflow into the city and, especially, its central part of vehicles from the suburbs. A typical example is a megalopolis such as Moscow, where during rush hours traffic is completely paralyzed. Carrying out expensive urban planning measures, such as the construction of turnpikes and traffic junctions, establishing one-way traffic and other measures cannot solve this issue. In heavy traffic, where the average vehicle speed comes to 5-15 km/h, motor output necessary to maintain this speed ranges within 5-10 kW despite the fact that the engine rated brake power of most vehicles is more than 100 kW. This extremely negatively affects the working process of the internal combustion engine, and hence its fuel consumption efficiency and the toxicity at low load operation modes, idling and transient regime of acceleration, which are prevailing in the modes of intensive urban driving [4, 5]. In these conditions, as noted by each driver, the actual fuel consumption of a vehicle is two or more times greater from that declared by the manufacturer based on the test results obtained for the urban "driving cycle" conditional to UNECE Rules 83. For the time being it is impossible to create a generalized urban "driving cycle" that would correctly simulate traffic conditions in various cities at different times of the day and year. Therefore, the decision naturally arises to turn off the engine and switch to the electric drive from the on-board energy storage device as it is implemented in vehicles with a hybrid powertrain, while in the case of continuous operation of the vehicle in the city, to use electric vehicles for economic and communal needs. Moreover, the creation of the necessary infrastructure for fast recharging of on-board energy storage unit of electric vehicle and the continuous improvement of currently used automotive batteries under the conditions of their mass production will reduce the cost of electric vehicles and improve the vehicle performance, owing to the development and implementation of innovative technologies. In the course of implementation of the second stage of the strategy, NAMI has designed and manufactured prototypes of city and freight vehicles with electric-based hybrid powertrain, which should contribute to the rapid transition to the third stage, i.e. the creation of passenger and freight electric vehicles as well as electric buses [6].

Figure 3 Electric vehicle with electrochemical generator driven by hydrogen fuel cells Figure 3 shows a city freight truck with a hybrid powertrain for public services, developed by NAMI in the framework of the federal state contract. As part, the main powertrain uses an internal combustion engine, which is driven by synthesis gas generated from methane in the

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 900 [email protected] Vladimir Fedorovich Kamenev, Alexey Stanislavovich Terenchenko, Kirill Evgenievich Karpukhin, Alexey Fedorovich Kolbasov on-board catalytic thermochemical converter, while the second energy source is the buffer power accumulator operating on traction lithium-ion batteries. This scheme is the first step towards the transition to pure electric vehicle. Based on the present project works, NAMI together with manufacturing plants has designed, fabricated and verified through lab and road tests commercial prototypes of freight medium-sized motor vehicles with a hybrid powertrain [7]. Natural gas-driven diesel and gas engines were used as the basic source of energy. Appearance of the designed vehicles and specifications obtained during the acceptance testing are shown in Fig. 4.

a) b)

c)

Figure 4 Commercial prototype of urban vehicles with hybrid powertrain: a) freight vehicle PAZ- 3237 HNM; b) PAZ-3349 HN; c) bus LiaZ-5292 HN The implementation of the electric drive into the construction of the vehicle with the hybrid powertrain and the use as the main part of the hybrid powertrain of a low-toxic highly economical internal combustion engine, in which many innovative technologies were implemented, has enabled realizing the objectives of the second phase of the strategy. Testing of technological solutions inherent to the objectives of the third stage of the strategy was carried out in the motor vehicles with a hybrid powertrain. The third stage involved the creation of a clean freight electric vehicle, namely, implementation in the design of the vehicle of electric drive, buffer power accumulators on traction lithium-ion batteries of new generation, and the use of alcohols, oils and hydrogen as fuel [8, 9]. The problem of using hydrogen based technology for vehicles is extremely promising, because the hydrogen reserves as an energy source are inexhaustible. However, direct use of

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 901 [email protected] The Strategy of Creating Urban Electric Vehicle: Challenges and Solutions hydrogen as a fuel for automotive engines is impossible mainly due to the lack of advanced infrastructure for hydrogen fuel production in volumes needed by transport industry, as well as safe storage and transportation of hydrogen, lack of filling stations, and relatively high cost comparing to traditional automotive fuels. Although many technical issues associated with the design of the vehicle and its powertrain in principle have been already solved. In the framework of the state contracts, NAMI is developing prototypes of city cars running on alternative alcohol and hydrogen fuel as an alternative to electric vehicles, as well as prototypes of urban freight and passenger vehicles powered by alcohol and hydrogen fuel. Figure 5 shows the freight vehicles’ prototype developed in NAMI for city utilities, where electrochemical generator on "hydrogen-air" fuel cells is used as the on-board energy source. Such a vehicle can be called rightfully an electric vehicle with a hybrid powertrain. The electrochemical generator is used as the main source of energy mainly for constant recharging of buffer power accumulator on lithium-ion traction batteries up to the level of the electric power reserve necessary for the movement of the vehicle. Power supply to traction electric motors for electric vehicle wheel drive, therefore, is carried out mainly from the buffer power accumulators. The hydrogen necessary to power the electrochemical generator is generated from alternative renewable fuels (natural gas, biofuels, alcohols, ethers, etc.). That is, already at this stage of the strategy, NAMI has started works aimed at the creation of new electric vehicles for use in heavy city traffic [10]. Appearance of developed freight electric vehicle is shown in Fig. 5.

