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Afghanistan As a German Bridgehead

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Afghanistan As a German Bridgehead Afghanistan in World War I (2): “England must lose India” – Afghanistan as a German bridgehead Author : Thomas Ruttig Published: 19 August 2015 Downloaded: 6 September 2018 Download URL: https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/afghanistan-in-world-war-i-2-england-must-lose-india-afghanistan-as-a-german- bridgehead/?format=pdf 100 years ago and a good year after the outbreak of World War I, a German political- military mission crossed the border into Afghanistan on the night of 19 to the 20 August 1915. Oskar Ritter von Niedermayer and Werner Otto von Hentig, a Bavarian military officer and a Prussian diplomat, both with Persian experience, led the mission. It was tasked by the German Kaiser to establish bilateral diplomatic relations and persuade Afghanistan’s then ruler Amir Habibullah to lend his support to the Germans, and their ally - Ottoman Turkey - to undermine British rule over India. In this second part of a loose series under the title “Afghanistan in World War I” (part 1, “Afghans in the Kaiser’s jihad”, can be read here), AAN’s senior analyst Thomas Ruttig looks at Germany’s Orient policy. He also decribes the political ramifications of the expedition from Berlin across Turkey and the Persian desert to Herat, dodging British and Russian troop cordons and pushing open the door for the first non-British government to establish 1 / 18 direct diplomatic relations with thereto isolated Afghanistan. We passed the place that was marked as the border of Afghanistan around ten o’clock in the night. It was the night of the 19 to 20 August [1915]. Finally, at one in the morning, we reached some water holes, called kelend ... We had not encountered such nasty slurry on our whole track: a bitter, salty brine, tasting and smelling of camel dung and all kind of other products of decay; because of the night, we were unable to recognise its colour, but we could guess it ... The thermometer, in the hottest hours [of the day], showed 52 centigrade in the shade. What sounds like a scene from a Western movie, somewhere in Mexico is, in fact, the rendering of Oskar Ritter von Niedermayer (1885-1948), a German military officer. A year after the outbreak of World War I, he had just crossed the Iranian desert leading a group of German, Turkish, Indian, and Pashtun fellow travellers with Arab and Persian support staff, sneaking through the lines of British-Indian and Russian forces who wanted desperately to prevent them to reach their destination, Afghanistan. It was an official mission. Niedermayer and his co- leader, the Kaiserliche Legationssekretär (Imperial Legation Secretary) Werner Otto von Hentig (1886-1984), a German diplomat, had been tasked by the German Kaiser to establish official contacts with the ruler of Afghanistan and, hopefully, win him over as a war ally. Therefore, this border crossing was a historic moment. With the arrival of the group – later known as the Niedermayer-Hentig expedition – on Afghan soil, the country’s decades-long isolation from the outside world was broken. It had been imposed on Afghanistan as a result of the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-80) that had been fought on the premise that Britain needed to protect the western access to its Indian crown colony from a Russian threat. After that war, Afghanistan had formally remained an independent country but had to accept, in the 1879 Treaty of Gandamak, that it would, in future, pursue foreign relations only through, and with, the permission of British Viceroy of India. The Kaiser’s jihad “If we shall bleed to death, England must at least lose India” – the German Kaiser Wilhelm II wrote this sentence as a comment on a cable sent by his ambassador to Russia on 30 July 1914, two days after the outbreak of World War I, discussing the German strategy for ‘the East.’ The Kaiser added that German diplomats and agents “have to incite the entire Islamic world to a violent uprising against this odious, deceitful and unscrupulous nation of shopkeepers”; his derogative for Britain. The German-inspired jihad was legitimised by the Ottoman Sultan of Turkey, Mehmet V. Reshad, then still the Caliph of the worldwide Muslim umma (a title he would lose after the defeat in the war), when he issued a fatwa on 11 November that year declaring jihad on the Entente powers. While the Ottoman Empire was ogling a territorial expansion in the Caucasus, Persia and Central Asia, Germany wanted to threaten, not only British, but also Russian colonies with their large Muslim populations – or, at least, undermine the fighting power of both its adversaries; particularly Britain and Russia were heavily reliant on Muslim troops. India had 2 / 18 66 million Muslims in 1911 while Russia had 20 million immediately before WWI, half of them in Central Asia. Had the Germans succeeded, General (now Lord) David Richards, a former ISAF commander, wrote in his