NORTIt CAROllN~

I- N·D·'·~·N·5

NORTH CAROLINA INDIANS

M. C. Co.ai.sion of Indian Affaira N. C. Department of Administration 227 East Edenton Street P. O. Box 27228 Raleigh, 27611

Re vis e d 1983 In response to the many requests for information received from interest ed persons from across the stat e , the North Carolina Commission of Indian Affairs has compiled this booklet as a general overview of North Carolina Indians . Whi l e t his is not i ntended to be a complete history of the North Carolina Native Americans , it i s a good starting point for those wishing to know more about the Indian population, both the past and present . In an attempt to pro­ vide specific information , the Commission of Indian Affair s has also included a l ist of suggested readings and the addresses of Indian or ganizations within the s tate which may also be sources of additional information.

I llustrations included in this bookle t are reproductions of drawings by

John White which were first printed in Thomas He ~ iot's A briefe and true report of the new found land of Virginia, published in 1590. NORTH CAROLINA INDIANS BEFORE EUROPEAN CONTACT

At the time of European contact, there existed in North Ca rolina a cultura l pattern typical of all tribes in the stat e despite regional or triba l variations. The native people of the state lived in villages, made potte ry and depended on an economy based on agriculture , hunting and food gat heri ng . This cultur al pattern evolved from a prehistoric sequence lasting 10,000 or more years beginning with the Paleoindians ahout 10,000 B. C.

Paleoindians. 10, 000 - B,OOO B.C.

The beginning of the Paleo indian period in North Carolina dates t o about 10,000 B. C. during the late Pleistocene geol ogi cal period and the last advance of the ice age. The Paleoindians l ived in small groups or bands and their economy was based primarily on hunting, a lthough wild plant foods were also gathe r ed. Because of their dependence upon migratory herd animals , the Paleoindians were nomadic and, for the most part, lived in temporary shelters, although some areas which were particular ly rich in na tura l resources were used as base camps and returned to i n s uccessive years. While other t ool s have been found at these sit es , the characteristic artifact of the Paleoindians i s the fluted point, a large lanceolate- grooved point which was att ached t o a spear.

Archaic . 8 . 000 - 1 . 000 B. C.

The melting of the glaciers at the end of the Pleis t ocene and the warming climatic trend r esulted in a shift in food resources. Hunting remained an important economic activity, but wild plant foods (hickory nuts, chestnut s , berries , roots, and bark) and shellfish (clams) were gathered as a dietary supplement. Grinding and polishing as stone-working t echniques were added to the technological repertoire, indicating a shift to a forest environment, as seen in t ools like the axe and adze. Mortars and pestles for grinding food plants, and soapstone pots also were ground stone i~novations of this period . Hunting e fficiency was also increased by the development of advanced hunting technology such as the atlatl, spear thrower.

1 Woodland . 1 . 000 B.C. - A.D. 700

The Woodland period marked the transition from a hunting and gathering economy to an agricultural life style. It was characterized by the appearance of domesticated plants (corn. beans. squash, and tobacco), fabric-impressed pottery , villages located in the bottomlands of rivers and streams, dome ­ shaped permanent houses made of pole framework covered with bark or skins, the bow and arrow and small stemmed or triangular points (so-called "bird points"), tapered axes or celts, and pipes .

Mississippian. A.D. 500 - 1 . 600

At the time of the arrival of the Europeans, the cultural tradition of much of the Southeast was the Mississippian pattern. Basically, the Missis­ sippian was characterized by sedentary agriculture, fortified towns and some ­ times cities, elaborate ceremonial centers, and a complex socia-political and religious structure, sometimes including an elaborate social hierarchy or c l ass system. In North Carolina, however, the majority of the late prehis t ory or early historic population maintained the economy and life style of the earlier Woodland period .

2 NORTH CAROLINA AND THE SOUTHEAST

The pre- contact tribes of North Carolina fit into this Southeastern cultural patter n , with minor regional and tribal variations, some of which may be due to geographical factors . Geographically, North Carolina may be divided into four regions : the tidewater region, the coastal plain , the piedmont, and the mountains. At the time of the first European contac ts, North Carolina wa s inhabited by a number of tribes (fig . 1) sharing some cultural traits but also distin­ quished by regional and linquistic variations. Three major language families were represented in North Caroli na: Iroquoian, Siouan, and Algonquian . The Iroquoian tribes - the , Tuscarora, , , and Neuse River* - were related linquistically and culturally to the tribes to the north . The Cherokee were located on the weste rn boundaries of the state, in the moun ­ tains, and the Tuscarora , Meherrin, Coree, and Neuse River were on the coastal plains. The Siouan tribes were located primarily in the piedmont area or central portion of the state: the Cape Fear , Catawba , , Eno, Keyauwee , , Saponi, Shakori, Sissipahaw , Sugaree, Tutelo, , Wateree, Waxhaw , and Woccon. The Algonquian speakers represented the southernmost extension of predominantly Northeastern Woodlands tribes. Located entirely in the tidewater area of the state were the Bear River, Chowan, Hatteras, , Moratok, , , and Weapomeoc. Since most historical accounts of travelers and settlers dealt with either the Cherokee or the Algonquian, little is known about the Siouan peoples and their pre-contact cultures. The descriptions which follow will deal with the Cherokee as representative of the Iroquoian, with the Catawba as representative of the Siouan- speakers and the piedmont, and the coastal Algonquian.

Coastal Algonguian

At the time of the first cont act of Europeans wi th the Indians , the Algonquian tribes occupied the tidewater areas of the Atlantic Coast from Canada as far south as the Neuse River in North Carolina. In 1584, the estimated 7, 000 Algonquians living in North Carolina were relative newcomers to the Southeast , having come in a series of migrations . To Some extent, they

* - May have been Iroquian or Algonquian

3 retained cultural elements from- their Northeastern Algonquian traditions, but there was also a great deal of cultural borrowing from their southern neighbors as they adapted to the geographical and climatic conditions of the area. They were more water-oriented and placed more emphasis upon hunting, fishing, and gathering than did mos t of their neighbors.

