Investigations on the Abundance of Ectoparasites and Vector-Borne Pathogens in Southwest Madagascar

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Investigations on the Abundance of Ectoparasites and Vector-Borne Pathogens in Southwest Madagascar Investigations on the abundance of ectoparasites and vector-borne pathogens in southwest Madagascar Dissertation with the aim of achieving a doctoral degree at the Faculty of Mathematics, Informatics and Natural Sciences Department of Biology University of Hamburg submitted by Julian Ehlers Hamburg, 2020 Reviewers: Prof. Dr. Jörg Ganzhorn, Universität Hamburg PD Dr. Andreas Krüger, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Date of oral defense: 19.06.2020 TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of contents Summary 1 Zusammenfassung 3 Chapter 1: General introduction 5 Chapter 2: Ectoparasites of endemic and domestic animals in 33 southwest Madagascar Chapter 3: Molecular detection of Rickettsia spp., Borrelia spp., 63 Bartonella spp. and Yersinia pestis in ectoparasites of endemic and domestic animals in southwest Madagascar Chapter 4: General discussion 97 SUMMARY Summary Human encroachment on natural habitats is steadily increasing due to the rapid growth of the worldwide population. The consequent expansion of agricultural land and livestock husbandry, accompanied by spreading of commensal animals, create new interspecific contact zones that are major regions of risk of the emergence of diseases and their transmission between livestock, humans and wildlife. Among the emerging diseases of the recent years those that originate from wildlife reservoirs are of outstanding importance. Many vector-borne diseases are still underrecognized causes of fever throughout the world and tend to be treated as undifferentiated illnesses. The lack of human and animal health facilities, common in rural areas, bears the risk that vector-borne infections remain unseen, especially if they are not among the most common. Ectoparasites represent an important route for disease transmission besides direct contact to infected individuals. While factors driving disease emergence are clearly visible in Madagascar, the knowledge of ectoparasites and potential pathogens is alarmingly limited. Following the One Health concept, this dissertation approaches the presence of ectoparasites and vector-borne bacteria, taking environmental factors and host ecology into account in order to identify possible transmission paths at the human/animal interface. The study took place in the northern portion of Tsimanampetsotsa National Park and the adjacent coastal strip in southwest Madagascar, in the dry and in the rainy season of 2016/2017. For the survey on ectoparasites species and the influence of habitat alteration, endemic mammals were trapped in transects of box traps installed in three habitats revealing different degrees of disturbance: Forest of the national park, degraded forest, and cultivated land. Additionally, Rattus rattus and Mus musculus were trapped inside villages, and livestock was sampled. I identified 17 species of ectoparasites, thirteen of which (blood-feeding lice, fleas and ticks) were subjected to further investigation for the presence and identity of rickettsiae, borreliae, bartonellae and Yersinia pestis using PCR techniques. This study presents the molecular detection of a broad spectrum of vector-borne bacteria including pathogens: Yersinia pestis in X. cheopis, Ricksttsia felis-like organisms in several fleas and Rickettsia africae in all ectoparasite species except one. Borreliae and bartonellae were found only in two ectoparasite species each. A large portion of the parasites was host-specific, barely stating threats for cross species transmission. Apart from the introduced flea species Echidnophaga gallinacea no interspecific parasite transfer occurred between introduced and native mammals. Microcebus griseorufus, which was the only endemic mammal caught in statistically sufficient numbers, revealed the highest louse prevalence inside the least 1 SUMMARY degraded habitat, contrary to the common assumption that the prevalence of ectoparasites increases in degraded areas. This study also confirms the littoral site as less suitable habitat for most introduced ectoparasite species. In a remote area with a poorly developed public health system and limited options for treatment, the knowledge of the presence of the detected pathogens and their possible vectors enables the population to preventive behavior. Therefore, this piece of research on the occurrence of pathogens is of outstanding relevance to the local health care, as it reveals potential threats of transmission of pathogenic Y. pestis or R. africae at the human/animal interface. 