Figure 5 Freight electric vehicle with electrochemical generator on "hydrogen-air" solid fuel cells: weight of transported cargo – 3 tons, driving distance – 400 km, total output of powertrain - 105 kW The use of freight and commercial electric vehicles for intracity transportation of goods as well as utility services eliminates the use of traditional vehicles with internal combustion engine, the contribution of which to the balance of emissions, according to the environmental services of Moscow, reaches 50%. The situation is somewhat different with the use of passenger cars, especially in the central part of the city. The level of harmful emissions from contemporary passenger vehicles meets the EURO-5 and EURO-6 requirements. This is many times lower than that of trucks with internal combustion engines. Currently, motor vehicles with fuel cells battery are already out in mass production, for example, the Toyota Mirai [11, 12]. A hybrid with hydrogen fuel cells needs to be refueled with hydrogen, which in turn passes through the ion-exchange membrane and combines with oxygen from the atmospheric air. This chemical reaction results in generation of electric energy and production of water steam. According to the test results, at a distance of 4 km, fuel

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 902 [email protected] Vladimir Fedorovich Kamenev, Alexey Stanislavovich Terenchenko, Kirill Evgenievich Karpukhin, Alexey Fedorovich Kolbasov cells produce 240 ml of pure water in the form of steam. Thus, the vehicle does not produce harmful emissions into the atmosphere. Instead of the combustion products of a conventional internal combustion engine, just pure water comes out the exhaust pipe. The vehicle with fully filled hydrogen fuel tank can cover 650 km, while refueling takes about three minutes. Despite measures taken to reduce toxicity, the main problem is the decrease in average speed of road traffic down to a complete stop in rush hours due to the oversaturation of city fleet with vehicles and large number of vehicles coming from the city suburbs. This problem is hardly solvable only by creating and saturating the urban transport fleet with electric vehicles. Cars are used mainly by private persons and more often for suburban traffic. In addition, a large problem is the creation of local infrastructure of electric charging stations for electric vehicles with the possibility of bilateral power exchange based on vehicle-to-grid (V2G) system [13]. Moreover, it is still difficult to attract interest of auto enthusiasts in purchasing electric cars, even introducing public fiscal measures. It complicates the mass implementation of urban electric vehicles into the urban transport infrastructure. In our opinion, more promising is the transition of passenger vehicles to environmentally friendly alternative alcohol fuels and alcohol fuels doped with hydrogen-containing synthesis gases generated from the basic fuel in thermocatalytic converters on-board of the vehicle. This research area is developing quite successfully abroad and has significant advantages over the liquid hydrocarbon fuels such as gasoline and diesel fuel. These fuels, being environmentally friendly and cheap, are at the same time inexhaustible, because they belong to renewable energy sources. They do not require creating a fundamentally new infrastructure for fuel transportation and vehicles’ refueling. An example of such a vehicle is a prototype developed in NAMI on the basis of the VAZ-21011 passenger car, shown in Fig. 6.

Figure 6 Passenger car VAZ-2111 with engine power system fueled by hydrogen-ethanol mixtures At present time all car manufacturers are developing energy-efficient and eco-friendly vehicles, though most of the developments rely on existing infrastructure. Thus, the implementation of new vehicles into operation will entail the development of corresponding infrastructure associated with previously unused types of fuel, including solar energy [14]. NAMI is currently carrying out research on implementation into powertrain and hybrid engine of photoelectric converters battery that can increase the mileage of electric vehicles [15]. The use of power converters, operating on renewable energy such as solar energy, can increase the energy efficiency and ecological compatibility of motor vehicles, which have in their design a system for electric energy storage and accumulation, based on the battery pack.

4. CONCLUSION We are witnessing the deterioration of environment in major cities, largely due to saturation by vehicles and insufficient level of their environmental safety. Therefore, the main aim of the article is to discuss the urgent challenges of creating next generation urban vehicle. We also suggest readers to express their opinions on the issues discussed in the article.

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Despite the fact that contemporary vehicles show fairly high rates of fuel efficiency and low toxicity, these qualities are fully realized only at a uniform movement. It is clear that conditions for continuous movement at a constant speed are available only along intercity and interregional highway. Traffic in the city, which is characterized by the continuous alternation acceleration and braking phases, short uniform motion and engine idling, when the engine is running at a suboptimal rpm speed, while vehicle is moving at low speed, fuel performance indicators and environmental safety of the standard vehicle are significantly deteriorating [16]. The solution to these problems is the creation of electric vehicles with the possibility of quick replenishment of consumed energy, that is, hybrid powertrains capable of operating on fuels with a low content of harmful substances during their chemical conversion. The development of electric vehicles will allow avoiding environmental problems and enhancing energy efficiency in freight and passenger transportation.

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