Catawba

The Catawba was one of the Siouan- speaking tribes of the piedmont area of the Carolinas at the time of the first European contacts. Little is known of their culture and life style at that time, since contacts were few and sporadic, and there was little documentation of their culture . What is known is based largely on the writings of , who explored the piedmont territory and visited the Catawba in 1701. Not only is little known about their culture, there is also some confus i on as to exactly who the Catawba were. The Catawba Nation was actually a military alliance of several Siouan tribes and remnants of tribes or bands decimated by war and disease who joined the Catawba. In the historical records, they have been known by serveral different names: The Spanish referred to them as the Issa, the Ysa, or the Usi ; while the 17th century Virginians called them the Usheree or Ushery. It was after the War that they became known as the Catawba, which means "cut off ," apparently referring to their being cut off from other Siouan tribes. Their name for themselves was I Ye Ye, "people," or Nieye , "real people." At the time of contact . there were approximately 6,000 Catawbas , equal in size the the Tuscaroras . The only tribe larger than these two groups was the Cherokee.

Cherokees

At the time of their first contacts with Europeans, in the mid- 16th century , the Cherokee lived in the isolated hills and valleys of the highest portions of the Southern Appalachians . Related linquistically to the Iroquois to the north, it is believed by some scholars that successive groups of were driven southwards in pre-Columbian times until they settled in the Southern Appalachians.

4 By the beginning of the , the Cherokee t erri t ory had ex­ panded to include Allegheny County in southwest ern Virginia, western Nort h Carolina , northwestern , eastern Tennessee and northern and Al abama . An area abundant in natural resources provided over 800 species of plants used for food, medicines, and crafts. A wide variety of trees in the dense forests was available for houses (framework and coverings) , for fuel , weaving fibe rs , t wine , and medicinal barks , while plentiful animals provided food , clothing, shelter, and medicine.

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5 NORTH CAROLINA INDIANS AFTER EUROPEAN CONTACT

1500 - 1600: Early Encounters

For centuries before European contact, the native peoples of North Carolina lived in harmony with the natural environment , taking no more from the land than they needed to survive. Hunting for sport was unknown and the individual ownership of land was completely alien to them. Fishing, fowling, and farming were relied upon to provide food for their tribal groups. In 1524, Giovanni da Verrazzano, an Italian navigator sailing under the flag of France, became the first European explorer to visit the Indians of coastal North Carolina . In his report to the French king, Verrazzano noted the Indians' physical appearance - average height, russet skin, and black eyes - and also their cheerful disposition, scanty clothes and subsistence on fishing and fowling. The next Europeans to visit the Indians of North Carolina were the Spanish. Hernando de Sote visited Indians in western North Carolina when he led an army from northern Florida on a journey of exploration in 1540. Twenty- six years l ater Juan Pedro l ed a second Spanish expedition from the lower coast of South Carolina to the North Carolina piedmont . Indians of the Virginia and North Carolina coasts and tidewater areas were hosts to the first English- speaking explorers. Queen Elizabeth I commis­ sioned Sir Walter Raleigh to discover and colonize lands, "not actually possessed of any Christian prince, nor inhabited by Christian peopl e. 11 In 1584, Raleigh ' s first expedition spent two months exploring the Pamlico Sound region. The explorers were impressed by the friendliness of the Indians and exchanged metal goods for furs. The following year an attempt by the English to establish a settlement on failed and the members returned to England . A second English COlony was established on Roanoke Island in 1587 with John White as governor. A few months after the establishment of the colony, Governor White returned to England for supplies promising to return within the year. The threat of the Spanish Armada, however, prevented him from leaving England, and three years passed before there was any further contact with the colony. The relief ship which final l y reached the colony's location in 1590

6 found the settlement totally deserted; the only clue left behind was the word CROATOAN carved on a tree. The fate of this "Lost Colony" has never been solved, although it has been suggested that the colonists joined one of the friendly coastal Indian tribes.

1600 - 1800: Settlement and Conflict

The English did not try again to establish settlements along the North Carolina coast, and 60 years passed before white settlers from Virginia moved into the Albemarle region. After 1650, a steady stream of white settlers moved into North Carolina along the sounds and rivers. At the same time, traders from Virginia were engaged in a profitable business with several North Carolina Indian tribes. Indian trade rights became of such importance, in fact, that the Carolina colonies and Virginia nearly came to open warfare over them. At this time, the coastal plains Indians of North Carolina numbered approximately 35,000 or about 30 tribes geographically separated by linquistic groups. For these Indian tribes, early contact with white men often was followed by early extinction. Among the causes were disease, slavery, and warfare. By 1710, the coastal Indian population had dwindled to no more than 5,000. As white settlements advanced, the Indians soon realized that the European concept of land was not sharing but total possession. With the in­ creasing loss of their land and subsequent loss of their means of livelihood, the Indians realized too late that the settlers they had once welcomed and assisted had become their greatest enemy. Another source of friction was slavery. Using Indians as slaves had begun as early as 1524, when crewmen on Verrazzano's expedition seized an Indian child to take back to the French court as a slave. During the 16th and 17th centuries, English and Spanish vessels regularly visited the Carolina coast to obtain Indians to sell as slaves in the West Indies. For a while, a brisk trade in Indian slaves was carried on with Pennsylvania and , but in 1705, fearing an uprising of their own Indians, Pennsylvania officials banned the importation of Indian slaves from Carolina. Yet another source of friction was trading activities. More than one tribe complained of the threatening and immoral conduct of white traders and

