ORNITOLOGIA NEOTROPICAL 15 (Suppl.): 301–307, 2004 © The Neotropical Ornithological Society TINAMOUS AND AGRICULTURE: LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE GALLIFORMES Jeffrey J. Thompson Daniel B. Warnell School of Forest Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602-2152, USA. E-mail: [email protected] Resumen. – Tinámidos y agricultura: lecciones aprendidas de los Galliformes. – El 32% de las 47 especies del orden Tinamiformes viven en pastizales. Estas especies están distribuidas en las regiones tro- picales y templadas, pero la mayoría se encuentran en las regiones australes de América del Sur. Las pobla- ciones de estas especies son susceptibles a la conversión de la tierra para agricultura y la intensificación del uso de la tierra después de la conversión. Existe poca información sobre los efectos de la conversión y uso de la tierra en las poblaciones de tinamúes, pero hay mucha investigación sobre sus efectos en los Galliformes. Al considerar los tinamúes que viven en pastizales como los equivalentes ecológicos de los Galliformes, se pueden hacer inferencias generales sobre los posibles efectos de la conversión y inten- sificación del uso de la tierra en estas especies. Es más eficiente ver los impactos potenciales del uso de la tierra como una función de la interacción de múltiples gradientes: el área de la vegetación natural, la estructura de la vegetación, la intensidad de la agricultura y ganadería, y el uso de herbicidas y pesticidas. Este modelo permite una cuantificación de la conveniencia de un lugar para cada especie, flexibilidad potencial de las especies a los cambios de hábitat, la comparación entre lugares y funciona como una herramienta para determinar rápidamente el valor de conservación de los lugares en el paisaje. Abstract. – Species inhabiting grassland and steppes represent 32% of the 47 species of the order Tinami- formes. These species are both tropical and temperate in their distribution but the majority is confined to austral South America. Populations of these species are susceptible to land conversion for agriculture, as well as intensification of land use after conversion. Although little information exists on the effects of land conversion and use on tinamou populations, there is an extensive amount of research on these effects on gallinaceous birds. By viewing the grassland and steppe dwelling tinamous as ecological equivalents to the Galliformes, general inferences can be made about the projected impacts of land conversion and the inten- sity of use on these species. It is most efficient to view the potential impacts of land use as a function of the interaction of several gradients: area of natural vegetation, vegetation structure, intensity of cropping and grazing, and herbicide and pesticide use. This model allows for a quantification of site suitability by species, potential resilience of species, comparison among sites, and serves as a tool to rapidly assess the conservation value of sites within the landscape. Accepted 29 December 2003. Key words: Tinamiformes, Galliformes, agriculture, grazing, agro-ecosystems, grasslands, gamebirds. INTRODUCTION grazing and row crops (from here on agricul- ture) (White et al. 2000). Consequently, much Temperate and tropical grassland habitats of the biodiversity from these natural ecosys- (grasslands, steppes, savannas) have been, and tems is now associated with a landscape continue to be, extensively converted for matrix of varying complexity, consisting of 301 THOMPSON natural and man modified habitats. Increas- resent 32% of the 47 species and, in most of ingly, these agro-ecosystems have become less South America, occupy the majority of niches diversified in content and complexity in grassland habitats associated with the galli- (McNeely et al. 1995). forms in other regions (Davies 2002, del During the post-World War II era, grass- Hoyo 1992 et al.). Despite their diversity and land conversion and/or agricultural intensifi- importance in sport, commercial, and subsis- cation have increased in intensity and extent tence harvest, little research has focused on (Fuller 2000). Although Europe and North these birds. Furthermore, as in the rest of the America have been placed under high-input world, the grassland habitats that these birds agriculture over the last half-century, other occupy have been, and continue to be, under areas such as South Africa and Argentina intensive agricultural pressure. For example, have lagged behind until recently (Pero & the pampas of Argentina and Uruguay have Crowe 1996, Viglizzo & Roberto 1998). This been nearly completely converted to row process of land conversion and agricultural crops and grazing over the last 150 years (Hall intensification has been attributed to the glo- et al. 1992), and for the past decade have been bal declines of grassland and shrubland birds subjected to rapidly increasing intensification (Aebischer et al. 1999, Vickery & Herkert (Viglizzo & Roberto 1998). 