foreword to Jules Stewart’s The Kaiser's Mission to Kabul (2014; the only English- language book available on the Niedermayer-Hentig expedition), "Britain would have to divert more than 135,000 men from other theatres of war [the main European WWI battlefields] to defend the subcontinent successfully." Various German institutions implemented the Kaiser’s idea. In November 1914, the army general staff, together with the Auswärtiges Amt, the foreign office, established the "Nachrichtenstelle für den Orient" (NfO) (the Intelligence Office for the East). It was run by the archaeologist and ‘Orient expert’ Max Freiherr (Baron) von Oppenheim, son of a rich banker and a lesser known German ’Lawrence of Arabia’ who, before the war, had excavated the culture of Tell Halaf in what now is north-eastern Syria. Based in Berlin, the NfO produced analyses and spread propaganda at the frontlines and among prisoners of war. Among its targets were the PoWs of Muslim background. In a PoW camp south of Berlin (see my earlier dispatch, here), it recruited a number of former British-Indian soldiers, mainly Afridi Pashtuns, most of whom had not been captured, but had switched sides on the frontlines in western Europe, eager to fight the jihad against their colonial masters. They were to accompany Hentig, the foreign office’s man and a Prussian, and Niedermayer, a Bavarian cavalry officer, to Afghanistan, both in their late twenties. Enver Pasha’s dream The idea of an expedition to Afghanistan, however, was not of German origin. It actually came from Enver Pasha, the Turkish minister of war and one of the triumvirate of the Young Turks who had taken power in a coup in 1913 and rendered the Caliph mainly a religious fig-leaf. Enver already had sent diplomatic envoys to Kabul to seek Afghan backing for the Central Powers. (1) One was the member of parliament of Smyrna (Izmir), Obeidullah Effendi, who carried a honorific sword for the Amir. Although it seems that none of them got through, Enver told the Germans that the Afghan Amir, Habibullah, had indicated that he was ready to join their cause. The message seemed to have come from Turkish military officers and engineers working in Kabul as instructors for the Afghan army and at the Habibia college (see a related AAN dispatch here) founded in 1903. Their head was Khairy Bey, who had come to Kabul “in the last year before the outbreak of war, in order to train the Afghan army,” as Emil Rybitschka, an Austrian PoW, who had fled to Afghanistan and was already in Kabul when the Hentig-Niedermayer expedition arrived, writes in his memoirs, Im gottgegebenen Afghanistan (In God-Given Afghanistan). Khairy Bay, as a front comrade, was a close confidant of Enver Pasha. In Kabul, he had established an army training battalion, as well as a model squadron and a model artillery battery. (2) In December 1914, Enver even claimed that Habibullah had sent a telegram asking whether he was should strike against Russia or India. Another Turkish officer, Mahmud Sami, 3 / 18 who had come to Afghanistan on his own (he had to flee his country after he killed a comrade in his garrison during a brawl), had risen to become the mentor of the Afghan crown prince Enayatullah. On 10 August 1914, Enver proposed to Germany to attach German military officers to a Turkish- led expedition to Kabul through Persia. The Germans were also to pay for the project. Habibullah’s alleged position had been confirmed to the Germans independently at the time by the Swedish pro-German Central Asia explorer Sven Hedin (3) who had been received by the Kaiser for several times (he had actually never travelled to Afghanistan, though). Germany’s view of Afghanistan In the same month the NfO was established, in November 1914, von Oppenheim submitted to the Kaiser his famous “Memorandum with Regard to Revolutionising the Islamic Realms of our Enemies” (Denkschrift betreffend die Revolutionierung der islamischen Gebiete unserer Feinde). (4) The document starts with the following statement: The main pre-requisite for revolutionising the Islamic realms of our enemies is an active collaboration of the Turks under the banner of the Sultan-Caliph … It can be concluded that the planned Turkish collaboration and the required organisation of the same will develop adequately without our contribution. We must provide Turkey with manpower, money and material and, here, sufficient results can be achieved only with large means. Half measures would be meaningless. Action against Egypt and India is most important; perhaps, it will be of decisive importance. A successful land war of Turkey against Russia and the Caucasus is of secondary importance. (5) After giving assessments of the internal situation of Egypt and Russian Central Asia and later India, Morocco and other French colonies in North Africa, Oppenheim turned his focus on Persia and Afghanistan: The Persian population is, all in all, and particularly in the cities, effete and, in the recent years, has been troubled by internal unrest.
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