7 their fraudulent transactions. The traders instigated intertribal wars for the purpose of acquiring slaves . They beat the Indians and seized their property for debts incurred by other Indians . Unfortunately the North Carolina colonial government had little or no control over these matters. Land hungry settlers paid little attention to government treaties that defined and agreed to respect tribal territories. The matters of trade and slavery were even less subject to control. As frustration and lack of understanding on both sides escalated, bloodshed became inevitable . Early clashes between Indians and white settlers in North Carolina occurred in the Albemarle region but served only to further reduce tribal populations . Then came the in 1711 which marked the last significant effort of the east ern Indians to halt the white tidal wave that was sweeping them off the land. Faced with the powerful onslaught of the Tuscarora and unable to raise and mount an effective defense, North Carolina sent appeals to the governments of Virginia and South Carolina for help. For two years the Tuscarora fought the many military expeditions sent against them, but in 1713 they suffered a major defeat which broke the ir power forever. Most of those Tuscarora escaped and left the state to join the Five Nations of the Iroquois in New York. A few, however, continued to wage guerilla warfare against settlers along the coast until 1715 when a peace treaty was signed and North Carolina established a reservation for them in Hyde County . By the mid-18th century, European settlement had spread across the central piedmont . Small tribes , mostly Siouan, fled before the massive invasion. Most j oined their kinsmen in eastern and southern North Carolina, southern Virginia or South Carolina. These last survivors of the once great Indian population of eastern North Carolina soon realized that their only chance to escape complete annihilation was to move onto land undesirable to whites and to avoid direct confrontation . It is from these last surviving groups that the present-day state-recognized tribes of North Carolina - the , t Waccamaw-Siouan, and Haliwa-Saponi - trace their ancestry. By the l760s white settlement had reached the mountain foothills of North Carolina, domain of the Che rokee.

8 From the mid-17th century on, the Cherokee carried on considerable trade with white traders from Virginia and Sou th Carolina. In 1713 more than 200 Cherokee joined the South Carolina militia to fight their traditional enemies, the Tuscarora. Relations with whites were generally good until 1759-60. During the American Revolution the Cherokee sided with the British and con­ tinued their hostilities until 1794. As white settlers moved into their territory, the Cherokee were displ aced rapidly. In the years between 1721 to 1783, the Cherokee signed 10 treaties which ceded land to colonies or states; between 1785 and 1835 12 treaties with the government eliminated all Cherokee holdings east of the Mississippi.

1800 - 1900: Century of Despair

In 1830, Congress passed an Bill, authorizing President Andrew Jackson to initiate land exchanges with Indian nations r esiding within states or territories. The bill was prompted by the conti nuing greed of white settlers for desirable land and the philosophy of "manifest destiny" held by the United States government. In 1838 nearly 17,000 Cherokees were forcibly removed from their ancestral home. Nearly one-fourth of the Cherokee perished on this "" before reaching the land set aside for them in north­ eastern . Nearly 1,000 Cherokee resisted removal and hid in the mountains of North Carolina. From this nucleus the Eastern Band of the Che r okee was formed . In 1848, the federal government authorized a census of the Cherokee re­ maining in North Carolina to establish a fund, interest on which was paid to the Cherokee annually. Using this money and money from other sources, the Cherokee were able to purchase approximately 50,000 acres. In 1925, these Cherokee lands were placed in trust status with the federal government thus making the Cherokee wards of the government and entitled to a varie ty of federal services. Today, the Cherokee reservation or "" consists of 54,000 acres of land and is the home of approximately 6,000 Cherokee. Little history is r ecorded regarding the surviving eas t ern Indians between the end of the Tuscarora War and the early 19th century. It is known that in 1732 Henry Berry and James Lowery were granted land on the Lowry Swamp

9 east of the Lumbee River in what is now Robeson County. Also documented is the colonial governor's approval of the establishment of an Indian academy in present-day Sampson County in 1755. Lumbees and Coharies are also known to have fought with the colonists during the American Revolution. Other than these incidents, little is actually documented. However, it must be remembered that for the eastern Indians of North Carolina during this period, sheer sur­ vival was their most pressing concern. For these Indians, survival depended largely on their ability to withstand the state's policy of enforced anonymity for their kind and the constant pressure to accept their designated place in the white social order. Before 1835, non-Cherokee Indian men had the right to vote, to bear arms and to own property. At least some of their children attended white schools, although most of them went to schools organized and financed by subscriptions among their parents. In 1835, however, the North Carolina General Assembly adopted a new state constitution. Under its provisions, "free persons of color" lost the right to vote. This provision was aimed primarily at blacks but was also applied to Indians, both those in the eastern part of the state and the Cherokee in the mountains. Another law aimed at minorities in the state was passed by the North Carolina General Assembly in 1840. This law prohibited "free persons of color" from owning weapons without first obtaining a license. At the beginning of the Civil War the Confederate government did not allow Indians to serve as soldiers but conscripted them, instead, into labor battalions in which they worked side by side with black slaves on coastal fortifications. Some Indians fled and returned home. Those who wished to stay out of the clutches of conscription officers were forced to hide out in swamps. In 1862 a deadly feud erupted in Robeson County between the local militia and a tri-racial band led by Henry Berry Lowry, a Lumbee Indian. When Lowry was 16 years of age, his father and one of his brothers were executed by the Robeson County Home Guard for allegedly receiving stolen goods. Henry Berry Lowry vowed revenge and for 10 years he and his band waged a war against the white establishment of Robeson County. The struggle finally ended in 1872 when Lowry mysteriously disappeared. To many whites, Henry Berry Lowry was known as "The Great North Carolina Bandit." To the Indian people, and also to many blacks and poor whites, he was a contemporary Robin Hood, who avenged wrongs for which there was no other redress.

