Strengthening community participation in disaster management by strengthening governmental and non-govermental organisations and networks A case study from Dinar and Bursa (Turkey)

his paper focuses on issues and earthquakes. The reason for this being that Karanci N.A. and Aksit B., weaknesses related to disaster man- Departments of Psychology and Sociology, the major type of natural disaster affecting agement in the 1995 Dinar (Turkey) Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey is earthquakes. This law was a Tearthquake, and subsequent at- Turkey response to the 1939 Erzincan earthquake tempts to apply the lessons learned from Presented at the Disaster Management: Crisis & and several similar subsequent earth- this earthquake into a study of strengthen- Opportunity: Hazard Management and Disaster quakes and it was the first law to stress the ing community participation in Bursa, a Preparedness in Australasia and the Pacific Region need for plans for rescue, material aid and province of Turkey which is located in the Conference, James Cook University, Centre for Disaster temporary shelter prior to the occurrence Studies, November 1–4, 1998, Cairns, Queensland first-degree seismic zone, specifically of earthquakes. The law also had a clause focusing on earthquake disaster. The study that emphasised compensation for the loss in Bursa is a pilot one included in a general to adapt to drastically altered physical of property. The formation and the funding project for strengthening Turkey’s disaster environments, economic losses, disruption of provincial rescue and emergency aid management system. The first step in- of activities and homelessness. They also committees was also introduced (Severn, volved the study of a disaster-stricken have to cope with the emotional trauma of 1995). In 1959, the 1944 law was replaced community following the 1 October, 1995 witnessing loss of lives, injury and property by a new more extensive law covering Dinar (Turkey) earthquake. The findings loss (Baum et al, 1983; Karanci and disasters other than earthquakes, like fires, related to attitudes and evaluations of the Rustemli, 1995; Rubonis and Bickman, floods, landslides and similar disasters. The Dinar community and local and central 1991). Adversities following the disaster, responsibility for the execution was given authorities on some aspects of disaster such as lack of housing and break-up or to the Ministry of Public Works .This law management will be presented. Subse- displacement of families, were found to be established the duties and the respon- quently, the initial stages of the pilot study related to the continuation of psychological sibilities of the ‘Provincial Rescue and Aid in Bursa, partly employing the findings distress (Goenjian, 1993). For effective Committees’. The main emphasis is to from the Dinar study will be described. The disaster management it is very important make and keep the plans for provincial paper will focus on important dimensions to have plans for mitigation and to create a rescue and aid updated and to clearly of disaster management, the facilitating community awareness for the risks of delineate the personnel involved in such and hindering aspects of disaster manage- future disasters and to empower local plans. In 1983, in order to ensure the ment in Turkey and will provide a dis- communities and authorities by giving coordination between the central and cussion of the findings in relation to the information on how to mitigate future provincial administration an ‘Extraordin- sustainability of disaster management. disasters For the sustainability of disaster ary Status Co-ordination Council’ has been management plans it is essential to insti- developed which is established if the need Introduction tute community participation. In order to arises by the government. Disaster management is a multi-faceted create awareness of future risks and to The development of earthquake zonation process that entails various stages. These motivate preparedness it is fundamental to maps in Turkey started in 1944 and with stages are commonly conceptualised as the understand the attitudes, expectations, numerous revisions the most recent one disaster impact phase, relief and rehabili- political, economical and socio-cultural was developed in 1996. Similarly, construc- tation, reconstruction, mitigation and contexts of the communities living in risk tion specifications were revised several preparedness phases. Effective planning areas. (Habitat International Coalition, times and the most recent one was pub- and action for disaster reduction involves 1996; Bates et al, 1991 ; Karanci, Aksit & lished in 1997. various social units such as central and Sucuoðlu, 1996). As can be seen, although detailed res- local governmental agencies, NGOs, local This paper will focus briefly on the ponsibilities are given to the provincial and communities and international agencies. legislation concerning disasters in Turkey