Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe

Environmental Hydrogeology of Francistown Effects of Mining and Urban Expansion on Groundwater Quality

by Benjamin Mafa

Edited by Dr. H. Vogel March 2003

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1

2 THE FRANCISTOWN STUDY AREA ...... 2 2.1 The climate in the study area ...... 2 2.2 The topography and drainage pattern in the study area ...... 3 2.3 The geology in the study area ...... 3 2.4 The hydrogeology in the study area ...... 5 2.5 Potential groundwater hazards in the study area ...... 7

3 METHODS AND MATERIALS ...... 10

4 RESULTS ...... 12 6.1 Environmental hydrogeology maps ...... 12 6.2 Groundwater pollution zones ...... 14

5 DISCUSSION ...... 18 5.1 Pit latrines – Zones I and II ...... 18 5.2 Mine waste dumps – Zones IV, IVa, VII and Ia ...... 18 5.3 Waste disposal sites – Zones V and VI ...... 20

6 CONCLUSIONS ...... 22

7 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 23

8 REFERENCES ...... 24

9 APPENDICES ...... 25 I Borehole location map ...... 26 II Groundwater contour map ...... 27 III Groundwater hazards map ...... 28 IV Groundwater quality map ...... 29 V Groundwater contamination map ...... 30 VI Spatial distribution of important process-indicator elements ...... 31 VII Spatial distribution of heavy metals and other trace elements ...... 39 VIII Spatial distribution of additional groundwater parameters ...... 57 IX BGR ICP-OES results (ppm) ...... 63 X BGR ICP-MS results (ppb) ...... 69 XI DGS Ion-Chromatograph results (ppm) ...... 75

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LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1: Major urban and rural centers in Botswana ...... 1 Figure 2: Annual rainfall in Francistown (1925–2000) ...... 2 Figure 3: Mean monthly rainfall (a) and humidity (b) between 1970 and 1999 ...... 3 Figure 4: Average maximum and minimum air temperatures (1970–1999) ...... 3 Figure 5: Geology of the Francistown study area ...... 4 Figure 6: Hydrograph at borehole FT103 ...... 7 Figure 7: Monarch South tailings ...... 9 Figure 8: Waste oil disposal tank in Francistown ...... 10 Figure 9: Piper diagram of the Francistown groundwater samples ...... 14 Figure 10: Nitrate concentration in groundwater and areas with pit latrines in mid 2000 ...... 15 Figure 11: Groundwater pollution zones in Francistown in mid 2000 ...... 17

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Samples submitted to different labs for analysis ...... 11 Table 2: Laboratory analyses carried out and methods applied ...... 11

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1 INTRODUCTION

This study was carried out as part of a technical co-operation project between the Department of Geological Survey (DGS) in Lobatse (cf. Fig. 1), and the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR1) in Hannover, Germany. The overall objective of the project is to establish a fully functional Environmental Geology Division within the DGS. Amongst other tasks, the division addresses major environmental issues associated with water in Botswana such as groundwater pollution due to urbanization and mining.

The aim of this particular study was to determine whether groundwater pollution had taken place in Francistown (Fig. 1) due to urban expansion and/or historic gold mining activities, and to delineate affected areas as well as potential groundwater hazards (areas with pit latrines, industrial sites, mine tailings etc.) on thematic maps. The thematic maps were designed in an easily readable form so as to enable urban planners to utilize them for future development planning.

Figure 1: Major urban and rural centres in Botswana

1 BGR is the German acronym for „Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe“ 1

2 THE FRANCISTOWN STUDY AREA

Francistown is the oldest established town in Botswana. Born during the late 19th century as a gold mining town at the confluence of the ephemeral Tati and Ntshe sand rivers, Francistown is the commercial hub in the NE of Botswana (cf. Fig. 1). The city's rapid economic development, in particular since the 1970s, has caused its population to triple over the last three decades to approximately 100,000 inhabitants. Today Francistown is the second largest city in Botswana.

In the not too distant past, water demands were entirely met by groundwater locally available from shallow alluvial and fractured volcanic rock aquifers. However, in the 1970s it was found that groundwater produced from the city’s public wells contained elevated concentrations of nitrate. In addition, the available limited groundwater resources could no longer meet the steadily rising demand for water. For these reasons public water supply was shifted in 1982 to surface water from the Shashe dam, which is located at a distance of approximately 30 km to the SW of Francistown. The Shashe dam was built during the 1970s to supply the copper-nickel mine in Selebi-Phikwe (cf. Fig. 1).

2.1 The climate in the study area

The climate in Francistown is semi-arid with an average annual rainfall of 460 mm (Fig. 2), the bulk of which falls between November and February (Fig. 3 (a)). Rainfall is highly variable, however, both annually and seasonally. A case in point is the rainfall season 1999- 2000, when approximately 2000 mm of rain fell, most of which in February and March 2000.

Because of the prevailing semi-arid climate, air humidity is generally low. But there is a clearly visible difference between the dry and the wet season (Fig. 3 (b)). Similarly, the average maximum air temperatures are very high in summer, in particular in poor rainfall years, while the dry winter season reveals very low average minimum temperatures (Fig. 4).

1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1925 1927 1929 1931 1933 1935 1937 1939 1941 1943 1945 1947 1949 1951 1953 1955 1957 1959 1961 1963 1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999

Figure 2: Annual rainfall in Francistown (1925-2000)

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100 100 90 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20

Humidity (%) 20 10 10 Precipitation (mm) 0 0 Jul JUL JAN JUN Apr Oct FEB SEP Jan Mar Jun APR OCT DEC Feb Aug Sep Nov Dec MAR MAY AUG NOV May Month Month

Figure 3: Mean monthly rainfall (a) and humidity (b) between 1970 and 1999

Figure 4: Average maximum and minimum air temperatures (1970-1999)

2.2 The topography and drainage pattern in the study area

The topography in the Francistown study area is relatively flat with isolated kopjes (inselbergs) outcropping within the geologic units less susceptible to weathering. The highest point within the study area si at 1096 m above sea level and the lowest at 958 m above sea level. The overall slope is at 0.002 m to the southwest.

The prevailing dendritic drainage pattern consists of a system of irregularly branching tributaries and forms junctions at various acute angles. This is a manifestation of the complex folded and contorted metamorphosed rocks where lithological variations (in terms of weathering and erosion) are insufficient to modify this pattern. The sporadic rainfall of high intensities implies high velocities during flow and hence intense water erosion.

2.3 The geology in the study area

A significant portion of the Francistown study area consists of rocks of the basement complex including meta-volcanics of the so-called Tati Schist Group (Fig. 5). Exposure of the bedded strata is generally good though most of the granitoid rocks are poorly exposed.

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LEGEND

Rivers Fault Infered Fault

Meta Andesite with mnor amphibolites, quartz schists (main aqifer) SELKIRK FORMATION Diorite Meta Dacite and Quartzites FRANCISTOWN DIORITE PENHALONGA FORMATION FORMATION with minor amphbolite Dolerite POST ECCA SERIES Amphibolites (Meta Basalts) LADY MARY FORMATION Granophyric Granite and Granodiorite Shashe Gneiss POST BULAWAYAN GROUP MOOKE PARAGNEISS FORMATION Serpentinite Tonalitic Ortho Gneiss } }

Figure 5: Geology of the Francistown study area.

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The basement complex is divided into various granitic formations and two non-granitic lithostratigraphic units (Gibb and Partners, 1987). These are subdivided into three formations, the first of which is correlated with the Lady Mary Volcanic Formation. This formation consists of a homogeneous succession of dark coloured, fine-grained amphibolitic schists. It has a uniform lateral thickness and also comprises prominent ironstone layers and minor ultramafic schists, serpentinites and meta-sediments.

The Lady Mary Formation is overlain by the Penhalonga Formation, which includes both meta-sediments and meta-volcanics. The latter are predominantly meta-andesite (greenstone) lavas, tuffs and agglomerates with amphibolite and meta-tuff beds. In this formation, a wide variety of amphibolite rocks of varying fissility, grain size and feldspar content occur. Abundant intercalations of quartz schist, mica schist, tremolite schist and talc schists have also been observed (Key, 1976).

The Selkirk Formation at the top of the schist relic is laterally more restricted than the other two formations and consists of mainly felsic meta-volcanic extrusives with minor intercalations of meta-sedimentary schists.

The oldest granitoid rocks in the area are tonalithic ortho-gneisses, which occur as elliptical plutons with marginal monzonites. A regional metamorphism with hornfels enrichment affected most parts of the area converting a major part of the Tati schist group into high grade gneisses while part of the group remained unaffected and remained at low grade metamorphism to form the present Tati schist relic. The youngest major suite of granitoid rocks includes the post-tectonic tonalites, which visibly cut the schist relic in the vicinity of Francistown. Minor late granite dykes cut the rocks north of Francistown and strikingly share the same fractures with the Karoo dolerite dyke swarm and may probably be contemporaneous with them.

The granitic gneisses of the area are collectively included in the Shashe Gneiss Group. This is subdivided into the Mooke Paragneiss Formation, which tends to occur in zones of varying width sandwiched between the major belts of non-granitic rocks and the Seke Porphyroplastic Gneiss Formation, which occurs to the south of the area. The recent sediments of probably Kalahari age mask the solid geology beneath in some parts of the area. Small floodplain alluvial deposits tend to be confined to the larger watercourses of the rivers Tati and Ntshe where they cross the granitoid rocks. The dendritic drainage pattern is most probably controlled by the underlying geology.

Gold mineralization in the Francistown area is from quartz reefs, fissure veins (all Tati schist relic), and also from eluvial deposits. Indeed the Tati schist relic has also been recognized for its base metal potential. Copper and nickel deposits have been identified and are now mined at the Selkirk and Phoenix mines near Matsiloje, 40 km further to the SE of Francistown. Copper-zinc anomalies have also been reported near the contact between the Penhalonga and Lady Mary formations as well as in several ironstones in these formations.

2.4 The hydrogeology in the study area

Very little detailed groundwater monitoring of the Francistown aquifers has taken place since the first abstractions in the early 1950s, and also since the recommendations made by consultants in 1974 (Colquhoun et al., 1974) and in 1979 respectively (Gibb and Partners, 1987). Data such as water levels and abstractions would normally be collected as a matter of course. However, in the absence of these, the development of a conceptual hydrogeology

5 model pertaining to an aquifer is frustrated. Due to the limited resources, it has not been possible to carry out a detailed hydrogeological investigation campaign as part of this study and therefore to fully understand the aquifer characteristics, data from previous work in the area is used for this purpose.

Australian groundwater consultants identified the major aquifer in Francistown as the Penhalonga Mixed Formation about 1.5 km wide extending for at least 7 km downstream of the Tati and Ntshe river confluence (Colquhoun et al., 1974). The most productive aquifers were recognized as relatively shallow discontinuous zones of fracturing. These fracture zones have a high transmissivity and draw from storage in the overlying weathered rock and alluvium. They may be up to 4 m thick and are usually semi-confined by alluvial sediments and clayey weathered rock.