10 The impact of Henry Berry Lowry and his band in eastern North Carolina was great. They resisted the efforts of whites to establish a post Civil War society based on keeping non-whites "in their place . " Their actions also focused attention on Indian grievances and gave the Indian people a sense of unity and pride at a time when these were badly needed. Lowry has become a legend, and his qualities of independence and leadership are held up today as examples for Lumbee Indians to follow. During Reconstruction, political equality was supposedly restored when the vote was extended to all men regardless of color . However, the poll tax and literacy tests were used to abort Indian and black voting power. When Reconstruction ended at the state level, the North Carolina General Assembly established separate schools for whites and blacks. No schools were established for Indians . The IO-year period from 1875 to 1885 has been described as the "Decade of Despair" for the Indians of North Carolina. Having been denied schools of their own, the Indians of North Carolina soon became aware of the state ' s re­ fusal to recognize them as an identifiable people. Perhaps this explains in some way, the determination of the Indians during succeeding years to establish their own schools to educate their children and to regain their legitimate rights as citizens. In 1885 , the North Carolina General Assembly passed legislation which established separate schools for the Indians of Robeson County, at that time called "" due to the theory that these Indian people were descendants of members of the "Lost Colony" and coastal North Carolina Indian tribes. In 1887, Normal School opened its doors to Indian students of Robeson County. The success of Croatan Normal School encouraged other Indians in the state to establish their own schools and over a period of 70 years these communities were successful in their aims despite the unwillingness or refusal of white- controlled school boards to grant operating funds. The following Indian schools were organized: - - Shiloh Indian School of Sampson County established in 1911 - - High Plains Indian School for the Indians of Person County established in 1911 - -Wide-Awake School for the Waccamaw- Siouan established in 1933

11 --East Carolina Indian School established in 1942 to serve the Indians of Sampson County and seven surrounding counties - -Les Maxwell School for the Indians of Cumberland County established in 1954 --Haliwa Elementary and High School for the Indians of Halifax and Warren counties established in 1957

Through the establishment of these schools, educational progress was made by the Indians of North Carolina . Even more importantly, however, was the com­ mitment made by Indians in North Carolina to education as a means of advance­ ment for their people. Today, the pursuit and acquisition of education is highly honored by Indians in North Carolina.

1900 to Present: Survival and Unity

Beginning in the late 19th century and continuing into the early '70s, Indians in North Carolina began to re- establish their formal tribal identities and seek recognition from the state and federal governments. In 1889, the federally recognized Eastern Band of the Cherokee was incorporated under North Carolina law. In 1910, the Coharie held their first recorded community meeting and elected a tribal chief . In 1953, the Lumbee were formally recognized by the State of North Carolina. The "Lumbee Bill, II passed by the United States Congress in 1956, recognized the Lumbee as an Indian tribe but denied them access to services from the Bureau of Indian Affairs. In 1965, the Haliwa­ Saponi received state recognition, as did the Coharie and Waccamaw- Siouan in 1971. During the late 160s and early 170s seven Indian organizations were chartered by the State of North Carolina . 1968: Lumbee Regional Development Association 1970: Waccamaw-Siouan Development Association 1973: Cumberland County Association for Indian People 1974: Haliwa Tribe, Inc . 1975: Coharie Intra-Tribal Council 1975: Guilford Native American Association 1976: Metrolina Native American Association

12 Today these Indian organizations provide a variety of services to Indian people in North Carolina and bring into the state approximately $10 million of federal funds each year. The establ ishment of these organizations was in every case prompted by the desire and need of the Indian people to have formal mechanisms through which they might advocate and pursue their legitimate rights, preserve and protect their cultural identities , and battle the institutionalized discrimina­ tion under which they suffered along with blacks. Many North Carolinians are unaware of the discrimination experienced by Indians. Or, if the discrimination is acknowledged, it is thought to be some­ how less than that suffered by blacks. In truth, however, the discrimination practiced against Indians was and still is similar to that practiced against blacks. Before the passage of the Civil Rights Act in 1964, Indians we re routinely prohibited from eating establishments in Robeson County which s erved whites. Also in Robeson County during this period, separate t oile ts and wate r fountains for whites, blacks, and Indians were familiar sights . Not until 1954 and the Supreme Court's desegregation decision were Indians in North Carolina granted admission to institutions of higher learning in North Carolina. Until 1954, Indians either attended Pembroke State College for Indians which had sprung from the old Croatan Normal School or we re forced to attend out-of-state universities. And it was not until the era of desegregation that Indians were finally allowed entrance into previously all white public school systems . It was not until 1947 , furthermore, that the citizens of Pembroke, a town whose population is over 90 percent Indian , were allowed to elect their own mayor . Prior to this date, the governor of North Carolina appointed the mayor of Pembroke who was always a non-Indian. The Ku Klux Klan has also leveled its attacks against the state's Indian citizens. In 1958, the Klan made the decision to re-establish itself in Robeson County despite the Lumbee promise to provide swift and strong resis­ tance. In January of 1958, the Klan attempted to hold a rally near Maxton, but they had barel y begun when a group of Lumbee converged on them and forced their retreat. The grand wizard of the Klan was convicted for inciting a riot and the Klan did not return to Robeson County.