central governmental institutions, the non- The importance of strengthening the and will report findings related to some governmental organisations and the pri- capacity of local communities in disaster aspects of disaster management from the vate sector are not involved in the system. reduction has been repeatedly stressed 1995 Dinar earthquake. Subsequently, the Furthermore, measures on mitigation are (Dynes, 1993; World Conference on Natural preliminary stages of an ongoing project not included. Disaster Reduction, 1994). Therefore, it is aiming to strengthen community partici- crucial to understand the attitudes, expec- The October 1, 1995 pation in disaster management in Bursa, tations and resources of the local com- Dinar earthquake which is a metropolitan city located in the munity in order to develop plans that can The aim of this study was to examine the first degree seismic zone, but which has be integrated into the ongoing social life of attitudes and expectations of the survivors not yet experienced a recent earthquake the communities living in disaster prone of the Dinar 1995 earthquake, about will be presented. areas. different phases of disaster management. Natural disasters, like earthquakes have The Turkish Disaster Law and More specifically the aims were to examine extensive psycho-social impacts on the institutional framework the impact of the earthquake on social- affected populations (Durkin & Thiel, In Turkey, the first law concerning disasters economical dimensions, to explore the 1993). Survivors of natural disasters have was enacted in 1944 and solely focused on attitudes about the houses constructed

Summer 1998/99 35 after the earthquake by the state, beliefs in related to disaster management from the activities were poorly coordinated and that the possibility of hazard mitigation and two phases of the study will be presented the local administrators were inefficient who is regarded as responsible for such separately. because a. they were victims themselves action and future risk perceptions. and b. they were inexperienced in disaster Stage 1 Dinar city is located at the juncture of management. Adequate national and inter- This part of the study took place within the the Aegean, Central Anatolian and Medi- national aid (tents, food etc.) was available, six months following the Dinar earth- terranean regions in Turkey. The estimated however its distribution was unsystematic quake. The main objectives were the population before the earthquake was and aid was delivered for a very lengthy assessment of the mitigation and prepared- around 40,000. Agriculture and trading period (6 months). ness, relief, rehabilitation and recon- and small crafts were the dominant activ- Previously prepared disaster manage- struction phases of the disaster manage- ities. An earthquake of magnitude 5.9 ment plans could not be implemented. ‘The ment cycle in Dinar and to formulate the struck Dinar on October 1, 1995 at 17.57 plans just stayed in written documents kept weaknesses and the strengths of the p.m. The mainshock of the earthquake was in dusty shelves.’ Furthermore, the com- existing disaster management system. preceded with foreshocks for four days, the munity was not adequately informed about The data sources for this stage were in- largest one having a magnitude of 4.7. rescue and relief operations. depth and focus group interviews with These foreshocks initiated structural Thus, it can be suggested that the for- Dinar residents, experts and officials in damage in many buildings which were then mation of regional civil defense teams and Dinar and surrounding cities and in severely aggravated by the mainshock. professionalism and specialisation in relief Numerous aftershocks were recorded in the and rescue work is necessary. It also seems following days, which continued for more essential to establish the involvement of the than three months. The mainshock having Previously prepared local community. Aid should be distributed a duration of 20 seconds was immediately systematically and the community needs followed by a strong aftershock two hours disaster management to be informed regularly about the activ- later with a magnitude of 5.0. The Dinar plans could not be ities. earthquake caused a death toll of 90, and implemented. ‘The plans Temporary settlement more than 200 injuries. The economical just stayed in written The General Directorate of Disaster Affairs losses were estimated at US$250 million. conducted a survey with earthquake The total population affected by the documents kept in dusty victims just a few days after the quake. Four earthquake in the region is 100,000 and the shelves.’ Furthermore, the choices were given. Ninety-eight per cent number of residential units is about 24,000. community was not of the respondents chose ‘receiving rent The damage observed in the city is beyond adequately informed allowance’. All victims with heavy or the expectation when it is considered that moderate damaged houses (7166 families) the Dinar earthquake is not a severe one. about rescue and relief were provided with rent allowance which According to the damage survey conducted operations. was delivered for 12 months. However, this in the affected region after the earthquake, decision was afterwards criticised because: out of 24,000 residential units, 4340 (18%) • the survey was conducted when the were heavily damaged, 3712 (15%) were victims were still in shock moderately damaged, 6104 (25%) were Ankara, the capital of Turkey, observations • it led to the desertion of Dinar by its lightly damaged and the remaining 9844 during the field trip to Dinar and the residents and paralysed economic activ- (41%) were undamaged. Since 4340 units examination of written documents related ities were either collapsed or severely damaged, to the Dinar earthquake. • it created a substantial increase in rents a death toll of 90 might be considered as Mitigation and preparedness in neighboring provinces less than expected. The foreshocks in the Dinar had its first urban planning in 1971 • it forced the most needy segment and preceding four days of the main shock and subsequently two revisions were made some of the civil servants to stay in Dinar considerably reduced the death toll because on the first plan. The final plan before the in spite of receiving the rent allowance many residents had already left their 1995 earthquake was prepared in 1990. The and live in tents houses or the city before October 1 by fear fact that there had been three urban • it compelled children to separate from and expectation of a big quake. planning experiences since 1971 is an their families, friends and their schools. Building stock in the city mainly con- indication of movement towards rational The majority of community members sisted of one- and two-storey adobe, brick planning. However, the results of the 1995 and officials stated that prefabricated and stone masonry buildings, and 3– 6 storey earthquake showed that the enforcement of disaster housing situated in Dinar would reinforced concrete-framed buildings. the urban plan and the building codes were have been a better option. Thus, care should There are also 3-4 storey masonry build- evaded, monitoring and evaluation of these be given to settle the community in their ings that were originally constructed as enforcement activities were not carried out. own neighborhoods. single or two-storey buildings, with upper Our analysis revealed that a number of stories added by permission from the Reconstruction actors , such as the owner, the project municipal administration, which is strictly The preferences of the Dinar community engineer, the contractor and the controller, against the Turkish Seismic Design Code . and the local officials were mainly one-or the municipality, and the community two storey buildings without soft stories, members , share responsibility in this state Examination of the disaster the separation of shops and residences, and of affairs. management aspects of the the supervision of construction by honest Dinar Earthquake Rescue and relief and technically-expert engineers. It was Our study of the Dinar earthquake took The majority of officials and community also stressed that the final approval should place in two stages. The main findings members pointed out that rescue and relief be given by the state and not the muni-

36 Australian Journal of Emergency Management cipality. Another main point was the need to the houses or work places of the respon- the five factors were calculated by summing to educate engineers and skilled workers dents and individually administered the the scores on the items that had above .35 on earthquake resistant construction. questionnaires as structured interviews loadings on each factor and dividing them What is constructed by the State with a few open ended questions and by the number of factors. An analysis of The new settlement plan for Dinar sug- recorded the replies themselves. The variance was conducted examining gender gested three- and four-storey buildings and administration of each questionnaire took by type of current house (disaster; no also contained buildings with shops in the about approximately 45 minutes. Data was damage; lightly damaged; moderately basement. As a result of damage surveys analysed by using the SPSS program. damages) by the five satisfaction factors as the repeated measure. The results yielded 1480 new units were constructed and 1300 Attitudes and evaluations related only a significant interaction effect for type units were strengthened. The new resi- to housing dential units were distributed to the right of house by satisfaction factors (F=3.52, The questionnaire contained 19 items holders with long term loans in October p<0001). tapping views on current houses, neigh- 1996 (one year after the earthquake) . As shown in Table 1, the most pro- borhoods, relationship with neighbors and As can be seen, the preferences of the nounced