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The Pennsylvania State University The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of Health and Human Development BRIDGING TOURISM AND MIGRATION MOBILITIES: DIASPORA TOURISM AS A COPING STRATEGY A Dissertation in Recreation, Park, and Tourism Management by Svitlana Iarmolenko 2014 Svitlana Iarmolenko Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2014 The dissertation of Svitlana Iarmolenko was reviewed and approved* by the following: Deborah L. Kerstetter Graduate Officer Professor of Recreation, Park, and Tourism Management Dissertation Adviser Chair of Committee Garry Chick Professor of Recreation, Park, and Tourism Management Carter A. Hunt Assistant Professor of Recreation, Park, and Tourism Management Fuyuan Shen Associate Professor of Advertising and Public Relations *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School iii ABSTRACT The fields of tourism and migration have been uneasy companions despite the fact that both study the two largest patterns of human movement across geographical areas. A recent emergence of the mobilities paradigm created potential for bridging the two knowledge networks and providing opportunities for crossover and mutual enrichment. Engaging with the intersection of tourism and migration mobilities, this study has a dual purpose. Theoretically it explores diaspora tourism as a promising link between tourism and migration. Practically diaspora tourism is offered as a coping strategy that can be used by immigrants to alleviate stress associated with relocation to a culturally dissimilar society. In this dissertation three aspects of diaspora tourism are explored as they pertain to the fourth wave of Ukrainian immigrants in the United States. The first aspect concerns identity formation and adjustment issues Ukrainian immigrants experience upon arrival to the United States, and how these issues affect their relationship with and desire to visit Ukraine. The second aspect concerns immigrant imaginaries (i.e., images and ideas we hold in our consciousness) and the potential of diaspora tourism promotion through culturally grounded narratives created from accounts of immigrants’ lived experiences. The processes of creating a culturally grounded narrative and its evaluation are presented. Finally, the third aspect concerns the act of corporeal travel of immigrants, and the possible predictors of such travel. Several predictors (e.g., context of migration, media use, self-construal, destination image) are drawn from different bodies of literature and their effects on the likelihood of visiting the homeland are investigated. Key findings of the dissertation are presented in three articles. In the first article, results show that the fourth wave of Ukrainian immigrants is unique in its nature as a labor diaspora, preference for assimilation, and transnational character. The second article demonstrates that a culturally grounded narrative can be created from recurring themes in immigrants’ lived iv experiences. This narrative, which adhered to the effective narrative guidelines, is perceived by immigrants as more credible, informative and as a better persuasive tool for diaspora tourism than a neutral factual text. Regression analyses in the third article showed that age is an important predictor of diaspora tourism, and while not significant, effects of other variables on the likelihood of diaspora tourism are in the expected directions. A discussion of the results of this study are presented in the final chapter. The results were used to modify the project model and strengthen the theoretical links between tourism and migration domains, as well as provide insight into diaspora tourism as a coping strategy for immigrants. v TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures..........................................................................................................................vii List of Tables ...........................................................................................................................viii Acknowledgements..................................................................................................................ix Chapter 1 Immigration Experiences of Ukrainian-Americans Conceptualized.......................1 Migration..........................................................................................................................3 Cultural distance, self-construal, and acculturation .................................................3 Diaspora Tourism and its Potential as a Coping Strategy................................................6 Narratives.........................................................................................................................9 Ukrainian Immigrants: A Diaspora with a Compelling History .....................................11 Study Purpose ..................................................................................................................13 Project Method and Design..............................................................................................18 Chapter 2 “What This Country Needs is More Ukrainians”: Identity, Adjustment, and Transnational Activity Patterns of Fourth Wave Ukrainians in the United States...........27 Ukrainian Immigrants: A Crucial and Overlooked Group...............................................28 Study Purpose ..................................................................................................................30 Method .............................................................................................................................31 Results..............................................................................................................................33 Context of exit..........................................................................................................34 Context of entry........................................................................................................35 Identity .....................................................................................................................37 Relationship with Ukraine........................................................................................39 Transnational activity...............................................................................................40 Relationship Between the 3W and 4W.....................................................................42 Discussion........................................................................................................................43 Chapter 3 Turning Struggles into Possibilities: Creation of Culturally Grounded Narratives Based on Immigration Experiences of Ukrainian-Americans........................47 Diaspora Tourism as a Coping Strategy...........................................................................48 Using Culturally Grounded Narratives to Promote Diaspora Tourism............................49 Study Purpose ..................................................................................................................50 Method .............................................................................................................................51 Samples and data collection methods.......................................................................51 Data entry and analysis ............................................................................................53 Results..............................................................................................................................53 Creating the culturally grounded narrative...............................................................54 Adhering the text to the effective narrative requirements........................................63 Narrative assessment................................................................................................64 Discussion and implications.............................................................................................65 vi Limitations and future research................................................................................68 Chapter 4 Potential Predictors of Diaspora Tourism for Ukrainian Immigrants in the United States ....................................................................................................................71 The Tourism and Migration Research Divide..................................................................71 Bridging the Gap Through Diaspora Tourism .................................................................73 Factors affecting diaspora tourism ...........................................................................73 Method .............................................................................................................................77 Study population ......................................................................................................77 Sampling and data collection ...................................................................................77 The survey................................................................................................................78 Data analysis ............................................................................................................80 Results..............................................................................................................................80 Self-construal ...........................................................................................................81
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