Confining layers composed of sandy horizons contain water and contribute leakage into the underlying aquifer thereby acting as perched aquifers. Weathering appears to be confined to certain horizons within the Penhalonga Mixed Formation where it appears to be restricted to the easily weathered acid meta-volcanics. Indeed the river Tati is an excellent outward expression of this feature as it also follows the geological strike of this formation within these acid meta-volcanis. The river tends to change its course where it traverses more competent members of the Penhalonga Mixed Formation. This observation may be very important in understanding which member of the Penhalonga Mixed Formation produce the best aquifer. Meta-volcanics are generally hard brittle rocks that are less susceptible to weathering and when fractured have a moderate to high permeability. The steep dip of this formation to the SW implies that deep boreholes may penetrate the acid meta-volcanics and hence increase the yields.

Groundwater also occurs in sandy channels of the rivers Tati and Ntshe and this perennial baseflow component may also be regarded as an aquifer. Upstream of the confluence with the river Ntshe, the river Tati is 35 to 40 m wide with the average thickness of the sand bed being 1.7 m. However, sand pockets of up to 3 m deep exist and increase the saturated storage of this aquifer. Downstream of this confluence, larger volumes of water can be stored since the river becomes wider with widths ranging from 20 to 100 m and deeper sand beds of more than 2 m in parts.

The different components of recharge in the Tati and Ntshe catchment areas are rainfall and runoff, and most importantly, the perennial baseflow in these two rivers. To understand the mechanism, in place, two SEBA Datalogger Type MDS-Floaters (www.seba.de) were installed and their data was compared to daily rainfall totals. Although this data has been acquired over a relatively short period of time, it may be seen that there is a very small time lag of 2 to 3 days between the rainfall event and the rise in groundwater levels that reflect recharge (Fig. 6). This is because saturation of the river sands and the overburden has to take place first before recharge to the underlying aquifers can take place. The general trend is a declining water table with time as the water further infiltrates downwards to the underlying deep fractured aquifer and possibly also towards the river as effluent springs.

Currently available data for the Francistown area cannot be used to establish the regional quantities of recharge. Previous studies have estimated groundwater storage to be in the order of 3.5 million m3, assuming a storage coefficient of 0.05, and an area of 11 km2. This was only for the area surrounding the city of Francistown and not the extent of the aquifer.

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Figure 6: Hydrograph at borehole FT103 (Data source: DGS)

2.5 Potential groundwater hazards in the study area

Groundwater hazards are substances that have the potential to cause contamination or pollution to groundwater resources. The hazards to groundwater in the Francistown area are not of a higher magnitude compared to those in some industrialised countries. Most of them are at a small scale. But constant monitoring is vital in order to limit the already contaminated aquifer.

Pit latrines

Even though government has discontinued the construction of pit latrines in urban centres, there are still many people who cannot afford to replace their old pit latrines with modern toilet systems.

Pit latrines are an example of a hazard to groundwater due to nitrate contamination. Faecal waste is composed of degraded organic matter, which is easily measurable by nitrogen content, mostly in the form of ammonium and nitrate (depends on redox status of the environment). The World Health Organization and the Botswana Bureau of Standards recommendations for the maximum allowable level of nitrate in drinking water is 45 mg/l.

Waste disposal sites

At waste disposal sites (landfills), decomposition of domestic waste, sewage, and discarded chemicals, may produce a leachate rich in organics and, amongst others, may contain chemicals such as volatile fatty acids as well as fluvic acid-like compounds which may enter oxygenated groundwater. When leachate from a landfill mixes with groundwater, it forms a plume that spreads in the direction of the flowing water. The concentration decreases with distance from the landfill due to hydrodynamic dispersion and retardation. The volume of leachate that is produced is a function of the amount of water percolating through the refuse.

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Downstream of landfills, dissolved organic matter will first remove dissolved oxygen and nitrate upon mixing of leachate with the groundwater. Large amounts of CO2 are usually produced that often give rise to carbonate dissolution and strongly enhance alkalinity. Subsequently, Mn and Fe oxides in the sediment are reduced releasing large amounts of ferrous iron and manganous manganese. Nearer to the landfills, the processes proceed through a sulphate reduction zone terminating with a methane-producing zone directly below the landfills (Appelo & Postma, 1999). This is how the typical leachate plume is formed. Nevertheless, every plume is case specific and depends on the local conditions, mostly climate, water chemistry, geology of the area, soil type, and content of the leachate.

In semi-arid regions such as Botswana, the vadose zone receives little or no water. This means that solid waste disposal is not likely to result in extensive groundwater contamination. However, it nevertheless remains a hazard to water resources. That is why the City of Francistown was the first recipient of a modern landfill facility with groundwater quality monitoring wells in place. In terms of groundwater pollution, the new landfill site does not pose much of a threat as long as water quality monitoring is carried out proficiently. The old waste dump has been shut down and fenced off in order to keep away scavenging animals from accessing and digging the old waste. However, this site may pose a threat and since the amount of pollution that has taken place before cannot be quantified, constant monitoring of wells around the site ought to be in place.

Mining

Several areas of intensive historic gold mining activities including mine waste dumps and tailings occur in the study area (Fig. 7). A separate study carried out by the Environmental Geology Division on mine soils in Francistown revealed two distinct soil groups, namely mine soils characterised by acidic and alkalinic soil reaction respectively (Vogel & Kasper, 2002). The low pH levels in the first group, in particular at Monarch South (Fig. 7), are assumed to be the result of pyrite weathering (acid sulfate weathering). The acidic mine soils revealed elevated levels of cadmium, chromium, copper, manganese, nickel, platinum, antimony, vanadium, and zinc. Rather conspicuous were the observed high contents of mobile heavy metals and metalloids in the surface layers, especially at Monarch South and Shashe.

All mine soils investigated revealed high levels of total arsenic except for the two tailings Monarch South and Central. Amongst the investigated mine soils, the highest concentrations of arsenic in a single soil profile of 1 m depth were 3215 to 5288 mg As kg-1. The metalloid arsenic is normally a natural accessory element of gold ores (except for the Monarch area) and is therefore a worldwide problem associated with gold mine tailings.

Monarch did not reveal elevated arsenic levels because it is unique in the Tati greenstone belt. Unlike the other mine sites in the Francistown area, the ore at Monarch is not arsenical but high in copper. The host rock at Monarch is not Archean greenschist and/or amphibolite but so-called Francistown tonalite which is a somewhat younger granitic rock that cut through along a fault.

The observed high contents of toxic elements in the tailings, both total and mobile, provide an ample source of heavy metals for groundwater contamination. In addition, when mines are abandoned and the pumps used to keep the mine dry are switched off, water starts to rise through the shafts and galleries. Contact with metallic salts and other substances on the once

8 dry walls of the workings pollute the water as it rises. Eventually, when the void space is filled, the water will then find its way into the regional groundwater body.

Figure 7: Monarch South tailings

Industries

Existing industries in Francistown do not pose much of a danger to groundwater. Most of them are manufacturing industries, in particular textile and construction. Several motor industry repair workshops are also scattered throughout the city. Waste oil is recycled through oil disposal tanks put in place by oil companies. The efficiency of this system is not really known. However, from visual inspection it does not appear to be very efficient (Fig. 8).

Construction and urban pollution

Runoff from the impermeable surfaces of the built-up areas can be highly polluting and may also increase the risk of flooding. Runoff, although variable in composition, may carry a mix of polluting substances such as toxic metals, pesticides, oils, hydrocarbons, sediments, and oxygen-depleting substances. In the case of Francistown, surface water discharges receive no treatment before entering the surrounding rivers and the passage of this water from hard compacted surfaces is often rapid. This means that there is little dilution to reduce the impact of any pollutant leading to periods of poor water quality and ecological damage during the rainy season.

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Unprotected wells

Unprotected wells may also be a source of pollution. Several wells within the study area were found in vandalized condition as they are often left open when they are no longer needed. It is possible that these wells may be used as disposal sites for waste fluids such as oil and dirty waste waters when they are close by as a quick disposal method. Seepage of pollutants can easily infiltrate into the underlying aquifers in poorly constructed wells without a sanitary backfill. Often during construction of new structures, these wells are destroyed.

Figure 8: Waste oil disposal tank in Francistown.

3 METHODS AND MATERIALS

A literature review was carried out at the beginning of the study including climatic data from the Dept. of Meteorology. Thereafter a census of all existing wells within the study area was undertaken in order to establish their distribution, usage, and availability for sampling. A Garmin 40 hand-held GPS (www.garmin.com) was used for positioning and coordinate acquisition. Similarly, all industries and other sites that may have a negative impact on groundwater quality were mapped and, again, their location determined by means of the Garmin 40 hand-held GPS.

Boreholes that were found to be accessible in terms of water level measurement were used together with the topographical elevation to infer groundwater flow directions. An electrical dipper was used for water level measurements and a Trimble high-precision GPS for ground elevation measurements as well as more accurate Cartesian coordinates.

The sampling of accessible boreholes involved the use of a Grundfos MP1 submersible pump (www.grundfos.com) equipped with riser pipes of up to 90 m. The system comprised a 48 mm diameter stainless steel pump, a frequency converter, a riser hose, and a cable reel with trolley powered by a 240V petrol generator. The adjustable pumping capacity of the pump achieved was 2 m3/h. All discharge water generated while pumping was released at least 30 m away from the borehole down gradient of the prevailing land slope.

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The method of sampling was such that electrical conductivity and groundwater reaction were measured continuously until both parameters had stabilised. Once they had stabilized a groundwater sample was taken from the particular borehole. The sample bottles were all made of plastic. Upon sampling, water reaction (pH), electrical conductivity (EC), and dissolved oxygen (DO) were measured using a WTW pH 315i, a WTW Cond 315i, and a WTW Oxi - 315i hand-held meter respectively (www.wtw.com). Bicarbonate (HCO3 ) and carbon dioxide (CO2) were determined through titration with 0.5M hydrochloric acid and with 0.05M sodium hydroxide.

All samples destined for the BGR laboratories were filtered and those for the laboratory at the Dept. of Geological Survey were not (Table 1). The BGR laboratories applied the ICP-MS2 and ICP-OES3 methods whereas the chemistry laboratory at the Dept. of Geological Survey in Lobatse applied the ion chromatograph and the ICP-OES methods (Table 2).

Laboratory No. of 100 ml 500 ml 5 litre Acidified/non Analysis samples filtered sample sample acidified sample DGS lab 47 X X Non acidified BGR labs 47 x 2 X both

Table 1: Samples submitted to the different labs for analysis.

Laboratory Major Remarks Trace Remarks constituents elements DGS Ion Model DX 100 Ion ICP-OES Perkin Elmer Optima 3000XL chromatography Chromatograph, method (1997 model) (1998 model) BGR 1 ICP-MS Not tested Element type manufactured by for Finnigan MAT. BGR 2 ICP-OES Manufactured by ICP-OES Manufactured by Spectro Spectro

Table 2: Laboratory analyses carried out and methods applied.