differences on satisfaction seems services provided by the municipality and community on one- or two-storey houses to be between those living in disaster the availability of social institutions. Each was not taken into account, with the new houses and those living in moderately item was rated on a 4-point Likert type houses being three- or four-storey build- damaged houses. For the house and the scale by the respondents (1= Completely ings with shops in the basements. The social services satisfaction, those living in attitudes of the right holders towards the the disaster houses are significantly more newly-constructed disaster housing were satisfied than those living in moderately assessed in the second stage of the study. The (reconstruction) damaged and repaired houses. For those living in the moderately-damaged houses, Stage 2 preferences of the Dinar although there is governmental aid to This part of the study involved the admin- community and the local strengthen their houses, the owners need istration of an extensive questionnaire in officials were mainly one- to pay for the non-structural repairs and order to examine attitudes related to or two storey buildings at the time of the study these houses were different aspects of disaster management not strengthened. Thus, this state of affairs and some psychological variables like dis- without soft stories, the might have caused the relatively negative tress, coping and social support. Only some separation of shops and evaluations of this sample. The disaster of the findings related to disaster manage- residences, and the super- houses were distributed to their owners ment will be presented here. vision of construction by one year after the earthquake, and the The questionnaires were administered to occupants were very recently settled in 315 adult residents [165 (52.4%) females honest and technically- their houses. Thus, they were quite satisfied and 150 (47.6%) males] of Dinar. The expert engineers. with the speed of reconstruction and female sample was selected from the seemed to be satisfied with their houses twenty-six neighborhoods in Dinar on the and the social services. However, since the basis of the type of current housing (disas- disaster houses are distributed randomly ter housing, built after the earthquake; disagree; 4= Completely Agree). The factor to the right holders, they had no choice in houses that had moderate, light and no analysis of the responses (varimax ortho- determining their neighbors. This lack of damage from the 1995 earthquake) and gonal rotation) yielded five factors explain- control over choosing neighbors seems to some of the female but the majority of the ing 50.2% of the total variance. These be reflected in their lower satisfaction with male sample was selected on the basis of factors were labeled as ‘satisfaction with their neighbors compared to the other status at work (self-employed; State the current house’, ‘satisfaction with the groups, especially to the no damage group. employee and wage workers). 31.7% of the relationships with neighbors’, ‘satisfaction However, considering the fact that four is respondents were living in government- with the neighborhood’, ‘satisfaction with the maximum satisfaction score, their built disaster houses, 22.5% in houses that the currently inhabited building’ and mean satisfaction rating of three still had no damage from the 1995 earthquake, finally ‘satisfaction with social services’. reflects quite a favorable attitude towards 27% in lightly damaged, and 15.9% in Mean factor scores for each respondent for their neighbors. moderately damaged and repaired houses. The mean age of the respondents was 34.3 (sd =11.48) and the mean number of years Mean satisfaction scores of the sample living in different types of houses of education was 8.3 (sd = 3.73). The mean Disaster No Lightly Moderately F household size was 4 persons. 90% of the housing damage damaged damaged respondents stated that they were in Dinar during the 1995 earthquake. 70.8% of the House Satisfaction 1, 2 3.20 a 3.10 a 2.98 a 2.60 b 10.19 *** sample were born in Dinar and 72.4% were Neighbor Satisfaction 3.09 a 3.42 b 3.28 a b 3.27 a b 5.51 ** married. Neighborhood Satisfaction 2.50 2.57 2.48 2.47 0.31 NS The questionnaires were administered Building Satisfaction 2.85 2.70 2.97 2.62 0.34 NS by 11 trained undergraduate and graduate Social Services Satisfaction 2.67 a 2.50 a b 2.48 a b 2.24 b 3.15 * students from the Departments of Psy- * p< .05; ** p < . 001; *** p < .0001, N.S p > .05. chology and Sociology of the Middle East 1 Means with different subscripts are significantly different from each other. Technical University, Ankara, Turkey in 2 The range for the scale scores is 1–4, higher scores reflecting more satisfaction. February, 1997, sixteen months after the Table 1: Presents the mean satisfaction scores on the five factors of the sample living in four different types of earthquake. The interviewers went either houses.

