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ACCULTURATION AS SEEN THROUGH BUDDHA’S BIRTHDAY PARADES IN NORTHERN WEI LUOYANG: A MICRO PERSPECTIVE ON THE MAKING OF BUDDHISM AS A WORLD RELIGION A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Religious Studies University of the West In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in Religious Studies by Poh Yee Wong Spring 2012 APPROVAL PAGE FOR GRADUATE Approved and recommended for acceptance as a dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Religious Studies. Candidate: Poh Yee Wong Date: March 30, 2012 Acculturation as seen through Buddha’s Birthday Parades in Northern Wei Luoyang: a micro perspective on the making of Buddhism as a world religion APPROVED: Darui Long (Committee Chair) Ananda W. P. Guruge Lewis R. Lancaster March 30, 2012 I hereby declare that this dissertation has not been submitted as an exercise for a degree at any other institution, and that it is entirely my own work. © 2012 Poh Yee WONG ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Like all sentient beings, my debts are infinite. I am grateful to my dissertation advisers at the University of the West for their tireless effort. Dr. Lewis Lancaster provided guidance towards high standards of scholarship. A seasoned advisor, he knew just when to offer the right tools and recommendations. I could not have compiled the invaluable appendices of chronologically-sequenced Buddha’s birthday literature without Dr. Lancaster’s advanced tools, whose timely availability and usefulness demonstrated his familiarity with the needs of Buddhist scholars. Dr. Ananda Guruge brought doses of earthly existence back to my idealistic quest: he kept me focused, almost like a discipline master. He kindly balanced his high demands with immediate and insightful responses to each draft I sent him, testifying to his commitment to his students. Dr. Darui Long’s in- depth knowledge of Chinese history, literature, and publications was an invaluable asset to my research. He provided the most detailed scrutiny, including items in footnotes and glossary. Such vital support was crucial to help me weave through the perplexing maze of Chinese texts and ensured accuracy in my translations. From contents through overall structure to details, I am grateful to my erudite dissertation committee members for challenging and inspiring me. Even before my dissertation proposal was accepted, Dr. Whalen Lai, emeritus professor of Religious Studies at UC-Davis, provided precious remote assistance. His insightful and fast responses helped me to shape and re-shape my study of the complex development of Buddhism in medieval China. He did not treat me as a student, but as his equal in knowledge and analytical skills. Dr. Howard Sage, English faculty at CUNY’s ii Hunter College, reminded me constantly of the equal importance of style and content. His indefatigable editing of crucial chapters helped me to perfect the presentation of interesting content. I am indeed privileged and honored that this dissertation has benefited from the guidance of experienced and renowned professors inside and outside of the UWest. I am also indebted to Mrs. Ling Ling Kuo and Ms. Judy Hsu from the UWest Library who offered invaluable services and tools, as well as technical advice. Moreover, I am thankful to a team of experts, and friends who joined me to present the Northern Wei and Later Zhao Buddha’s birthday celebrations in art form and on to a website. Nancy Cowardin (Whittier, California), Peter Martin (Cambridge, Massachusetts), Frank Yuan (Chino, California), and Alex Amies (Beijing, China) were the brave initiators. They were later joined by a group of over fifty volunteers who will stage an exhibition of these art pieces in celebration of Buddha’s Birthday 2012. All have helped to make the findings of this research accessible to the public at large. The generous scholarships from the International Buddhist Education Foundation, University of the West, and the International Budhdist Progress Society (IBPS) helped me to focus on my studies and dissertation writing. Living in a monastic community, I thank my Venerable Master as well as my dharma brothers and sisters for their loving kindness and support so that I may enjoy the peace of mind to continue with an otherwise lonely piece of research. Finally, I owe my parents an unrequitable debt of gratitude for supporting their daughter’s long program of study. I reverently dedicate this dissertation to all who have directly or indirectly helped me complete my program of study. May any little merit gained from this piece of researh bring blessings to them and all sentient beings. iii ABSTRACT The genesis of world religions necessitates an integration process with contemporary local society, political enterprises, and cultural institutions. Through the study of a foreign religious festival in a historical period, this study reveals the circumstances of such a society. By tracing the evolution of the integration process in this dissertation, I discuss how people assimilate a foreign religion and make the religion part of their culture. The phenomenon studied is an image procession of over a thousand carriages celebrating Buddha’s birthday in Northern Wei Luoyang. When Emperor Xuanwu (r. 500 – 515) ascended the Northern Wei (386 – 534) throne, he inherited a prosperous nation and several crises threatening his authority. One menace came from pro-Xianbei forces and border garrison troops dissatisfied with the previous emperor’s sinification program and capital relocation. Under such circumstances, the grand Buddha’s birthday parade became a clever scheme to legitimize royal authority, confirm the wisdom of Emperor Xiaowen’s (r. 471 – 499) decision through a vibrant display in the new capital, and pacify pro-Xianbei forces by having foreign icons take center stage. This transdisciplinary and holistic study of cultural, political, religious, social, literary, artistic, and archaeological evidence underscores the importance of Buddha’s birthday celebration to Buddhism taking root in medieval China. Keywords: acculturation, assimilation, Buddha’s birthday, hybridization, image procession, legitimacy to rule, Luoyang, merit, Northern Wei iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. ii Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iv Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ v List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... x Chapter One Introduction ............................................................................................... 1 Chapter Two Festivals ..................................................................................................... 7 2.1 Festival as Conduit for Acculturation .................................................................. 7 2.2 Northern Wei Festivals....................................................................................... 13 2.3 Chinese Festivals ................................................................................................ 21 2.4 Chinese Processions ........................................................................................... 30 2.5 Analysis .............................................................................................................. 39 Chapter Three Buddha’s Birthday Parades in Luoyang .............................................. 43 3.1 Luoyang .............................................................................................................. 43 3.2 Popularity of Buddha’s Birthday Parades in Luoyang ....................................... 55 3.3 Processions: A Common Paradigm .................................................................... 59 3.4 Foreign Innovations............................................................................................ 66 3.4.1 The Birth Story ........................................................................................... 67 3.4.2 The Birth Date............................................................................................. 73 v 3.4.3 Birthday Celebrations ................................................................................. 82 3.4.4 Image Processions ....................................................................................... 88 3.4.5 From Elephants to Carriages ....................................................................... 97 3.5 Hybridization of Buddhism .............................................................................. 105 3.6 Ongoing Definition of Northern Wei ............................................................... 109 3.6.1 From Xianbei Tribe to Northern Wei Chinese Empire ............................. 109 3.6.2 Northern Wei Buddhist Parades ................................................................ 113 Chapter Four Sacred Legitimacy to Rule: From Sage King to Tathāgata King ......... 117 4.1 Evolution of the Sage King (shengwang) ........................................................ 122 4.1.1 The Confucian Appropriation ..................................................................
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