2 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Zusammenfassung Anthropogene Eingriffe in natürliche Lebensräume nehmen aufgrund des starken Wachstums der Weltbevölkerung stetig zu. Durch die daraus resultierende Ausdehnung der landwirtschaftlichen Nutzflächen, die Zunahme der Tierhaltung und die gleichzeitige Ausbreitung kommensaler Arten werden neue interspezifische Kontaktzonen geschaffen, die bedeutende Risikogebiete für das Auftreten von Krankheiten und deren Übertragung zwischen Nutztieren, Menschen und Wildtieren darstellen. Die neu auftretenden Krankheiten der letzten Jahre, die aus Wildtier-Reservoirs hervorgingen, sind von herausragender Bedeutung. Viele Vektor-übertragene Krankheiten sind weltweit immer noch vernachlässigte Ursachen für Fieber und werden tendenziell als undifferenzierte Krankheiten behandelt. Der Mangel an Gesundheitseinrichtungen für Mensch und Tier, wie er in ländlichen Gebieten häufig vorkommt, birgt das Risiko, dass durch Vektoren übertragene Infektionen unbemerkt bleiben, insbesondere wenn sie nicht zu den am häufigsten auftretenden gehören. Ektoparasiten stellen neben dem direkten Kontakt zu infizierten Individuen einen wichtigen Übertragungsweg für Krankheiten dar. Während die Faktoren, die das Auftreten von Krankheiten begünstigen, in Madagaskar deutlich sichtbar sind, ist das Wissen über Ektoparasiten und potenzielle Krankheitserreger alarmierend gering. Im Sinne des One Health-Konzepts befasst sich diese Dissertation mit dem Vorkommen von Ektoparasiten und Vektor-übertragenen Bakterien unter Berücksichtigung von Umweltbedingungen und der Ökologie der Wirtstiere, um mögliche Übertragungswege an der Schnittstelle zwischen Mensch und Tier zu identifizieren. Die Studie fand im nördlichen Teil des Tsimanampetsotsa-Nationalparks und im angrenzenden Küstenstreifen des Südwestens Madagaskars in der Trocken- und Regenzeit 2016/2017 statt. Zur Untersuchung von Ektoparasitenarten und von Einflüssen der anthropogenen Veränderung des Lebensraums wurden endemische Säugetiere mit Lebendfallen in Transekten gefangen, die in drei Lebensräumen mit unterschiedlichem Störungsgrad installiert wurden: Im Wald des Nationalparks, in degradiertem Wald und in Kulturland. Zusätzlich wurden Rattus rattus und Mus musculus in Dörfern gefangen, und Nutztiere untersucht. Ich identifizierte 17 Arten von Ektoparasiten, von denen dreizehn (blutsaugende Läuse, Flöhe und Zecken) unter Verwendung von PCR-Techniken auf das Vorkommen von Rickettsien, Borrelien, Bartonellen und Yersinia pestis untersucht wurden. Diese Studie präsentiert den molekularen Nachweis eines breiten Spektrums von durch Vektoren übertragener Bakterien, einschließlich mehrerer Krankheitserreger: Yersinia pestis bei X. 3 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG cheopis, Ricksttsia felis-ähnliche Organismen bei mehreren Floharten und Rickettsia africae - mit einer Ausnahme - bei allen Ektoparasitenarten. Borrelien und Bartonellen wurden nur in jeweils zwei Ektoparasitenarten gefunden. Ein großer Teil der Parasiten war wirtsspezifisch und stellt kaum eine Gefahr für die Übertragung zwischen verschiedenen Arten dar. Abgesehen von der eingeschleppten Flohart Echidnophaga gallinacea trat keine interspezifische Übertragung von Parasiten zwischen eingeschleppten und endemischen Wirtsarten auf. Microcebus griseorufus ist die einzige Wirtsart, die in statistisch ausreichender Anzahl gefangen wurde. Dieser Wirt zeigte die höchste Lausprävalenz innerhalb des am wenigsten degradierten Lebensraums, entgegen der allgemeinen Annahme, dass die Prävalenz von Ektoparasiten in degradierten Gebieten zunimmt. Diese Studie bestätigt auch die Küstenregion als weniger geeigneten Lebensraum für die meisten eingeschleppten Ektoparasitenarten. Für ein abgelegenes Gebiet mit einem schlecht entwickelten öffentlichen Gesundheitssystem und begrenzten Behandlungsmöglichkeiten ermöglicht die Kenntnis über das Vorkommen der hier nachgewiesenen Krankheitserreger und ihrer möglichen Vektoren, dass sich die Bevölkerung präventiv verhalten kann. Daher ist diese Arbeit über das Auftreten von Krankheitserregern für die lokale Gesundheitsversorgung von hohem Stellenwert, da sie potenzielle Bedrohungen für die Übertragung der Pathogene Y. pestis oder R. africae zwischen Mensch und Tier aufdeckt. 4 Chapter 1 General introduction CHAPTER 1 Human alteration of natural habitats is one of the major drivers of wildlife disease outbreaks (Daszak et al., 2000; Dobson and Foufopoulos, 2001). "Pathogen pollution" meaning the introduction of diseases and parasites to wildlife (Cunningham et al., 2003) has caused heavy decline in animal populations (Chapman et al., 2005; Estrada et al., 2018; Köndgen et al., 2008). Reverse directed transmissions of new human pathogens from wildlife reservoirs, demonstrated by emerging infectious diseases like Ebola, AIDS, Plague, SARS or COVID-19 have accounted for some of the most devastating epidemics and pandemics (Burki, 2017; Dong et al., 2020; Drosten et al., 2003; Hahn et al., 2000; Leroy et al., 2009). These rely on human-wildlife interactions driven by the extension of contact zones, which open the door for
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