Summer 1998/99 37 Beliefs on mitigation Mean factor scores of earthquake cognitions and hazard perceptions for the subjects living in four different types of houses 1 For the planning of disaster reduction measures it is important to explore the Disaster No Light Moderate F beliefs of the community on the possibility housing damage damage damage of mitigation and their perceptions of Doubt about the safety of the house 2.23 a 2.29 a 2.75 b 3.32 c 34.36 * future risk. In order to examine these Belief in mitigation 2.59 2.48 2.41 2.23 2.46 NS dimensions six questions related to miti- Perception of risk 3.13 2.29 2.75 3.32 0.41 NS gation, future earthquake expectations and * p< .001; N.S : p> .05 evaluations of the current house on its 1 Means with different subscripts are significantly different from each other. resistance to future earthquakes were used. Table 2: Mean factor scores on the three earthquake cognition factors for the four types of houses. All of these questions were rated on four point Likert type scales. The responses to women to have access to more information agencies. Thus, for future action plans on these questions were factor analysed in in regards to what is being done and what disaster reduction it seems important to order to reduce them into appropriate can possibly be done, and thereby may shift this externalised and centralised dimensions. The varimax orthogonal increase their beliefs in the possibility of responsibility locus to internal and local rotation yielded three factors explaining doing something for disaster reduction. sources. This finding implies that for community 74.2 % of the total variance. The factors Conclusions and suggestions were labeled as ‘doubt about the resistance The evaluations of the state-built disaster of the house’, ‘belief in mitigation’, and houses were very positive. The inhabitants ‘perceived risk’. Mean factor scores were seemed to be satisfied with the houses, the computed for the three factors. A Multi- The evaluations of the social services and had trust in the seismic variate Analysis of variance using gender state-built disaster houses safety of their houses. This is a very by type of present house (Disaster; No were very positive. The favorable picture and seems to reflect the damage; Light Damage; Moderate Dam- appropriateness of the decisions about age) by the three earthquake-related inhabitants seemed to be where and how these houses were built. The cognitive factors was conducted. This satisfied with the houses, fact that the construction was completed analysis showed that the type of house the social services and had within one year may have also contributed (Wilks =.94, p<.03) and gender (Wilks= trust in the seismic safety to these favorable attitudes. However, the .95 p<.002) effects were significant. of their houses. This is a same picture was not true for the occu- As shown in Table 2, the only significant very favorable picture and pants of the moderately damaged houses. difference was about the evaluation of the Sixteen months after the earthquake the safety of the houses. There was a systematic seems to reflect the strengthening process was still not com- increase in doubt as we moved from the appropriateness of the pleted and the inhabitants anyway did not disaster housing and houses with no decisions about where and seem to trust the safety of the strengthened damage from the 1995 earthquake to how these houses were buildings. Therefore, it may be necessary houses which suffered light damage. The built. to hold workshops using participatory inhabitants of the moderately damaged adult learning principles, in order to houses were least confident about the understand the reasons for their distrust safety of their houses. and dissatisfaction and modify their These results point out that the evalu- beliefs on the strengthening process. ation of the disaster housing is quite participation it may be important to built Although the respondents perceived favorable and may reflect trust in state networks that can also reach housewives. risks for future earthquakes and believed supervised construction practices. For the The present results seems to point out in the possibility of mitigation, very few moderately damaged houses the decision that the Dinar community is perceiving the engaged in preparatory activities. Further- was repairing and strengthening the risks of a future earthquake and that they more, they believed that taking measures buildings. However, this doesn’t seem to be believe to some extent in mitigation. How- for mitigation is the responsibility of agents a satisfactory solution for the inhabitants. ever, to the question ‘have you done some- outside themselves. Thus, it seems impor- Thus, it may be valuable to inform them of thing as a preparation for a future earth- tant to investigate ways of initiating and the strengthening procedure and give quake?’ only 14% replied affirmatively. maintaining community participation. details on how strengthening will improve Thus, it seems that although the social base Women tended to believe less in the the resistance of their houses. is cognitively ready for mitigation they have possibility of mitigation. Therefore, in the When the earthquake related cognitions not turned this into action. The answers to plans for community participation it seems were examined according to gender, it was the question on assigning responsibility for important to give special emphasis to seen that the only significant difference was mitigation (‘Who should take actions for integrating women. on beliefs in mitigation. Women tended to mitigation?’) seems to solve this puzzling believe less in mitigation (M=2.33; finding. The respondents believed that Project to strengthen community s.d=.81) as compared to men (M=2.62; mitigation measures should be taken by the participation in a province not s.d=.73; F= 10.76; p<.001). Further analy- state (41%), the municipality (38%), the recently struck by an earthquake: sis revealed that education is positively major (15%), Civil Defense Units (6%). Bursa as a metropolitan city located related to beliefs in mitigation for both Only 26% stated that it is their own duty. in the first-degree seismic zone females and males. However, for females Thus, although they believed in mitigation, Bursa has been chosen as a pilot city to being employed was also related to beliefs they placed the responsibility for miti- identify existing and prospective local in mitigation. Employment may enable gation on external, mostly governmental institutions and networks and strengthen

38 Australian Journal of Emergency Management or empower them so that local people will Dinar city was not prepared for a disaster. professions’, in R.D.Allen (ed.), Handbook be able to better prepare for a future Existing zoning and housing regulations of post-disaster interventions, Special Issue, disaster when it strikes or have greater were not enforced by the municipality. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, welfare if disaster does not strike. Building construction was carried out to 8(5), pp. 379-404. Bursa is one of the seven metropolitan maximise urban rent. But this was not Dynes R.R. 1993, ‘Disaster reduction: The centers with a population of 500,000 and combined with minimising losses in a importance of adequate assumptions over. These metropolitan centers have main disaster such as an earthquake. As we have about social organisation’, Sociological municipalities consisting of city portions shown in the previous sections households Spectrum, 18, pp. 175–192. of more than one district, each of which has and the community are not still organised Goenjian A. 1993, ‘A mental health relief its own municipality (SIS, 1993). Bursa for a better mitigation and preparedness program in Armenia after the 1988 earth- metropolitan center with a population of for earthquakes. quake’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 163, more than one million has three district We are hoping that Bursa will be more pp. 230–239. municipalities. All of these three muni- prepared for a disaster through the local Habitat International Coalition 1996, Still cipalities, but especially two, have received organisations that will involve men and Waiting, House rights violations in a land a massive influx of migration. According to women as individuals and households as of plenty: The Kobe earthquake and beyond, recent calculations in the period between groups into community networks. We have Primevera, Amsterdam. 1980–85 Bursa received 15,600 migrants already noted that Local Agenda 21 has Karanci N.A. and Rustemli A. 1995, ‘Psy- every year. In 1985–90, yearly migration already been set up in Bursa. A pilot Local chological consequences of the 1992 Erzin- inflow increased to 25,000. Among seven Consultation Center in one of the neigh- can (Turkey) earthquake’, Disasters, 19(1), metropolitan centers in Turkey, Istanbul, borhoods within the boundaries of Nilüfer pp. 8–18. Bursa and Gaziantep are the only three district municipality of Bursa Metropolitan Karanci N.A., Aksit B. and Sucuoðlu H. cities where yearly migration rate has Municipality has already been established. 