The data obtained from the various fieldwork exercises and the hydro-chemical laboratory analyses (Appendices IX-XI) were used to produce several environmental geology maps of the Francistown study area. For this to materialize, all data were transferred to the ArcView GIS software (Version 3.2) environment (www.esri.com) where the various data layers were put together to produce the thematic maps.

Data obtained from the hydro-chemical analyses were also used to deduce redox conditions, to define redox zones, and to determine the predominant redox processes in the investigated aquifers. These data were further used to determine the extent of groundwater pollution and to come up with recommendations for eventual remediation.

2 Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry 3 Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectroscopy 11

4 RESULTS

The objective of this study was to establish the quality of the groundwater resources in Francistown and to produce easily readable environmental hydrogeology maps for urban planners. In the end, a total of five digital thematic maps were produced, namely a borehole location map, a groundwater contour map, a groundwater hazards map, a map on groundwater quality, and a groundwater contamination map. While the first two maps are complementary and may be considered more of a hydrogeological inventorying nature, the last three depict crucial environmental hydrogeology information suitable for immediate use by planners.

4.1 ENVIRONMENTAL HYDROGEOLOGY MAPS

The above environmental hydrogeoloy maps are in A0 format. This format allows for easy readability. However, because of the limited space available in a report such as this one, they are attached hereto in A4 format (Appendices I to V). All five maps are at a scale of 1:25.000.

Borehole location map

The location of a total of 202 boreholes is depicted on the borehole location map (Appendix I). They are identifiable on the basis of borehole numbers and were classified into 11 categories. These categories differentiate boreholes that are in use, not in use, not in use but sampling and water level measurements possible, in use and sampling and water level measurements possible, in use but only sampling possible, not in use but sampling possible, in use but only water level measurement possible, not in use but water level measurement possible, collapsed or vandalized but water level measurement possible, collapsed or vandalized and no measurements possible, and, finally, dry boreholes. Out of this total of 202 boreholes, only 48 could be sampled for groundwater.

From the borehole location map it is clear that the vast majority of boreholes is concentrated along the two rivers Ntshe and Tati. Groundwater yields are generally low. Several of the few known borehole yields were below 2 m3/h, hence their proximity to the rivers. Only very few such as the monitoring boreholes at the abandoned and the new landfill site respectively are beyond the rivers.

Groundwater flow map

The groundwater flow map (Appendix II), based on water level and elevation data taken in July and August 2000, is fully complementary to the borehole location map (Appendix I). In fact, both could have been merged into one. But due to better readability they were separated out.

In addition to the above borehole categories, the groundwater flow map shows the groundwater contour lines in meters above mean sea level, both in the alluvial aquifers and the fractured basement rocks. From the groundwater contour lines, groundwater flow lines were derived and then superimposed. As was to be expected, the groundwater flow is towards and/or along the river courses (Appendix II).

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Groundwater hazards map

In the case of the groundwater hazards map it was the built-up city areas, peri-urban vegetable farms, the historic gold mining areas in and around Francistown, and the waste disposal sites in the outskirts, which were surveyed (Appendix III). In the legend, two types of hazards were separated out, namely point hazards such as, for example, filling stations, dry cleaners, and spray painters, and non-point hazards such as, for example, mine tailings, waste disposal sites, and areas with pit latrines and/or septic tanks.

Areas with pit latrines, sewage ponds and/or cemeteries pose a groundwater hazard in terms of organic substances, bacteria, and nitrates. In fact, because nitrate pollution is a serious problem with groundwater in Botswana, nitrates serve as the key indicator of overall groundwater quality in all environmental hydrogeology studies carried out by the Environmental Geology Division (Vogel, 2002).

Filling stations and fuel/oil storage sites pose a potential hazard because of hydrocarbons from mineral oil products and also because of heavy metals. Dry cleaners and vehicle repair shops deal with solvents, which contain toxic chlorinated hydrocarbons. Hence areas with light industries and/or waste disposal sites are also likely to be hazardous to groundwater because of heavy metals and hydrocarbons.

From the groundwater hazard map (Appendix III) it can be seen that areas with pit latrines and historic gold mining areas are the dominant potential groundwater hazards in Francistown. Although the implementation of this study coincided with the construction of a modern sewerage system, many households were and still are using pit latrines and/or septic tanks. Similarly, although gold mining has finally come to an end in Francistown, no rehabilitation measures have as yet been carried out as far as the multitude of hazardous mine tailings and mine dumps are concerned (Vogel & Kasper, 2002).

Groundwater quality map

The groundwater quality map was set up in a way to identify the spatial distribution of certain types of groundwater at first sight (Appendix IV). The groundwater types were regionalized on the basis of the analytical hydro-chemistry data and the available regional geological map. In addition, the groundwater quality map highlights the dominant ion composition of the groundwater as well as the contents of total dissolved solids (TDS).

From the groundwater quality map it can be seen that 3 types of groundwater were prevalent at the time of sampling in July and August 2000. Magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+), and - bicarbonate (HCO3 ) were the most important ions.

Over most of the built-up city area the groundwater was strongly influenced by anthropogenic activities. This was evident from TDS levels greater than 1000 mg/L, and chlorine (Cl-), 2- - sulfate (SO4 ), and nitrate (NO3 ) constituting the dominant anions.

The second water type, prevailing mainly in the southern and the northern part of the study - area, were Mg-Ca-HCO3 or Na-Mg-Ca-HCO3 waters with elevated concentrations of NO3 , - Cl and SO4 but TDS levels smaller than 1000mg/L. The third type of groundwater was again Mg-Ca-HCO3 or Na-Mg-Ca-HCO3 water but with only local deviations possibly due to localized contamination.

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Based on the Piper diagram (Fig. 9), the dominant groundwater type may be classified as alkaline earth freshwater. It featured high alkalies and prevailing sulfuric-hydrogencarbonatic environments, and was of peripheral bedrock origin.

Figure 9: Piper diagram of the Francistown groundwater samples.

Groundwater contamination map

The groundwater contamination map (Appendix V) is supplementary to the groundwater quality map (Appendix IV). It highlights those boreholes where certain elements such as, for example, arsenic, boron, and ferrous iron were found to exceed the standards for drinking water of both the World Health Organization (WHO, 1998) and the Botswana Bureau of Standards (BOS, 2000).

In addition, the groundwater contamination map pays tribute to the fact that the major groundwater pollutant in mid 2000 was nitrate. Hence, the map also depicts nitrate contours (isolines). By comparing the groundwater hazards map (Appendix III) and the groundwater contamination map (Appendix V) it becomes strikingly evident that the areas where the boreholes revealed elevated nitrate levels corresponded well with the presence of pit latrines (Fig. 10).

4.2 GROUNDWATER POLLUTION ZONES

Subsequently to the production of the environmental hydrogeology maps, an attempt was made to delineate distinct zones of groundwater pollution and to possibly associate them with specific pollution sources. For this to materialize, all groundwater parameters determined in the field and/or in the laboratories were displayed individually (Appendices VI-VIII) and used as process indicators.

The first parameter depicted individually was groundwater reaction (pH values). It is obvious from the respective map (Map 1, Appendix VI) that there was not much variation (pH 6.5 to

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7.5) and most of the samples had neutral pH levels (around pH 7), which is normal for groundwater (Fetter, 1994). No groundwater sample showed acid conditions.

The concentration of oxygen in the groundwater was displayed on the second map (Map 2, Appendix VI). Thus zones with different aeration status were identified, namely zones with aerobic (oxic) and those with anaerobic (probably reduced) groundwater conditions. This was the starting point towards defining possible pollution zones and also towards predicting the redox states.

Figure 10: Nitrate concentrations in groundwater and areas with pit latrines in Francistown in mid 2000

In order to allow for a detailed analysis it was necessary to examine the main indicator species 2- 2+ 2+ for redox state, namely sulphate (SO4 ), ferrous iron (Fe ), manganous manganese (Mn ), - - + nitrate (NO3 ), nitrite (NO2 ), and ammonium (NH4 ) (Maps 3-8, Appendix VI). As was to be expected, a comparison between these different species revealed that areas with high levels of 2+ 2+ - 2- Fe and Mn had at the same time low levels of NO3 and SO4 . Equally, areas rich in sulphates and nitrates coincided with zones high in dissolved oxygen (O2), indicating oxidizing (aerobic) conditions, while zones high in ferrous iron and manganous manganese overlapped with zones very low in dissolved oxygen, thus indicating reduced (anaerobic) environments. The change from one zone to another was gradual.

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Important information in order to identify buffering systems was the presence of carbon - dioxide (CO2) and bicarbonate (HCO3 ) (Maps 9 and 10, Appendix VI). The distribution of these two species did not show a significant relationship to the redox state of the water. It rather was related to the calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) distribution (Maps 11 and 12, Appendix VI).

The next parameter under consideration was the distribution of chloride (Cl-) (Map 14, Appendix VI). Due to its significant mobility, Cl- was meant to point to possible pollution sources. Yet, only few zones of high concentration were identified.

The next step was to seek out possible pollutants, that is heavy metals (Maps 15-18, Appendix VI) and other trace elements (Maps 19-37, Appendix VI). All heavy metals that were detected in the study area showed distributions quite different from each other and were possibly related to mine waste sites. Zinc (Zn) however was not connected to mine dumps only; very strong concentrations of reduced Zn were much wider spread.

The spatial distribution of the different pollutants revealed that they were associated with zones. Thus, once the areas with oxic (aerobic) and those with anoxic (anaerobic) groundwater environments and the spatial distribution of pollutants were identified, the study area could be divided into different pollution zones (Fig. 11):

Zone I – Oxidising conditions, lots of dissolved oxygen, lots of nitrate, sulphate present, very low concentrations of ferrous iron and manganous manganese; mostly organic pollution.

Zone Ia – A local disturbance within Zone I showing presence of trace elements. There is a small mine dump on this site.

Zone II – High concentrations of ferrous iron and manganous manganese, enhanced Zn2+, no sulphate, no nitrate, ammonia present signing very reduced conditions. Possibly due to organic pollution but also danger from precipitation of sulphides of different metals.

Zone III – Typical mining waste point. Enhanced heavy metal and trace element concentrations, very high arsenic concentration, but also high nitrate and sulphate levels. Ferrous iron and manganous manganese strongly decreased.

Zone IV – Reduced zone with high Zn2+ and Cr concentrations; Fe2+ and Mn2+ enhanced. Some trace elements present.

Zone IVa – Disturbance within Zone IV with high oxygen concentration and some enhanced heavy metals and trace elements; Cl- also highly concentrated.

Zone V – Oxidised, very high sulphate and chloride concentrations; no nitrate; trace elements in significant concentrations; some heavy metals present; controlled landfill.

Zone VI - Reduced, but no Fe2+ and Mn2+; Cl- highly concentrated; Mg2+ and Ca2+ enhanced - as well as CO2 and HCO3 ; some trace elements present; old and abandoned landfill.

Zone VII –Oxidising conditions; no organic pollution but very diverse trace elements present (some of them concentrated); no potential source of pollution could be identified from the groundwater hazards map (Appendix III).