13 Throughout the '60s and ' 70s the Indians of North Carolina continued to make progress despite still prevalent discrimi nation and many obstacles . In addition to the formation of the seven Indi an organizations, previously dis ­ cussed, ot her advances were also made. Pembroke Stat e Co llege for Indians , the fir s t four - year institution for Indians i n the United St ates , became a membe r of t he Un iversity of North Carolina Sys t em and its name wa s changed t o Pembroke State University. In 1971, the firs t Indian- owned bank in the Un ited St ates - Lumbee Bank - was

chartered . In 1976, the Carolina ~ Voice , an Indian-owned newspaper , began operation in Robeson County. During this period , I ndians became lawyers and doctors , gained seats on l ocal boards, were hired or appointed to i mportant federal and s tate positions , and were elect ed to the North Carolina General Assembly . In 1971, t he North Carolina General Assembly established the North Caroli na Commiss i on of Indian Affairs (NCCIA) to advocate for the rights of the s tate ' s Indian population, a population which in 1980 numbered over 64,000, was the larges t Indian populat i on east of the Mississippi, and the fifth largest in the nation. The Commission is governed by a board cons isting of IS Indians representing the s tate ' s seven Indian organizations and seven state officials . The work of the Commission in the areas of advocacy and pro­ gram service is nationally recognized and respected. Despite t he advances of the Indian people of North Ca r olina during the last 200 years, serious problems still remain t o be faced. Economically, the Indians of North Carolina are the "poorest of the poor" with two ou t of every five Indian families living below the poverty level. Indian infant and mother mortality rates are three times higher than those for the general popu­

la~ion of North Ca rolina. Despite the ir emphasis on educational a ttainment, the average Indian in the s tate has achieved only an eighth grade educa tional l eve l. And, despite the passage of laws des i gned t o e liminate discriminatory practices , Indians still experience discrimination in varied degrees and areas. These problems, however, have not caused the Indians of North Carol ina to l ose their confidence or hopes in the f uture . They have continued into the ' 80s with their struggles for equali ty and recognition. In 1980, the Lumbe e and Haliwa-Saponi received membership in the National Co ngress of American

14 Indians (NCAI) and a ll four of the s tate - recognized tribes are current ly pre­ paring petitions for federal recognition so t hat they may finally receive the acknowl edgeme nt and services denied them for centuries .

Sources :

Bonney , Rachel A. , An Ethnic Studies Guide and Resources Manual for the Carolinas .

Dial, Adolph and David K. Eliades , The Only Land I Know , San Francisco: The Indian Historian Press , 1975.

Wetmore, Ruth , First on the Land: The North Carol i na Indians, Winston­ Salem: John F . Blair, Publisher , 1975.

15 Occaneechi Cheraw Saponi Meherrin ~ Tut~o

Shakori MO'at~'~Secotan ~ Keyauwee Eno Catawba Sissipahaw Hatte M~a n90 A Tuscarora Pa lico ",. Sugaree Waxhaw Woccon Bpe, ./ Ne use . !... Wateree J/" , C~ '"

Fig. 1. North Carolina Indian Tribes at the Time of European Contact (From Ruth Wetmore, First on the Land, p. 28) -1 7-

ALGONQUIAN TRIBES

IROQUOIAN TRIBES

SIOUAN TRIBES

Fig . 2. Location of Tribes by Linguistic Family at beginning of the Historic Period (From Ruth Wetmore, First on the Land, P. 27) Fig. 3. Modern North Carolina Indian Communities

7

8 '"DO,

KEY 1. Indians of Person County 2. Haliwa-Saponi (Halifax and Warren) 3. Coharie (Sampson and Harnett) 4. Cumberland County Association of Indian People 5. Lumbee (Robeson, Hoke, Scotland) 6. Waccamaw-Siouan (Bladen and Columbus) 7. Guilford Native American Association 8. Metrolina Native American Association (Mecklenburg) 9. Eastern Band of the Cherokee (Swain, Graham, Jackson) IMPORTANT DATES IN NORTH CAROLINA INDIAN HISTORY

1524 Italian navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano is the first European explorer to visit the Indians of North Carolina. He lands at Cape Fear and the Outer Banks.

1540 de Soto and his expedition visit Indian communities in Western North Carolina on his march north from Florida.

1566 A Spanish expedition led by Juan Pedro visits the Catawba, Wateree, and Saxapahaw tribes of Carolina .

1584 Sir Walter Raleigh's first expedition visits the Indians of Roanoke Island.

1585 English colony is established at Roanoke Island under direction of Sir Walter Raleigh . Co l ony fails the following year .

1587 John White ' s colony is established on Roanoke Island . illQ Disappearance of John White's col ony is discovered . Henceforth this colony is called the "Lost Colony."

1650 Th e beginning of a steady stream of white settlers moves into Indian lands along the coastal sounds and rivers of North Carolina.

1664 Clarendon County Colony from Barbados is established in Cape Fear region. Several years of Indian-white conflict ends the colony.

1670 German doctor visits the tribes of coastal North Carolina .

1675 The first Indian "war" in North Carol ina erupts between the Chowan and white settlers in Virginia .

19 1701-1711 Surveyor John Lawson V1Slts the tribes of eastern North Carolina . He is killed by the Tuscarora in 1711.

1711 Tuscarora War begins. !ill. Tuscarora War ends. The majority of the defeated Tuscarora seek refuge with the Five Nations of the Iroquois in New York State. First English trader, Eleazar Wi ggan, arrives in Cherokee territory.

Peace treaty with remalnlng North Carolina Tuscarora is signed. Tuscarora , Coree, and Machapunga are placed on reservation established in Hyde County near Lake Mattamuskeet . By 1761, the reservation has ceased to exist.

1730 Cherokee leaders visit London, confer with the king of England and pledge eternal friendship to the British.

1732 Lumbees Henry Berry and James Lowery are granted land on the Lowry Swamp east of the Lumbee River.

1738-1739 Smallpox epidemic decimates Indian population in North Carolina.

1755 Proposal to establish an Indian academy in Sampson County is approved by the colonial governor.

1775 Cherokee cede large tract of land in central and western Kentucky, south­ western Virginia, and parts of north and northwestern Tennessee in the "Henderson Purchase ."