1996, The psycho-social aspects of the increased from one period to the next. However they admitted that they do not disaster management system in Dinar, A In 1990, the city population of main or know how to involve local people into such United Nations Development Program metropolitan Bursa was 834,576. However, networks. Community participation in Mission Report, UNDP Ankara Office. the urban population in Bursa province as these new forms are not readily forth- Rubonis A.V. and Bickman L. 1991, ‘Psy- a whole was 1,157,805. Over the last 70 coming. Old forms of community partici- chological impairment in the wake of years a complete reversal has taken place. pation should be unearthed and new forms disaster: the disaster-psychopathology In 1927, 28.6% of population in Bursa should be devised and implemented. Some relationship’, Psychological Bulletin, 109, pp. Province was living in city centers in the NGOs such as Chamber of Civil Engineers, 384–399. province, while 71.4% was living in the Chamber of Commerce and Industry, SIS (State Institute of Statistics) 1993, villages. In 1990, 72.2% of population was Rotary Club and so on needs to be involved. 1990 Census Population: Social and Eco- living in the cities, while the percentage The problem is to get it going. One of the nomic Characteristics of Population, State living in the villages was only 27.8%. These ways to start it rolling will be to have a large Institute of Statistics Publications, Ankara. figures indicate mass migration from the meeting with the already existing Urban World Conference on Natural Disaster villages of the province as well as from the Council by inclusion of new partners or Reduction 1995, Yokohama Strategy and villages and cities of other provinces in stake holders. If smaller groups are estab- plan of action for a safer world, IDNDR/95/ Turkey, including immigrants from South- lished in such a large meeting it will be 6, Switzerland. Eastern European (Balkan) countries, Such possible to carry out training workshops Severn R.T. 1995, ‘Disaster preparedness as Bulgaria. in community participation. These work- in Turkey and recent earthquakes in Bursa is in first degree earthquake zone shops and committee organisations should Erzincan’, in Key D. (ed.), Structures to and last major earthquake took place in be carried from metropolitan municipality Withstand Disasters, Institution of Civil 1855. Close to one and a half century level to district municipality levels. Then Engineers, Telford, London. elapsed and according to earthquake these should be repeated in neighborhoods. engineers and geologists it is very likely that Prof. A. Nuray Karanci, is a clinical psychologist, Note a major earthquake will take place in the acting as the chairperson of the Psychology This research was supported by a grant Department of the Middle East Technical University, region. Ankara, Turkey. Her main research interests are Our aim is to see how local organisations from the Middle East Technical University Applied Research Fund and the UNDP. We psycho-social aspects and distress reactions can be set up so that the local populations following natural disasters and strengthening are also grateful for the assistance of the will be ready for such a disaster before it community participation in disaster management. Turkish General Directorate of Disaster She is also conducting research in clinical psy- strikes. Our interviews in Bursa have shown Affairs. chology, in areas such as schizophrenia and family that it is possible to bring together central burden, psychiatric illness and attributions for illness government agencies, main or References and smoking behaviour. metropolitan municipality and district Bates F.L., Dynes R.R. and Quarantelli E.L. Prof. Bahattin Aksit is a sociologist, acting as the municipalities and Non Governmental 1991, ‘The importance of the social sciences Dean of the Graduate School of Social Sciences of the Middle East Technical University. His main organisations to establish community to the International Decade for Natural research interests are migration, modernity and networks in the neighborhoods. We have Disaster reduction’, Disasters, 15(3), pp. Islam. He has been conducting research on the social observed that this local need has already 288–289. aspects of disasters and building networks for some beginnings in the establishment of Baum A., Fleming R. and Davidson L.M. community participation. Local Agenda 21 in Bursa, which is a 1983, ‘Natural disaster and technological global initiative set up in 1994 during the catastrophe’, Environment and Behavior, Rio Summit Meeting of United Nations. It 15, pp. 333–354. R fereed is a global initiative to organise local Durkin M.E. and Thiel C.C. 1993, ‘Earth- communities. quakes: a primer for the mental health

Summer 1998/99 39