16

Figure 11: Groundwater pollution zones in Francistown in mid 2000

17

5 DISCUSSION

The results of this study, in particular the mapping exercise, revealed that groundwater in Francistown has become polluted through mainly three major sources, namely pit latrines (Zones I and II), mine tailings dumps (Zones III, IV, IVa, VII, and Ia), and waste disposal sites (Zones V and VI) (Fig. 11).

5.1 PIT LATRINES - ZONES I AND II

Pit latrines are located all along the rivers Tati and Ntshe throughout the built-up area (Fig. 10). They constitute a constant source of organic pollution in the form of human excrements. This is very hazardous not only because it affects groundwater quality but also because it constitutes a potential source of infectious diseases.

It is likely that a huge amount of pollution may be transferred into zone I from the reduced zones VII and IV upstream in the north. Zone I was characterised by a high concentration of dissolved oxygen. Nitrogen originating from the upstream area as well as from zone I itself is probably oxidised to the level of nitrate, which showed an extremely high concentration in the centre of the area. Downstream the concentration of dissolved oxygen decreased. At the same time the nitrite concentration increased (probably due to denitrification). The nitrate concentration gradually decreased towards zone II. In contrast, the concentrations of Fe2+ and Mn2+ were very low in the centre and gradually increased towards the reducing zone II. This was typical of a redox state controlled by bacterial activity. In zone I there was a lot of organic matter input, which may have been used by bacteria as a source of carbon for the oxidation of Fe2+ (cf. Christensen et al., 1995).

To the south of Francistown, the river Tati bends in easterly direction and then comes back towards the west in the middle of zone II. Between the two bends ephemeral river flows are slowed down and the observed depth to the groundwater was shallower here than elsewhere in Francistown. In the crest of the second river bend there are big alluvial deposits, which probably resulted in the accumulation of organic pollution and reduced groundwater - + conditions. At this point NO3 was hardly measurable but NH4 showed a strong concentration. Fe2+ and Mn2+ were also strongly concentrated along with Zn2+. This was indicative of strong anaerobic bacterial reduction processes.

On the edge of zone II towards zone III there was an old sewage pond. This location could be - recognised in the form of a prolonged reduced zone characterized by lower NO3 and very high Mn2+ levels. Surprisingly though, the concentration of Fe2+ was low. From this it appeared that Mn reduction was somehow favoured over Fe reduction, which may have been controlled by the redox state of the pond (Mn needs less energy for oxidation than Fe).

5.2 MINE WASTE DUMPS - ZONES IV, IVa, VII AND Ia

Several groundwater zones were indicative of pollution due to historic gold mining activities in Francistown. The strongest evidence came from the wider surroundings of the Lady Mary mine, which is located in the SE corner of the project area (Appendix III). Two boreholes located close to this abandoned mine site (strongly) violated international and Botswana drinking water arsenic standards, which allow for a maximum of 10 ppb (µg L-1). Yet the groundwater in the two boreholes investigated there featured levels of 26 and 244 µg (ppb) As L-1 respectively. Arsenic is very problematic in the environment because of its relative

18 mobility over a wide range of redox conditions (Smedley & Kinniburgh, 2001). Zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd) and nickel (Ni) were also present in very high concentrations. In addition, other compounds such as cobalt, titanium, scandium, antimony, mercury, tellurium, rubidium, and thallium also showed elevated concentrations in zone III.

Since zone III is situated in the most downstream spot of the study area, it is likely that all sorts of organic pollutants and products of anaerobic processes, originating from zones II and I, were also transported in the groundwater to this area. Because the concentration of dissolved oxygen was rather high, the redox processes obviously went towards oxidation. The nitrite and nitrate levels were rather high indicating active oxidation of ammonia originating from the reduced zone II. Sulphate was also very high and possibly originated from the oxidation of FeS or MnS. At the same time the concentrations of Fe(II) and Mn(II) were strongly decreased, which was probably the result of oxidation and the formation of insoluble Fe(III) or Mn(IV) compounds. All this was suggestive of very strong bacterial processes. In addition, the Cl- distribution in this zone was also indicative of a site characterized by pollution input. All in all, the broad range of organic and highly toxic inorganic pollutants in zone III calls for urgent site remediation.

Another mine site depicted on the groundwater hazards map is Monarch located north of the confluence of the rivers Tati and Ntshe (Appendix III). Surprisingly though, zone IV did not indicate elevated levels of heavy metals or other trace elements due to gold mining. The only irregularities compared to the surrounding area were a very high O2 concentration, elevated cobalt and silver concentrations but low nitrate and very low Fe(II) and Mn(II) levels. A possible explanation is that due to a combination of factors such as limited rainfall in this semi-arid environment, the fine texture of the tailings material (the dominant particle size in the top 1 m of the Monarch South tailings is silty sand), and the huge size of the Monarch tailings, acid mine drainage (leaching) may not readily take place. Most of the pollutants may rather remain in the oxidised crystal form.

A parallel environmental geology study on mine soils (top 1 m of the tailings) revealed that in one of the Monarch tailings (i.e. Monarch South) high amounts of heavy metals were mobile because of acidic soil reaction (pH 3,3 to 3,7) there (Vogel & Kasper, 2002). It is assumed that the likely driving force behind the observed accumulation in the surface layer is high evaporation. This assumption was supported by the fact that the surface soil layer at Monarch South also revealed a high salt accumulation, which had led to the formation of a hard platy crust. This surface crust is likely to impede percolation through the tailings.

In contrast, zones that had not been mapped as hazardous on the groundwater hazard map (Appendix III), that is zone IV, IVa, VII and Ia, showed strange irregularities in their groundwater composition. Zone IV was very reduced with a medium nitrate concentration but high Fe(II) levels. Surprisingly, it also showed a high Zn(II) and a very high chromium concentration. Thallium, rubidium, tellurium, and cadmium were also present in increased concentrations. The distribution of Cl- indicated a strong pollution input upstream from this zone. The data obtained from this zone suggest that somewhere there was a very strong but unrecognised source of pollution, or else, the natural geological environment may have caused the formation of reduced groundwater conditions and the release of metal ions into the water. The latter is however unlikely given the granitic nature of the resident rock.

- The situation was similar in zone IVa. A low dissolved O2 level and therefore a low NO3 concentration, increased Fe(II) and Mn(II) but also increased arsenic, copper, selenium, beryllium, tin, caesium, yttrium and tungsten concentrations. Data from this site also revealed strong inorganic pollution even though no obvious inorganic waste source was detected.

19

Zone VII is located north of zone IVa. Again, data showed enhanced concentrations of heavy metals but not of the elements identified in zone IVa. Because no pollution source could be detected in these two zones it is suggested that remnants of old mine deposits may exist in these two areas.

A small mine dump within zone I (cf. Lehmann, 2001) caused raised concentrations of zircon, tantalum, hafnium, cerium, niobium, bismuth scandium and titanium and, therefore, it was - 3+ separated out as mine waste zone Ia. Increased concentrations of Cl and PO4 clearly pointed to anthropogenic pollution. The oxygen and nitrate concentrations at this site were strongly reduced but nitrite was increased. This indicated a change in bacterial populations from nitrifying to denitrifying bacteria.

Given the obvious similarities in groundwater pollution between the above sites, they were put in the same pollution risk group. They may be even more hazardous than zone III since they are situated upstream from the built-up areas. Clearly, more investigations need to be carried out and immediate remediation needs to be undertaken.

5.3 WASTE DISPOSAL SITES - ZONES V AND VI

From research on the geochemistry of waste disposal sites (landfills), mainly carried out in the temperate zones, it is obvious that most situations are case sensitive, that is unique to the site under investigation (Christensen et al., 2001). Nevertheless, landfill leachates may be characterized as water-based solution of four groups of pollutants:

- Dissolved organic matter (CH4, volatile fatty acids, fulvic like and humic-like compounds) + 2+ - - Inorganic macro-components (Ca, Mg, Na, K, NH4 , Fe, Mn, Cl, SO4 , and HCO3 ) - Heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni, and Zn) - Xenobiotic organic compounds (aromatic hydrocarbons, phenols, chlorinated aliphatics)

The enrichment of these components may typically be up to a factor of 1000 to 5000 times higher than natural groundwater concentrations. The contents of leachates change with the age of the landfill. Leachates from waste disposal sites are also different depending on whether they belong to the acid (aerobic, decomposition of the organic matter, low pH values) or methanogenic (CH4 is produced – highly anaerobic, pH increases and low organic matter decomposition) phase (Christiansen et al. 2001). Most of the older leachates are in the long- lasting methanogenic phase.

The two most important factors governing the biogeochemical processes within a leachate plume are (1) the redox state, and (2) the content of the leachate. Determining the redox state of polluted groundwater is not easy. It is based on the identification of redox-sensitive species. The primary redox-sensitive species in groundwater are the dissolved ions of Fe2+, 2+ - - + 2- - Mn , NO3 , NO2 , NH4 , SO4 , HS , the dissolved gasses CH4, N2O and O2, and also some organic substances (Christensen et al. 2001).

Most of these processes are driven by bacteria and therefore slow. Bacterial populations are differentiated according to the presence (aerobs) or absence (anaerobs) of oxygen. Hence, a crucial step for this part of the study was to determine the presence of dissolved oxygen (O2) in the groundwater samples.

20

It was obvious that the two waste disposal sites in Francistown were quite different in terms of aeration (Map 2, Appendix VI). The old landfill site (zone VI) was very poor in dissolved oxygen (O2). It is assumed that the long-lasting deposition of waste had formed the reduced environment and that anaerobic processes had probably taken place. In contrast, the new landfill site (zone V) had not yet developed a reduced zone of influence. There the concentration of O2 was quite high.

In both zones, Fe2+ (Map 4, Appendix VI) and Mn2+ (Map 5) were only present in very low 4 - concentrations . Similarly, NO3 (Map 6) was also only present in a very low concentration, - + and NO2 (Map 7) and NH4 (Map 8) were probably absent. Since no significant increase in 2+ 2+ - Fe and Mn levels and no decrease in NO3 could be observed, and given the fact that there was only very little groundwater in both areas (in fact, during pumping one of the sampled boreholes dried up), it is assumed that the geochemistry and the redox states were not governed biologically. Bacteria need water in order to thrive. Yet, the observed brief and low water supply probably hardly allowed for bacterial populations to flourish and to contribute significantly to geochemical processes.

2- The very enhanced concentration of sulphate (SO4 ) in zone V (Map 3, Appendix VI) was probably the result of the presence of oxygenated water and the deposition of ash and building material at this site. Spreading out in a radial manner, sulphate looked like a serious problem. Very similar pictures emanated from the spatial concentrations of rubidium (Map 24), thallium (Map 25), silver (Map 28), uranium, (Map 31), molybdenum, (Map 37), lanthanum (Map 38), zircon (Map 42), titanium (Map 44), sodium (Map 51), bromide (Map 52), borate (Map 55), and boron (Map 56).