1776 Cherokee side with the British during the American Revolution. The Coharie and Lumbee fight with the Americans.

1785 Cherokee sign the which delineates the boundaries of Cherokee Territory.

20 !ill Treaty of Holston is signed by Cherokee. Cherokee are forced by treaty t o cede 100 mile tract of land in exchange for goods and annuity of $1,000 per year .

~ Cherokee National Council is established .

~ Cherokee establish a law code and the "Light Horse Guards" to maintain law and order. !!!£ Cherokee abolish c l an revenge as a mechanism for social cont rol.

1812-1814 Cherokee fight on side of Americans to put down Tecumsehls effort s to drive out whites . Several Lumbee serve in American forces during the . illZ. Cherokee cede land in exchange for land on the Arkansas River and 2 , 000 Cherokee move West.

~ Cherokee est ablish jUdicial administration and eight districts . !!ill Cherokee National Council approves the Cherokee Sy llabary invented by Sequoya between 1809 and 1821.

1822 Cherokee National Su preme Court i s est ab lished .

1825 New Cherokee capital is established at .

1828 Cherokee approve a new tribal constitution. First editi on of the , a newspaper printed in Cherokee and English, is released.

Passage of the by t he U. S. Congress.

21 1835 Treaty is signed.

1838- 1839 Cherokee are removed to Oklahoma on the "Trail of Tears."

1840 North Carol ina General Assembly passes law prohibiting Indians from owning or carrying weapons without first obtaining license.

~ Catawbas at Cherokee request Bureau of Indian Affairs to appoint an official to organize their removal to the West.

1862-1872 Lumbee Henry Berry Lowry and his tri- ra,cial band wage "war" against the white establishment in Robeson County for injustices to Indians. ill!!. New North Carolina Constitution is passed which restores voting rights to Indians. !ill. Indians in Robeson County are recognized as the "Croatanll by the North Carolina General Assembly. Legislation also provides for separate schools for the "Croatan." .illl Croatan Normal School for the Indians of Robeson County is established one mile west of Pembroke and is given an appropriation of $500 by the North Carolina General Assembly.

1889 Eastern Band of the Cherokee is incorporated under North Carolina law.

1907 Separate schools for the "Croat an Indians and Creoles of Cumberland County" are mandated by the North Carolina General Assembly. lli2. Coharie hold their first recorded community meeting and elect a tribal chief. Shiloh Indian School is constructed in Sampson County . Operating funds for the school are secured from a monthly fee charged of each student . School closes in 1938.

22 ill!. North Carolina General Assembly changes name of Croatans to "Indians of Robeson County." Croatan Normal School is renamed Indian Normal School of Robeson County. High Plains Indian School for the Indians of Person County is established. School closes in 1962. New Bethel Indian School is established for Indians in Sampson County. School closes in 1941 . .!ill. Indians of Robeson County are renamed "Cherokee Indians of Robeson Countyl! by North Carolina General Assembly. Indians living in Person County (formerly called "Cubansll) are officially designated as "Indians of Person County" by North Carolina General Assembly • .!ill Cherokee lands are placed in trust status with the federal government.

1933 Wide-Awake School for Waccamaw-Siouan is established in Columbus County. School closes in 1966.

1935

Act to provide for the preservation of Indian antiqu1t~es in North Carolina is passed by the North Carolina General Assembly. Citizens are "urged" to comply. No criminal penalties are set.

1937 North Carolina General Assembly empowers governor to set aside "some day" as "Indian Day.1I ill..Q. First college degree is granted at Indian Normal School of Robeson County.

1941 Name of Indian Normal School of Robeson County is changed by General Assembly to IIPembroke State College for Indians. 1I llil East Carolina Indian School is established in Sampson County to serve Indians in seven surrounding counties. School closes in 1965.

1947 First Indian mayor of Pembroke is elected. Prior to this date. the governor of North Carolina appointed the mayors of Pembroke. all of whom were non-Indians.

23 illQ Founding of Cherokee Historical Association and first performance of outdoor drama "Unto These Hills."

1952 Hawkeye Indian School for the Indians living in Hoke County is established. School closes in 1968.

1953 Lumbee (formerly called Cherokee of Robeson .County) are recognized by the State of North Carolina .

1954 Les Maxwell School for the Indians of Cumberland County is established. School closes in 1967.

1956 "Lumbee Bill" is passed by United States Congress. This bill recognizes the Lumbee as an Indian tribe but denies them services from the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA).

1957 Haliwa Elementary and Secondary School is established. School closes in 1968.

1958 Lumbee successfully thwart attempt of Ku Klux Klan to establish itself in Robeson County .

Haliwa receive state recognition as an Indian tribe.

1968 Lumbee Regional Development Association (LRDA) is chartered by the State of North Carolina • .ill2. Pembroke State College for Indians becomes Pembroke State University and part of the University of North Carolina System.

!2ZQ East Carolina Tuscarora Indian Association is established in Robeson County. Waccamaw-Siouan Development Association (WSDA) is chartered. Cherokee Civic Center is completed.

24 ill! Coharie and Waccamaw-Siouan tribes are recognized by the State of North Carolina. North Carolina Commission of Indian Affairs is established by the North Carolina General Assembly. First Indian-owned bank in the United States - Lumbee Bank - is charter ed • .!ill. Carolina Indian Voice. an Indian-owned newspaper, begins operation in Robeson County. --- Cumberland County Association for Indian People (CCAIP) is chartered. Henry Ward Oxendine, a Lumbee from Robeson County . becomes the first North Carolina-born Indian to serve in the North Carolina House of Representatives. !ill. Haliwa Tribe, Inc., is chartered . .!ill. Guilford Native American Association (GNAA) and the Coharie Intra-Tribal Council are chartered. New multi-million dollar Cherokee High School opens .

1976 Metrolina Native American Association (MNAA) is chartered. The outdoor drama "Strike At The Wind,1I the story of Lumbee Henry Berry Lowry, opens in Robeson County.