1999, Murphy 2003, Peterjohn 2003). Despite this continuing land conversion, Among the grassland dependent birds, the and increasingly intense utilization, there is a population declines of the gallinaceous game- conspicuous lack of research into their effects birds were some of the first to draw the atten- on biodiversity in grassland ecosystems within tion of researchers and the public. The first, South America. For tinamous however, it is and one of the most thorough studies into the possible to make inferences based upon the effects of farmland composition and manage- extensive body of research into the impacts of ment on galliform populations was on the land conversion and agriculture on galliforms. declines of the Grey Partridge (Perdix perdix) Here I draw from examples on the effects of in England (Potts 1980, 1986). This research agricultural land conversion and intensifica- highlighted the importance of the composi- tion on grassland bird species in general, and tion and configuration of the agricultural galliforms in particular, highlighting the major landscape and how it is managed, particularly environmental gradients that impact these the use of herbicides and pesticides. These birds, for the purpose of assessing the quality have become major themes in the research of of grasslands and their associated agro-eco- grassland birds (Vickery & Herkert 1999, systems for tinamous, as well as to direct Aebischer et al. 2000, Murphy 2003, Peterjohn future research. 2003) and have been key topics of research for many gamebirds (Rands et al. 1988), CASES IN THE GALLIFORMES including Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virgi- nianus; Brennan 1999), prairie chickens (Tym- Due to their importance as gamebirds, the panuchus spp.; Fuhlendorf et al. 2002, Geisen Galliformes are a well-studied order and sub- 1998, Ryan et al. 1998), Helmeted Guineafowl sequently population dynamics are well docu- (Numida meleagris; Pero & Crowe 1996, Malan mented for many species (e.g., Fuller et al. & Benn 1999, Ratcliffe & Crowe 2001) and 2000). Over the last half-century however, as francolins (Francolinus spp.; Little & Crowe with many grassland species, galliforms asso- 1998; Jansen et al. 1999, 2000). ciated with grasslands and agro-ecosystems Grassland tinamous (Tinamiformes) rep- have exhibited significant population declines 302 TINAMOUS AND AGRICULTURE across several continents. Important examples has led to the management of pastures for are the Northern Bobwhite (Brennan 1999) silage rather than for hay. The increase in and prairie chickens (Johnsgard 1983, Hous- management for silage allows for higher ton 2002) in North America, the Helmeted stocking levels of livestock since forage can be Guineafowl (Pero & Crowe 1996, Malan & subsidized with high quality fodder. High live- Benn 1999, Ratcliffe & Crowe 2001) and the stock densities have been contributing to francolins (Little et al. 1995; Jansen et al. 1999, decreases in populations of several galliform 2000) in South Africa, and the Gray Partridge species (Jansen et al. 1999, Robbins et al. in Europe (Potts 1980, 1986). 2002). Furthermore, mechanization has The decline of populations of these spe- allowed for more frequent cutting of these cies is mostly attributed to changes in the pastures for silage, leading to increased loss of extent, intensity, and type of land use. Inter- nests and young. estingly, several of these species initially The use of petrochemicals, associated increased their ranges and/or populations as a with the decrease in landscape complexity and function of anthropogenic changes to the diversity, had major implications for popula- landscape. These changes, however, eventu- tions of birds in agro-ecosystems due to ally passed a threshold where populations impacts on brood survival (Palmer 1995, began to decline. The key to making infer- Fuller 2000). In particular, the indirect effects ences to the tinamous and applying them for of herbicides and the direct effects of insecti- research and management is to understand cides greatly decrease the quality of agricul- the major factors associated with land use that tural land as brood habitat, and subsequently have both positively and negatively impacted brood survival (sensu Potts 1986). Further- galliform populations in grasslands and agro- more, the use of fertilizers on silage pastures ecosystems (Johnsgard & Wood 1968, Johns- leads to a decrease in floral diversity and gard 1983, Johnson & Knue 1989, Pero & structure, and is associated with a decrease in Crowe 1996, Brennan 1999, Malan & Benn invertebrate diversity (Fuller 2000).