- The observed slightly enhanced concentrations of CO2 (Map 9) and HCO3 (Map 10) may have caused the dissolution of Ca2+ (Map 11) and Mg2+ (Map 12) out of the carbonates. Probably as a result of this, the concentrations of these two cations were slightly raised (cf. Christensen et al. 2001). This could have influenced the buffering system of the sediments.

Chloride (Cl-) is assumed to be a conservative ion in groundwater (Christensen et al., 2001). The mobility of Cl- depends directly on dilution processes and it is therefore assumed that its presence is a sign of pollution. Furthermore, the area over which chloride may spread from a landfill site is an indicator of how far leachate may be transported in groundwater.

In the case of this study this would mean that both waste disposal sites constitute sources of pollution (Map 14). From the map it is also evident that the area of high Cl- concentration is much wider at the new (zone V) as compared to the old landfill site (zone VI). This supports the assumption that there is no new input of pollution at the old landfill site. So far, the new landfill is only used to deposit inorganic waste. Once it will be used for other kinds of waste, different processes may set in.

Considering the semi-arid environment in Francistown it may be assumed that pollution at both landfill sites is localised, will not move readily from place to place (little mobility), and is probably confined to the soil only. From this it would follow that the two landfills had no significant adverse effect on groundwater quality in the study area. On the other hand, however, natural remediation in the form of transporting pollutants to other places or through bacterial degradation is also not likely to take place, and thus pollution would probably stay there as a potential hazard for a very long time (cf. Christensen et al., 2001). What makes the

4 Generally, reduction processes are characteristic for leachate plumes. 21 situation even more critical is that the newly constructed landfill in zone V should be controlled, and pollutants must by all means be prevented from moving into the groundwater.

6 CONCLUSIONS

Groundwater quality in Francistown has deteriorated drastically due to the influence of urban expansion and mining. The three dominant sources of pollution were identified to be pit latrines, mine waste dumps, and waste disposal sites (landfills). Pollution from these sources was, however, spatially confined to those zones within which pit latrines, mine waste dumps, and landfills are located. Groundwater from boreholes located within these zones was not suitable for human consumption because it exceeded certain World Health Organization and Botswana Bureau of Standards recommendations for drinking water.

Amongst the three pollution sources, pit latrines were found to have had the worst impact on groundwater quality. The chemical analyses of groundwater samples from a total of 48 public and private wells sampled within and around Francistown showed that nitrate concentrations were frequently well above the maximum allowable level of nitrate in drinking water, which is 45 mg/l (BOS, 2000; WHO, 1998). Quite often they reached levels of between 100 to 300 mg/l.

Some of these boreholes had already been sampled in the mid 1970s. Even though elevated nitrate concentrations of up to 80 mg/l had been encountered then, a comparison showed that nitrate levels had significantly increased into mid 2000 when the samples for this study were taken. It is also important to note that groundwater sampled during the course of this survey from boreholes situated in remote areas outside the city featured considerably less nitrate. In most cases the nitrate levels in remote areas outside the city were below 40 mg/l, which indicated that the cause of nitrate contamination was likely to have been anthropogenic. Finally, the addition of nitrate through faecal waste had in turn triggered complex redox 2+ 2- processes that had raised the ferrous iron (Fe ) and sulphate (SO4 ) concentrations of the groundwater.

Mine dumps and/or tailings have also contributed to the deterioration of groundwater quality through the addition of heavy metals, and by raising the sulphate concentration in certain zones. Two boreholes in the SE corner of the study area, located close to the abandoned Lady Mary mine, revealed arsenic levels of between 26 to 244 ppb, which violated international drinking water arsenic standards (maximum of 10 ppb). Because the vast majority of the sampled boreholes are located along the rivers Tati and Ntshe and far away from the tailings, the real groundwater hazards emanating from the tailings may have gone unnoticed. Clearly, further investigations need to be carried out.

Landfills had the least impact on groundwater quality. They have been sited away from the main aquifer and within rock formations that yield little groundwater. Because of the limited rainfall in the study area, pollutants within these zones are likely to stay contained within the soils. Only occasionally will they be flushed during the rainy season and hence diluted.

22

7 RECOMMENDATIONS

Groundwater from a substantial number of boreholes in Francistown was found to be not suitable for human consumption. It is therefore necessary to determine which boreholes are used for human drinking water so as to discontinue their use. As a rule, the City Council ought to adopt a development strategy that places more emphasis on an environmental approach to planning taking into account the existing water resources. For example, all new infrastructures should be placed as far away as possible from the rivers because the aquifers in the area are dependent on rainfall and river recharge. Activities such as the recent aligning of sewage pipelines along the riverbanks must in future be avoided by all means. Such activities not only destroy a natural flood barrier but they may in fact lead to serious water pollution. Similarly, any new development must not include pit latrines.

Indeed, the study revealed that groundwater pollution due to nitrates, which too obviously to be doubted emanated from pit latrines, constitutes a real health hazard. Since the City Council has put in place a sewage reticulation system throughout the city, it is necessary to educate the residents on the need to connect to the sewerage and put an end to the use of pit latrines. So far, connection to the sewerage system is on a voluntary basis, and the use of pit latrines (and septic tanks, is currently still the main means of wastewater discharge in the newly connected areas. The phasing out of pit latrines will require diligence on the part of the City Council and the residents in partnership. A total destruction of the latrine structures may be necessary in order to prevent reuse.

The study also confirmed that environmental and health hazards emanating from abandoned mine tailings must be dealt with in a way that guarantees human safety and environmental protection. The reported chemical “cocktail” conditions of tailings (Vogel & Kasper, 2002) and the observed trace element concentrations in some boreholes make this obvious.

The first and best line of defence would be to isolate and contain the potentially toxic parts of the mine waste. Examples for the “passive prevention of pollutant release” include the use of wet or dry covers on waste rock piles, the grouting of permeable pathways to prevent rapid migration of contaminants, and the use of ground solidification techniques (cf. Zwikula, 2002). Further literature and technology reviews are, however, necessary for recommending remedial measures. It will also be necessary to make an appraisal of the mine waste dumps in order to determine their economic status for possible recycling.

As far as the waste disposal (landfill) sites are concerned, it appeared that they are well sited in areas of low groundwater yields. But continuous monitoring is necessary in order to determine the dynamics of possible plume development so as to militate against possible groundwater pollution resulting from plume migration. Further investigations are also necessary to determine the source of heavy metals and other pollutants at the new landfill site.

23

8 REFERENCES

Appelo, C.A.J. & D. Postma (1999): Geochemistry, groundwater and pollution. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 536 p.

Colquhoun, B., O’Donnel, H. & Partners (1974): Redevelopment of the Francistown groundwater studies report. Phases I, II and III. Australian Groundwater Consultants.

BOS (2000): Water quality – Drinking water – Specification. BOS 32, Botswana Bureau of Standards, Gaborone, Botswana.

Christensen, T.H., Kjelsden, P., Bjerk, P.L., Jensen, D.L., Christensen, J.B., Baun, A. Albrechtsen, H.J. & G. Heron (2001): Biogeochemistry of landfill leachate plumes. Applied Geochemistry: 659-718.

Fetter, 1994. Applied Hydrogeology. 3rd ed. Prentice Hall. USA.

Gibb, A. Sir & Partners (1987). Francistown Water Development. Pre-Investment Study. Appendices B1 and B2. Water Resources. Water Utilities Corporation, Botswana.

Key, R. (1976): The geology of the area around Francistown and Phikwe, Northeast and Central Districts, Botswana. District Memoir 3, 121 p. plus maps, Dept. of Geological Survey (DGS), Lobatse, Botswana.

Lehmann, A. 2001. Conceptual Map of the Urban Soils of Francistown. Draft map and explanations with special reference to town planning and environmental quality. Report by the Environmental Geology Division, Dept. of Geological Survey (DGS), 48 p., Lobatse, Botswana.

Smedley, P.K. & D.G. Kinniburgh (2001): Source and behaviour of arsenic in natural waters. In: United Nations Synthesis Report on Arsenic in Drinking Water.

Vogel, H. (2002): The soil nitrogen cycle. Report by the Environmental Geology Division, Dept. of Geological Survey (DGS), 25 p., Lobatse, Botswana.

Vogel, H. & B. Kasper (2002): Mine soils on abandoned gold mine tailings in Francistown. Report by the Environmental Geology Division, Dept. of Geological Survey (DGS), 43 p., Lobatse, Botswana.

WHO (1998): Guidelines for drinking water quality. World Health Organization, 2nd ed., Volumes 1 and 2, Geneva, Switzerland.

Zwikula, T. (2002): Environmental engineering geology problems affecting development in the City of Francistown. Report by the Environmental Geology Division, Dept. of Geological Survey (DGS), 32 p., Lobatse, Botswana.

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9 APPENDICES

25

APPENDIX I: Borehole location map

26

APPENDIX II: Groundwater contour map

27

APPENDIX III: Groundwater hazards map

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APPENDIX IV: Groundwater quality map

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APPENDIX V: Groundwater contamination map

30

Appendix VI

Spatial Distribution Of Important Process-Indicator Elements

31

MAP 1: pH Distribution MAP 2: Dissolved Oxygen

N

# # # # # # N # # # # # # # # # #

# # # # # #

#

#

#

#

#

# #

# # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # #

#

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# # # #

# # # # # # # # # # # # # # # #

#

# Legend

#

# # Streams # 2 0 2 4 Kilometers Legend pH Range 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 6 - 6.5 Streams 6.5 - 6.75 Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) 0 - 1 6.75 - 7 1 - 2 7 - 7.25 2 - 3 3 - 4 7.25 - 7.5 4 - 5 7.5 - 8 5 - 6 6 - 7

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MAP 3: Sulphate Distribution MAP 4: Iron (II) Distribution

N

# # # N # # # ## # # ## #

##

# # # # # # # # # ##

# ##

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# ## # # # # # # # # # # # # # # ## # # # ## ## # #

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# ## # # # ## ## ## 2 0 2 4 Kilometers #

## Streams

Streams # Sampled boreholes # #

# boreholes ## # Fe (II) Distribution (ppb) # SO4 distribution 0 - 10 10 - 20 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 0 - 50 20 - 30 50 - 100 30 - 50 100 - 150 50 - 100 100 - 200 150 - 250 200 - 500 250 - 350 500 - 1000 1000 - 6000

33

MAP 6: Nitrate Distribution

# MAP 5: Mn Distribution ## ##

# # #

##

## # ## N ## ##

## N # # # ## # # # ## ##

##

## ## # # ## ##

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# # # # # # ## # # ## ## ## # # ##

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## # # # ##

# # # # # ## # boreholes # # # # ### # ## ## ## # # # ## Legend # # # # Streams Streams ## # Sampled boreholes

# Nitrate distribution in ppm # Mn distribution (ppm) ## ## 0 - 25 0 - 50 25 - 50 50 - 100 2 0 2 4 Kilometers # 100 - 200 50 - 100 ## 200 - 300 100 - 250 300 - 400 250 - 400 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 400 - 600 400 - 600