1980 "Indian Heritage Week " is proclaimed by Governor James B. Hunt • .illl Lumbee and Haliwa receive membership in the National Congress of American Indians (NCAr). The IIUnmarked Human Burial and Human Skeletal Remains Protection Act" and the "Archaeological Resources Protection Ace' are unanimously passed by the North Carolina General Assembly . Criminal penalties are set for violations, and involvement of Indian communities is mandated in decisions regarding treatment , analysis, and disposition of Native American remains.

25 NORTH CAROLINA INDIAN ORGANIZATIONS

For more information r egarding a particular Indian tribe or services to Indiana, contact the executive director:

Coharie Intra-Tribal Council Haliwa-Saponi Indian Tribe Rou t e 3 , Bo x 340-E P.O. Box 99 Cl i nt on, N.C. 28328 Hollister, N. C. 27844 Phone : (9 19) 564 -6909 Phone: (919) 586-4017

Cumberland County Association for Lumbee Regional Development A.sociation Indian People P.O. Box 68 102 Indian Drive Pembroke, N. C. 28312 Fayetteville, N. c. 28301 Phone: (919) 521-8602 Phone: (919) 483-8442

Easte rn Band of the Cherokee Metrolin. Native American AI.ociation P.O. Box 455 Mart Office Building - Suite CC-Sll Cherokee, N. C. 28719 900 Briar Creek Road Phone: (704) 497-2771 Charlotte, N. C. 28205 Phone: (704) 333-0135

Guilford Native American Association Waccamaw-Siouan Development Aaaociation P.O . Box 5623 P.O. Box 221 Greensboro, N. C. 27403 Bolton, N. C. 28423 Phone : (919) 273-8686 Phon.: (919) 452-3411

26 NORTH CAROLINA COMMISSION OF INDIAN AFFAIRS 227 East Edenton Street P. O. Box 27228 Ra leigh , North Carolina 27611 Phone: (919) 733-5998 A. Bruce Jones, Executive Director

COMMISSION FIELD OFFICES

Columbus County Harnett County P. O. Box 336 Route 4, Box 299 Bolton, N. C. 28423 Dunn, N. C. 28344 Phone: (919) 452-3708 Phone: (919) 892-2254

Cumberland County Robeson County 102 Indian Drive P. O. Box 1813 Fayetteville, N. C. 28 301 Lumberton, N. C. 28358 Phon.: (919) 483-8442 Phone: (919) 738-6272

Guilford County Sampson County 400-406 Prescott Street Route 3 , Box 340-E P. O. Box 5623 Clinton. N . C. 28328 Greensboro, N. C. 27401 Phone : ( 919) 564-6909 Phone: (919) 273-8686

Halifax County P. O. Box 9 Hollister, N. C. 27844 Phone: (919) 586-5246

27 NORTH CAROLINA INDIAN ATTRACTIONS

Enjoy these and other North Carolina Native American attractions, many of which are open throughout the year:

Charl otte Nature Mus eum , Charlotte . Study collection of prehistoric and historic Indian ma terials. Indian studies programs available.

Cherokee (Qualla Boundary) . Home of the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Indians. Larges t community is Cherokee , with Museum of Cherokee Indian , Oconaluftee Indian Village. "Unto These Hills" outdoor drama (late June - Labor Day), crafts shops , chair lif t, Cherokee Indian School .

Fort Cherokee Trading Post , Wilmington . Indian crafts , leather goods, jewelry, artifacts and relics. Recreational park.

Greensboro Historical Muse um, Greens boro . Extensive displays of Indian , pioneer and war relics.

Native American Library . Pembroke . Lumbe e Regional Development Association ' s collection of books and audio-visuals by and/or about Native Amer i cans .

North Carol ina Museum of History , Raleigh . Special e xh ibits , incl uding original Carolina Charter document, trace North Carolina ' s history from its beginnings in the 16th century . Co pies of John White ' s sketches , the earliest illustra­ tions of the land of North Carolina and its inhabitants.

North Carol ina Museum of Life and Science . Durham . Collection of Indian arti­ facts including pro jectile points , beads and leat her work , pottery and baskets . Summer Indian lore classes.

Outdoor Dramas (Summer Productions) " , " Mant eo. Story of first English settlement in America. "Unto These Hills," Cherokee. Cherokee Indian history. " Horn in the West ," Boone. Story of the mountain people l ed by Daniel Boone , who fought the British and their Indian a l lies. " Strike at the Wind ," Pembroke . Story of Henry Berry Lowry and the Lumbe e Indians.

Pembroke State University. Pembroke . First four- year libe ral arts college established specifically for Indians . Old Main Buil di ng houses the Native American Research Center . Exhibits relating to the history of Lumbee Indians.

28 Roanoke Isl and Historical Park . Roanoke Indian Village , Manteo . Open May - Sept ember . Reconstructi on of coastal Algonqu ian village a t the time of contact , " living museum ," demonst·rations of crafts , technology , dances , lectures.

Schiele Museum of Natural History , Gastonia . Extensive collection of I nd i an artifacts ; dioramas and displ ays of Indians.

Town Creek Indian Mound , Near Mt . Gilead . Reconstructed 16th century Indian ceremonial center with temples and mortuary. Visitor center-museum.

Wachovia Museum . Winston- Salem. Located at Old Salem. Collection of early Amer i can i tems and Ind i an relics.