34

MAP 7: Nitrite Distribution MAP 8: Ammonium Distribution

# ## ## # ## ## N ##

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##

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# ##

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## ## # # ## ## ## 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 2 0 2 4 Kilometers

## ## ## Streams Streams # boreholes

## ## NH4 distribution (ppm) NO2 distribution (ppm) 0 - 0.1 0 - 0.1 0.1 - 0.2 0.1 - 0.2 0.2 - 0.3 0.2 - 0.3 0.3 - 0.4 0.3 - 0.4 No data

# boreholes

35

MAP 10: Bicarbonate Distribution MAP 9: Carbon Dioxide Distribution

N

# # #

# # # # #

# # #

#

#

# # # # # # #

# #

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# # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # #

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# # # # #

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#

# Streams

# # # boreholes

# # # # #

#

# # HCO3 distribution (ppm) 152.959 - 271.014

# CO2 distribution (ppm) # 271.014 - 389.068 # 0 - 20 389.068 - 507.122 20 - 50 507.122 - 625.177 50 - 80 625.177 - 743.231 # 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 80 - 100 # 100 - 140 No Data 2 0 2 4 Kilometers # boreholes Streams

36

MAP 11: Calcium Distribution MAP 12: Magnesium Distribution

# # #

# # # # # N # # # N

#

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# Streams

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# boreholes Mg distribution (ppm)

# Ca distribution (ppm) 5.5 - 27.5 # 27.5 - 49.5 25 - 100.4 # # 49.5 - 71.5 100.4 - 175.7 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 175.7 - 251.1 71.5 - 93.5 93.5 - 115.5 251.1 - 326.5 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 326.5 - 401.8

37

MAP 13: Chloride Distribution

N

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Streams

## # boreholes Cl distribution (ppm)

0 - 50 # # 50 - 100 ## 100 - 150 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 150 - 250 250 - 350 350 - 500 500 - 800

38

Appendix VII

Spatial Distribution Of Heavy Metals And Other Trace Elements

39

MAP 14: Cadmium Distribution MAP 15: Nickel Distribution

# N # # # # # # # ## # # ## #

# # # # # ## ## # #

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2 0 2 4 Kilometers

## # # boreholes Streams

## Ni distribution (ppb) # ## #

# Sampled wells 0.678 - 2.677 Streams 2.677 - 4.677 4.677 - 6.677 2 0 2 4 Kilometers Cadmium Distribution (ppb) 6.677 - 8.677 0 - 0.5 8.677 - 10.676 0.5 - 1 1 - 2 2 - 5 5-8

40

MAP 16: Zinc Distribution MAP 17: Copper Distribution

N ## # # ## ## ### ### ###

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# # ##### # ### ###### ### # ## # ## # # # # # 2 0 2 4 Kilometers #

# # #

Legend ## ## # ## # # ## ### Streams

# # Boreholes

### Streams # ## Copper in ppb

Zinc Distribution (ppb) # 0 - 1.5 # 0 - 10 1.5 - 3 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 10 - 40 3 - 4.5 40 - 100 100 - 400 4.5 - 6 400 - 3000 6 - 8

# Sampled wells

41

MAP 19: Arsenic Distribution MAP 18: Lead Distribution

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# # # boreholes Arsenic Distribution (ppb) # Streams 0 - 0.5 0.5 - 1 1 0 1 2 Kilometers Pb distribution # 1 - 2 0.015 - 1.196 # 2 - 3 1.196 - 2.378 3 - 5 2.378 - 3.559 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 5 - 10 3.559 - 4.741 10 - 20 4.741 - 5.923 20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 150 150 - 200 200 - 300

42

MAP 20: Antimony Distribution MAP 21: Cobalt Distribution

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# boreholes # boreholes Streams # # Streams Sb distribution (ppb) 0.016 - 0.128 Cobalt Distribution (ppb) # # 0.128 - 0.239 # # 0.239 - 0.351 0.097 - 6.397 0.351 - 0.462 6.397 - 12.696 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 0.462 - 0.574 12.696 - 18.996 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 18.996 - 25.296 25.296 - 31.595

43

MAP 22: Chromium Distribution MAP 23: Tellurium Distribution

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Streams # # # #

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# Te distribution (ppb)

0 - 0.005 # Streams 0.005 - 0.01 # Sampled boreholes # 0.01 - 0.016 #

0.016 - 0.021 #

Chromium distribution (ppb) # 0 - 1 0.021 - 0.026 1 - 3 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 3 - 5 5 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 40

44

MAP 24: Rubidium Distribution MAP 25: Thalium Distribution

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# boreholes Tl distribution (ppb)

Rb distribution (ppb) # 0 - 0.008 # # # 0 - 0.008 0.008 - 0.016 0.008 - 0.016 0.016 - 0.024 0.024 - 0.032 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 0.016 - 0.024 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 0.032 - 0.039 0.024 - 0.032 0.032 - 0.039

45

MAP 27: Bismuth Distribution MAP 26: Selenium Distribution

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# 0 - 1.932 # # 1.932 - 3.865 Bi distribution (ppb) 3.865 - 5.797 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 0 - 0.002 5.797 - 7.729 0.002 - 0.003 7.729 - 9.662 0.003 - 0.005 0.005 - 0.006 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 0.006 - 0.008

46

MAP 29: Barium Distribution MAP 28: Silver Distribution

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# # # # # # # # # boreholes Streams Streams # # Barium Distribution (ppb) # Ag Distribution (ppb) 0 - 50

# # 50 - 100 0 - 0.03 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 0.03 - 0.06 100 - 200 200 - 300 0.06 - 0.09 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 300 - 500 0.09 - 0.12 500 - 700 0.12 - 0.15 700 - 800 800 - 900 900 - 1000

47

MAP 30: Tin Distribution MAP 31: Uranium Distribution

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# boreholes # U distribution (ppb) # Streams 0.43 - 11.208 11.208 - 21.985 Sn distribution (ppb) 21.985 - 32.763 # # 0.005 - 0.014 # 32.763 - 43.541 # 0.014 - 0.024 43.541 - 54.318 0.024 - 0.033 0.033 - 0.043 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 0.043 - 0.052

48

MAP 32: Tungsten Distribution MAP 33: Berylium Distribution

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# # # # boreholes # # boreholes Streams Streams # Be distribution (ppb) W ditribution (ppb) # 0.01 - 2.532 0 - 0.004 # 2.532 - 5.053 0.004 - 0.007

# 5.053 - 7.574 # 0.007 - 0.011 7.574 - 10.095 0.011 - 0.014 10.095 - 12.616 0.014 - 0.018 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 2 0 2 4 Kilometers No Data

49

MAP 34: Yttrium Distribution MAP 35: Caesium Distribution

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Y distribution (ppb) # #

# 0.023 - 0.38 # boreholes 0.38 - 0.736 Streams 0.736 - 1.092

1.092 - 1.448 # Cs distribution # 1.448 - 1.804 0.001 - 0.212 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 0.212 - 0.424 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 0.424 - 0.635 0.635 - 0.846 0.846 - 1.057

50

MAP 36: Lithium Distribution MAP 37: Molybdenum Distribution

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# # # boreholes Streams Streams Mo distribution (ppb) Li distribution (ppb) # # 2.037 - 13.765 # 0.152 - 1.979 # 13.765 - 25.492 1.979 - 3.805 25.492 - 37.22 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 3.805 - 5.631 37.22 - 48.947 5.631 - 7.458 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 48.947 - 60.675 7.458 - 9.284

51

MAP 38: Lanthanum Distribution MAP 39: Niobium Distribution

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# boreholes Nb distribution (ppb) Streams 0 - 0.001

La distribution (ppb) # # 0 - 0.015 # 0.001 - 0.002 # 0.015 - 0.03 0.002 - 0.003 0.03 - 0.044 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 0.003 - 0.004 0.044 - 0.059 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 0.059 - 0.074 0.004 - 0.005

52

MAP 40: Hafnium Distribution MAP 41: Tantalum Distribution

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# Hf Distribution (ppb) Streams

0 - 0.002 # 0.002 - 0.005 # Ta distribution (ppb) 0 - 0.001 0.005 - 0.007 # 0.001 - 0.001 # 0.007 - 0.01 0.001 - 0.002 0.01 - 0.012 0.002 - 0.002 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 0.002 - 0.003 2 0 2 4 Kilometers

53

MAP 42: Zircon Distribution MAP 43: Mercury Distribution

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Streams # boreholes # Streams # Zr distribution (ppb) 0 - 0.042 Hg distribution (ppm) 0.042 - 0.083 0 - 0.007 # # 0.083 - 0.125 # 0.007 - 0.013 # 0.013 - 0.02 0.125 - 0.166 0.02 - 0.027 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 0.166 - 0.208 0.027 - 0.033

54

MAP 44: Titanium Distribution MAP 45: Cerium Distribution

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# Streams boreholes # Streams Ti distribution (ppb)

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# 0.092 - 1.294 # 1.294 - 2.497 Ce distribution (ppb) # 2.497 - 3.699 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 0.004 - 0.077 3.699 - 4.902 0.077 - 0.149 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 4.902 - 6.104 0.149 - 0.222 0.222 - 0.295 0.295 - 0.367

55

MAP 46: Aluminium Distribution MAP 47: Scandium Distribution

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Sc distribution (ppb) # Streams # 6.212 - 9.156 Al distribution (ppb) # 9.156 - 12.1 # 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 0.962 - 8.988 12.1 - 15.044 8.988 - 17.014 15.044 - 17.988 17.014 - 25.04 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 25.04 - 33.065 17.988 - 20.933 33.065 - 41.091

56

Appendix VIII

Spatial Distribution Of Additional Groundwater Parameters

57

MAP 48: Temperature Distribution MAP 49: Electrical Conductivity

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# Conductivity (uS/cm) Temperature distribution (centigrade) 0 - 200

20.158 - 21.086 # # 200 - 500 21.086 - 22.014 500 - 1000

22.014 - 22.943 #

# 1000 - 1500 22.943 - 23.871 1500 - 2000 23.871 - 24.799 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 2000 - 3000 24.799 - 25.728 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 25.728 - 26.656 3000 - 4000 4000 - 5000 5000 - 6000

# Sampled borehole Streams

58

MAP 50: Pottassium Distribution MAP 51: Sodium Distribution

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# # boreholes Streams Streams.shp Na distribution (ppm)

K distribution (ppm) 24.8 - 87.5 # # # 0.551 - 2.136 # 87.5 - 150.2 2.136 - 3.721 150.2 - 212.9 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 3.721 - 5.307 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 212.9 - 275.6 5.307 - 6.892 275.6 - 338.3 6.892 - 8.478

59

MAP 53: Fluoride Distribution MAP 52: Bromide Distribution

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Streams ## # Streams # boreholes # boreholes F distribution (ppm) 0.1 - 0.3 Br distribution (ppm) ## # ## 0.3 - 0.4 # 0.039 - 0.351 0.4 - 0.6 0.351 - 0.663 0.6 - 0.7 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 0.663 - 0.975 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 0.7 - 0.9 0.975 - 1.286 1.286 - 1.598