29 NORTH CAROLINA INDIAN POPULATION By County (Based on 1980 Preliminary Census Count)

Alamance 144 Durham. . 175 Alexander. 25 Edgecombe 30 Alleghany . 3 Forsyth . 452 Anson. 60 Franklin. 38 Ashe 15 Gaston. 259 Avery. 33 Gates . 4 Beaufort 16 Graham . 379 Bertie 12 Granville 53 Bladen 321 Greene. 2 Brunswick. 113 Guilford. .1348 Buncombe 299 Halifax .1217 Burke. . 95 Harnett 488 Cabarru8 135 Haywood 122 Caldwell 48 Henderson 71 Camden 3 Hertford. • 448 Carteret 125 Hoke. .2578 Cas)lell. 13 Hyde. 0 Catawba. 106 Iredell 129 Chatham. 32 Jackson .1412 Cherokee 189 Johnston. 95 Chovan 19 Jones 20 Clay . 10 Lee 60 Cleveland. 62 Lenoir. 56 Columbus .1175 Lincoln 37 Craven . . 184 McDowell. 34 Cumberland . 3660 Macon 25 Currituck. 26 Madison 37 Dare 18 Martin. 2 Davidson 206 Mecklenburg . 1412 Davie. 48 Mitchell. 21 Duplin 51 Montgomery . 64

30 Moore. 316 Sampson . • 888 Nash 85 Scotland .2062 New Hanover. 260 Stanly 41 Northampton. 34 Stokes 35 Onslow 597 Surry . 58 Orange 163 Swain. .2502 Pamlico . 35 Transylvania 31 Pasquotank 23 Tyrrell . 3 Pender 24 Union. 177 Perquimans 12 Vance . 31 Person 169 Wake 516 Pitt 86 Warren 640 Polk 18 Washington 6 Randolph 255 Watauga. 23 Richmond 443 Wayne . 178 Robeson. . 35.511 Wilkes 57 Rockingham 68 Wilson 37 Rowan . 165 Yadkin 13 Rutherford 38 Yancey 21

TOTAL • • • • • • • • 64 . 635

31 SUGGESTED READING

American Indians (North Carolina)

Brown, Douglas S., The Catawba Indians: The People of the River , Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1966.

Butler, George E., The Croatan Indians of Sampson County: their origin and racial status , a plea for separate schools, Durham, N.C.: The Seeman Printery, 1916.

Dial, Adolph and David K. Eliades, The Only Land I Know: A History of the Lumbee Indians, San Francisco: The Indian Historian Press, 1975.

Evans, W. McKee, To Die Game: The Story of the Lowry Band. Indian Guerillas of Reconstruction, Baton Rouge : Louisiana State University Press, 1971.

Foreman, Grant, , Norman : University of Oklahoma Press, 1938.

Fundaburk , Emma L. and Mary Douglass Foreman, eds. , Sun Circles and Human Hands: The Southeastern Indians - Art and Industry, Uverne, Alabama: Emma L. Fundaburk, 1957.

Heriot, Thomas, A briefe and true report of the new found land of Virginia, Reproduction in facsimile of the first 1588 edition , Murfreesboro: Johnson Publishing Company, 1969.

Hudson, Charles M., The Catawba Nation, University of Georgia Monographs, No. 18, Athens : University of Georgia Press, 1970.

Hudson, Charl es M., The Southeastern Indians, Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1976.

Johnson, F. Roy, The Algonkians, Murfreesboro: Johnson Publishing Company, 1972.

Johnson, F. Roy, The Tuscaroras, Murfreesboro: Johnson Publishing Company, 1967.

Lawson, John, A New Voyage to Carolina, edited by Hugh Talmadge Lefler, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1967.

Lee, E. Lawrence, Indian Wars in North Carolina, 1663-1763, Ra leigh : Carolina Charter Tercentenary Commission, 1963. Reprinted by State Department of Archives and Histo~y, 1968.

McMillan, Hamilton, Sir Walter Raleigh's Lost Colony, Raleigh: Edwards and Broughton Company, 1888.

32 Norment, Mary C., The Lowrie History, Wilmington: Daily Journal Printer, 1875. Richardson, Arnold, Native Tribal Arts and Traditions. Published through grant from the North Carolina Arts Council , 1982.

Wetmore, Ruth, First on the Land: The North Carolina Indians, Winston- Salem: John F. Blair, Publisher , 1975.

Wilkins, David, Walkins Upright: The Coharie People of Sampson County, 1980 . Woodward, Grace, The Cherokees, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963.

American Indians (General)

Berger, Thomas, Little Big Man, Greenwich, Connecticut: Fawcett Publications, Inc., 1964. Berkhofer, Robert F., The White Man ' s Indian, New York: Alfred A. Kropf, Inc ., 1978. Borland, Hal, When the Legends Die, New York: Bantam Books, Inc ., 1963.

Brown, Dee, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: The Indian History of the American ~, New York: Bantam Books, Inc., 1970.

Brown, Joseph Epes. , Ed., The Sacred Pipe: Black Elk's Account of the Seven Rites of the Oglala Sioux, New York: Penguin Books, 1971.

Cohen, Felix, Handb ook of Federal Indian Law, New York: AMS Press, Inc., 1972.

Deloria, Vine , Behind the Trail of Broken Treaties, New York: Delacorte Press, 1974.

Deloria, Vine , Custer Died for Your Sins, New York: Avon Books, 1969.

Deloria, Vine, God is Red, New York: Grosset and Dunlop, 1973.

Deloria, Vine, We Talk. You Listen, New York: Dell Publishing Company , 1970.

Fire , John and Richard Erdoes, Lamedeer, Seeker of Visions, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972.

Momaday, U. Scott, The Way to Rainy Mountain, New York: Ballentine Books, 1969.

Neihardt, John, Black Elk Speaks, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979.

Steiner, Stan, The New Indians, New York: Dell Publishing Company, 1968 .

33 Storm, Hyemeyohsts, Seven Arrows , New York: Ba llentine Books , 1972.

Turner , Frederick W. , Ed., Th e Portable North American Indian Reader , New York: Penguin Books , Inc ., 1974.

Waters, Frank , Book of the Hopi, New York: Viking Press , 1963.

34