60

MAP 54: Silica Distribution MAP 55: Borate Distribution

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# # # # ## # # # # # ## # ## # # # # ## # # ## # boreholes Streams Streams # ## # boreholes BO2 distribution (ppm) Silicate distribution (ppm) 0.1 - 0.3

# ## 0 - 40 ## 0.3 - 0.5 # 40 - 60 0.5 - 0.8 0.8 - 1 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 60 - 80 1 - 1.2 80 - 102

61

MAP 56: Boron Distribution MAP 57: Phosphate Distribution

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# boreholes Phosphate distribution (ppm)

# Streams 0 - 0.01 # B distribution (ppm) 0.01 - 0.1 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 0.1 - 0.2 12.396 - 72.284 0.2 - 0.3 2 0 2 4 Kilometers 72.284 - 132.171 0.3 - 0.4 132.171 - 192.059 192.059 - 251.946 251.946 - 311.834

62

APPENDIX IX: BGR ICP-OES RESULTS (PPM)

Borehole No. PH_Lab EC_Lab K NA CL MG CA SO4 HCO3 FE(II) MN NO3 BR FT006 7 410 1.23 34.58 20.96 13.2 32.2 3.63 223.5 0.006 -0.001 3.8 0.03 FT008 6.8 506 0.46 28.75 29.05 30.54 34.14 5.31 280.1 0.038 0.001 2.36 0.03 FT010 6.7 985 0.94 24.64 34.17 51.7 104.5 28.93 369.7 0.009 0.002 176.64 0.04 FT021 6.7 2220 6.59 105.2 270.74 124.6 177 105.32 682 0.015 0.216 195.56 0.58 FT026 6.9 2080 3.85 95 288.26 104.2 177.3 136.65 540.5 0.035 0.014 147.85 0.33 FT046 6.9 1070 0.95 51.5 54.26 81.8 63 22.55 596.3 0.011 -0.001 34.61 0.14 FT048 7.2 1226 0.95 59.2 72.26 84.4 81.9 30.62 648.3 0.012 0.009 39.59 0.39 FT049 7 1510 1.28 123.5 148.09 61.1 119.5 51.88 673.6 0.013 0.265 20.14 0.3 FT051 7.6 946 4.04 75.1 49.92 25.88 99 56.31 469.7 0.03 0.206 10.46 0.13 FT055 6.9 1460 1.34 114.6 109.02 67.2 110.9 51.34 531.3 0.056 0.015 186.37 0.05 FT058 7.4 420 1.83 58.8 42.92 3.56 22.57 37.74 123.2 1.536 0.135 0.2 0.16 FT060 6.9 1060 1.38 36.95 43.76 66.2 94.1 8.92 633.6 0.015 -0.001 16.62 0.08 FT062 6.9 974 1.31 34.31 40.41 60.3 88.2 10.52 573.8 0.073 0.011 22.55 0.07 FT068 6.7 1310 2.03 80.5 103.29 71.9 103.3 36.82 552.1 0.623 0.223 123.52 0.11 FT069 7.2 663 2.94 26.4 29.95 29.01 69.9 23.99 333.8 0.046 0.004 21.01 0.09 FT070 7 1270 3.53 79.6 53.97 74.5 88.9 48.05 652.5 0.542 0.016 70.81 0.1 FT074 7.3 2040 2.13 343.8 249.79 39.18 59.8 60.41 789 0.008 0.138 26.74 0.45 FT077 7.4 1340 1.57 54.7 109.63 64.9 139.6 87.85 539.2 0.024 0.155 61.87 0.14 FT078 6.9 1640 1.72 110.1 222.13 86.5 109.7 69.92 547.6 0.057 0.004 44.25 0.23 FT082 6.7 2930 4.85 34.55 801.84 65.6 402.7 37.92 221 0.049 0.017 70.31 1.14 FT084 6.9 1020 1.59 37.97 95.09 57.9 85.3 5.61 453.6 0.015 0.001 36.21 0.11 FT086 6.9 1600 2.66 189.7 151.89 51.2 86.1 54.27 586.7 0.009 0.048 116.82 0.2 FT089 6.8 1550 1.14 39 128.99 73.8 174.5 93.03 502 0.013 -0.001 170.64 0.06 FT092 6.8 1070 2.01 83.5 79.16 28.01 106.3 46.53 426.8 0.01 0.372 64.87 0.09 FT095 6.9 1890 4.21 102.7 237.85 67.4 199.5 53.57 536.9 0.013 -0.001 229.37 0.34 FT097 6.9 1610 3.33 85.9 232.53 60.8 163.9 80.82 458.7 0.013 -0.001 80.49 0.21 FT104 6.8 1000 1.18 39.51 81.16 54.2 100.2 33.32 468.9 0.009 0.032 25.17 0.15 FT105 6.9 884 0.99 58.3 37.03 46.38 73.7 25.67 517.6 4.083 0.625 4.89 0.13 FT109 6.9 1130 0.85 76.5 69.49 53.6 91.3 43.07 580.5 0.026 0.028 14.47 0.2 FT118 7.2 1140 2.87 48.81 80.43 59.1 108.4 40.8 509.9 0.009 -0.001 71.82 0.1 FT143 6.6 1140 0.98 34.37 80.66 60.5 121.3 120.74 415.3 0.629 0.059 59.44 0.38 FT153 6.9 1740 1.55 112.2 124.38 80.2 129.2 76.84 485.9 0.055 0.003 328.09 0.22

63

Borehole No. PH_Lab EC_Lab K NA CL MG CA SO4 HCO3 FE(II) MN NO3 BR FT154 7 1050 1.8 68.4 58.24 49.99 86.9 105.99 370 0.008 -0.001 108.16 0.08 FT155 7 1440 2.96 39.39 129.6 58.2 159.3 46.59 341.1 0.02 0.003 290.96 0.19 FT156 7.2 1820 3.04 165.2 207.06 68.4 119.3 74.55 552.5 0.012 -0.001 163.22 0.16 FT157 7.1 290 3 60.9 103.43 49.63 145.3 66.8 379.4 0.014 -0.001 233.32 0.25 FT162 6.7 1100 2.98 52.3 90.32 37.21 123 43.85 452 0.011 0.003 57.96 0.12 FT167 6.9 795 0.93 32.63 40.52 42.12 77.6 15.15 446.6 0.011 0.008 7.46 0.1 FT168 7.1 1390 5.73 90.2 111.89 84 95.5 32.57 698.7 0.091 0.619 41.81 0.15 FT183 7.2 945 0.81 51.1 43.39 54 87 18.68 586.1 7.32 0.509 3.17 0.1 FT185 7 2040 3.13 55.7 186.84 101.4 243 300.62 568.2 0.029 0.14 169.88 0.41 FT187 6.9 1570 1.99 28.28 98.15 83.3 161.2 107.86 296.3 0.023 0.001 433.03 0.49 FT188 6.8 1010 1.12 57.1 36.61 56.1 89.8 27.91 588.6 0.252 0.488 23.14 0.08 N-BHA1 6.9 1670 4.08 136.9 215.36 73.3 120.5 111.82 596 0.013 -0.001 21.87 0.62 N-BHB1 6.9 2870 6 315.6 466.46 80.1 192.8 338.41 644.3 0.018 0.003 18.47 1.6 N-BHD1 6.9 2380 5.13 225 366.94 86.2 174.5 253.48 618.8 0.014 -0.001 40.82 1.19 O-BHA1 6.8 2220 8.48 160.6 355.33 110.4 141.8 70.31 693.5 0.015 0.001 61.15 0.36

64

Borehole No. NH4 NO2 PO4 AL BO2 BA BE CD CO CR CU LI NI FT006 -0.01 -0.01 0.03 -0.03 0.07 0.041 -0.001 -0.005 0.006 -0.005 -0.005 0.01 -0.01 FT008 -0.01 0.01 0.03 -0.03 0.09 0.023 -0.001 -0.005 0.015 -0.005 -0.005 0.017 -0.01 FT010 -0.01 0.03 0.02 -0.03 0.13 0.01 -0.001 0.006 0.024 -0.005 -0.005 0.006 0.026 FT021 0.03 0.07 -0.02 -0.03 0.33 0.912 -0.001 0.01 0.03 0.009 0.017 0.069 0.033 FT026 0.01 0.07 0.04 -0.03 0.41 0.144 -0.001 0.009 0.033 0.008 -0.005 0.006 0.031 FT046 -0.01 0.02 0.02 -0.03 0.15 0.076 -0.001 0.008 0.024 -0.005 -0.005 0.024 0.028 FT048 -0.01 -0.01 -0.02 -0.03 0.18 0.07 -0.001 0.006 0.023 -0.005 -0.005 0.018 0.022 FT049 -0.01 0.2 0.32 -0.03 0.44 0.278 -0.001 0.007 0.029 0.005 -0.005 0.007 0.023 FT051 -0.01 0.02 -0.02 -0.03 0.81 0.002 -0.001 0.006 0.015 -0.005 -0.005 0.01 0.019 FT055 -0.01 -0.01 0.02 -0.03 0.34 0.165 -0.001 0.009 0.025 0.005 -0.005 0.009 0.03 FT058 0.07 0.09 -0.02 -0.03 0.59 0.024 -0.001 -0.005 0.007 -0.005 -0.005 0.006 -0.01 FT060 -0.01 0.01 0.05 -0.03 0.17 0.104 -0.001 0.006 0.023 -0.005 -0.005 0.008 0.028 FT062 -0.01 0.02 0.04 -0.03 0.16 0.079 -0.001 0.008 0.026 -0.005 -0.005 0.008 0.024 FT068 0.09 0.09 -0.02 -0.03 0.19 0.175 -0.001 0.008 0.026 0.005 -0.005 0.008 0.03 FT069 -0.01 0.02 -0.02 -0.03 0.11 0.112 -0.001 0.006 0.019 -0.005 -0.005 0.008 0.016 FT070 -0.01 0.05 0.02 -0.03 0.37 0.146 -0.001 0.008 0.026 0.005 -0.005 0.013 0.036 FT074 0.01 0.01 0.29 -0.03 0.37 0.166 -0.001 0.007 0.019 -0.005 -0.005 0.018 0.019 FT077 0.01 0.01 0.09 -0.03 0.35 0.059 -0.001 0.007 0.024 0.005 -0.005 0.004 0.029 FT078 -0.01 0.02 0.04 -0.03 0.24 0.123 -0.001 0.009 0.031 0.006 -0.005 0.01 0.032 FT082 -0.01 0.04 -0.02 0.03 0.13 0.903 -0.001 -0.005 -0.005 0.01 -0.005 0.008 -0.01 FT084 -0.01 0.01 -0.02 -0.03 0.11 0.064 -0.001 0.007 0.022 -0.005 -0.005 0.012 0.028 FT086 -0.01 0.09 0.11 -0.03 0.3 0.116 -0.001 0.007 0.019 -0.005 -0.005 -0.003 0.027 FT089 -0.01 0.15 0.03 -0.03 0.21 0.147 -0.001 0.007 0.023 0.008 -0.005 0.008 0.027 FT092 -0.01 0.05 -0.02 -0.03 0.26 0.392 -0.001 0.006 0.021 0.005 -0.005 0.012 0.017 FT095 -0.01 0.05 -0.02 -0.03 0.25 0.377 -0.001 0.006 0.031 0.007 -0.005 0.008 0.024 FT097 -0.01 0.02 0.02 -0.03 0.26 0.208 -0.001 0.007 0.021 0.032 -0.005 0.007 0.023 FT104 -0.01 0.01 -0.02 -0.03 0.26 0.09 -0.001 0.007 0.023 0.005 -0.005 0.006 0.026 FT105 0.09 0.03 -0.02 -0.03 0.21 0.082 -0.001 0.007 0.025 -0.005 -0.005 0.004 0.028 FT109 -0.01 0.01 0.04 -0.03 0.3 0.095 -0.001 -0.005 0.017 -0.005 -0.005 0.005 0.024 FT118 -0.01 0.02 0.05 -0.03 0.32 0.177 -0.001 -0.005 0.015 0.006 0.007 0.004 0.025 FT143 -0.01 0.05 0.02 -0.03 0.25 0.09 -0.001 -0.005 0.018 -0.005 -0.005 0.006 0.031 FT153 -0.01 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.37 0.25 -0.001 0.006 0.021 0.008 -0.005 0.008 0.029

65

Borehole No. NH4 NO2 PO4 AL BO2 BA BE CD CO CR CU LI NI FT154 -0.01 0.01 0.02 -0.03 0.39 0.087 -0.001 -0.005 0.017 -0.005 -0.005 0.007 0.021 FT155 -0.01 0.19 0.03 -0.03 0.21 0.261 -0.001 0.005 0.018 0.007 -0.005 0.006 0.021 FT156 -0.01 0.03 -0.02 -0.03 0.49 0.073 -0.001 0.005 0.018 0.006 -0.005 0.017 0.027 FT157 -0.01 0.04 -0.02 -0.03 0.23 0.204 -0.001 -0.005 0.016 0.006 -0.005 0.007 0.019 FT162 -0.01 0.02 -0.02 -0.03 0.26 0.489 -0.001 -0.005 0.015 -0.005 -0.005 0.004 0.018 FT167 -0.01 0.01 -0.02 -0.03 0.1 0.045 -0.001 -0.005 0.017 -0.005 -0.005 0.008 0.022 FT168 -0.01 0.02 0.03 -0.03 0.32 0.206 -0.001 0.008 0.023 0.006 -0.005 0.016 0.036 FT183 0.36 -0.01 0.03 -0.03 0.27 0.072 -0.001 -0.005 0.024 -0.005 -0.005 0.008 0.027 FT185 0.02 0.4 0.3 -0.03 0.38 0.038 -0.001 0.009 0.042 0.009 0.008 0.007 0.026 FT187 -0.01 0.18 0.04 -0.03 0.16 0.106 -0.001 0.008 0.027 0.009 -0.005 0.007 0.027 FT188 -0.01 0.13 -0.02 -0.03 0.2 0.188 -0.001 -0.005 0.023 -0.005 -0.005 0.006 0.037 N-BHA1 -0.01 -0.01 0.03 -0.03 0.95 0.03 -0.001 -0.005 0.026 0.007 -0.005 0.023 0.035 N-BHB1 -0.01 -0.01 0.06 -0.03 1.24 0.044 -0.001 -0.005 0.026 0.009 -0.005 0.024 0.034 N-BHD1 -0.01 -0.01 0.02 -0.03 1.07 0.101 -0.001 0.005 0.023 0.007 -0.005 0.026 0.039 O-BHA1 0.01 -0.01 0.05 -0.03 0.7 0.07 -0.001 0.008 0.032 0.009 0.006 0.024 0.042

66

Borehole No. PB SC SIO2 SR TI V ZN F O2_Lab CO2_Lab FT006 -0.03 -0.003 43.39 0.174 -0.001 0.019 0.015 0.2 3.8 31 FT008 -0.03 -0.003 62.32 0.182 -0.001 0.031 0.02 0.3 1.6 51 FT010 0.03 -0.003 101.01 0.408 0.001 0.03 0.026 0.3 4.4 76 FT021 0.07 -0.003 79.17 1.08 0.002 0.032 0.045 0.5 1 114 FT026 0.03 -0.003 55.61 0.831 0.002 0.016 0.044 0.2 6.6 54 FT046 0.04 -0.003 90.55 0.396 -0.001 0.034 0.039 0.4 2.7 105 FT048 0.04 -0.003 90.06 0.434 -0.001 0.028 0.045 0.4 2.7 79 FT049 -0.03 -0.003 78.03 0.627 0.001 0.039 0.035 0.8 0.3 85 FT051 -0.03 -0.003 31.81 0.154 0.002 -0.005 0.021 0.5 FT055 0.04 -0.003 87.15 0.624 0.002 0.033 0.086 0.6 0.5 73 FT058 -0.03 -0.003 32.51 0.137 -0.001 -0.005 0.007 0.5 -0.1 17 FT060 0.04 -0.003 82.08 0.408 0.001 0.033 0.056 0.3 1.7 109 FT062 0.04 -0.003 79.72 0.378 0.001 0.032 0.039 0.3 2.9 120 FT068 0.06 -0.003 72.73 0.527 0.002 0.02 0.043 0.4 1.4 145 FT069 0.04 -0.003 47.93 0.312 0.002 0.025 0.03 0.2 1.1 28 FT070 0.04 -0.003 92.74 0.577 0.001 0.045 3.068 0.5 1.4 76 FT074 -0.03 -0.003 54.31 0.362 0.001 0.042 0.031 0.2 0.7 36 FT077 0.03 -0.003 58.72 0.579 0.002 0.01 0.442 0.3 2 22 FT078 0.05 -0.003 81.21 0.652 0.001 0.048 0.042 0.5 1.1 70 FT082 0.04 -0.003 31.58 1.543 0.004 0.008 -0.005 0.1 0.4 43 FT084 0.05 -0.003 62.19 0.423 0.001 0.035 0.036 0.2 1.3 54 FT086 0.06 -0.003 43.45 0.471 0.002 0.034 0.059 0.2 4 107 FT089 0.04 -0.003 52.7 0.818 0.003 0.018 0.054 0.1 2.4 116 FT092 0.05 -0.003 45.62 0.502 0.002 0.006 0.027 0.4 0.8 98 FT095 0.06 -0.003 55.85 0.955 0.003 0.016 0.037 0.2 1.9 90 FT097 0.04 -0.003 60.85 0.831 0.002 0.019 0.037 0.1 1.9 57 FT104 -0.03 -0.003 74.06 0.436 0.002 0.018 0.039 0.3 1.1 98 FT105 0.03 -0.003 95.87 0.362 0.002 0.008 0.034 0.7 1.2 95 FT109 0.05 -0.003 85.69 0.465 0.001 0.034 0.031 0.6 0.8 76 FT118 0.05 -0.003 59.19 0.53 0.001 0.022 0.04 0.2 3.2 32 FT143 0.06 -0.003 74.88 0.574 0.002 0.013 0.034 0.3 4.1 122 FT153 0.07 -0.003 84.62 0.766 0.005 0.035 0.05 0.8 3.5 58

67

Borehole No. PB SC SIO2 SR TI V ZN F O2_LabCO2_Lab FT154 0.04 -0.003 80.41 0.392 -0.001 0.031 0.029 0.8 2.3 51 FT155 0.05 -0.003 47.7 0.755 0.002 0.023 0.035 0.2 3.9 37 FT156 0.08 -0.003 65.32 0.604 0.001 0.069 0.051 0.7 3.2 24 FT157 0.04 -0.003 53.44 0.613 0.002 0.025 0.032 0.3 4 54 FT162 -0.03 -0.003 49.37 0.555 0.002 0.01 0.044 0.3 2.4 114 FT167 0.05 -0.003 68.62 0.311 0.001 0.019 0.033 0.4 1.8 64 FT168 0.07 -0.003 72.62 0.586 0.002 0.047 0.09 0.7 1.6 107 FT183 0.06 -0.003 78.34 0.43 0.002 -0.005 0.029 0.6 1.3 65 FT185 0.08 -0.003 79.14 0.775 0.003 0.023 0.15 0.4 3.5 72 FT187 0.05 -0.003 77.98 0.553 0.003 0.02 0.145 0.3 3.9 44 FT188 0.05 -0.003 80.62 0.413 0.002 0.022 0.033 0.9 1 75 N-BHA1 0.05 -0.003 62.11 1.014 0.002 0.074 0.044 0.5 3.6 103 N-BHB1 0.06 -0.003 57.67 1.525 0.003 0.057 0.034 0.4 3.5 76 N-BHD1 0.07 -0.003 63.92 1.353 0.003 0.062 0.044 0.4 3.5 109 O-BHA1 0.06 -0.003 75.83 0.912 0.003 0.133 0.048 0.5 1 106

68

APPENDIX X: BGR ICP-MS RESULTS (PPB)

Pr.-Nr. Ag Al As B Ba Be Bi Cd Ce Co Cr Cs Cu Ga Hf (Hg) FT006 0.002 2.7 0.31 14.3 38.5 <0.005 0.004 0.003 0.007 0.076 0.30 0.003 0.73 0.011 0.004 <0.01 FT008 0.004 3.5 0.37 17.9 21.7 <0.005 0.004 0.004 0.018 0.21 0.38 0.024 1.76 0.022 0.004 <0.01 FT010 0.002 3.4 0.19 22.2 9.19 <0.005 0.003 0.005 0.019 0.38 0.78 0.22 5.23 0.021 0.002 <0.01 FT021 0.010 5.4 0.49 64.1 845 <0.005 0.006 0.11 0.29 0.95 0.97 0.025 17.0 0.017 0.005 0.01 FT026 0.035 3.3 0.084 86.4 134 <0.005 0.003 0.40 0.032 13.7 0.62 0.012 4.50 <0.002 <0.002 <0.01 FT046 0.003 3.5 0.57 29.8 69.9 <0.005 <0.002 0.007 0.011 0.22 0.33 0.01 4.37 <0.002 <0.002 <0.01 FT048 0.002 3.5 0.57 33.8 64.7 <0.005 0.002 0.005 0.024 0.33 0.89 0.003 2.86 <0.002 0.005 <0.01 FT049 <0.002 3.1 0.62 96.9 253 <0.005 <0.002 0.012 0.19 2.10 0.51 0.002 3.54 0.006 0.003 <0.01 FT051 <0.002 4.9 0.30 211 2.46 0.014 <0.002 0.013 0.005 0.27 0.42 1.08 0.80 0.033 <0.002 <0.01 FT055 0.003 3.0 0.38 84.8 155 <0.005 <0.002 0.015 0.009 0.68 0.48 0.006 2.49 0.002 0.003 <0.01 FT058 0.003 7.8 0.22 161 23.5 0.010 <0.002 0.010 0.038 0.24 0.18 0.028 0.36 0.024 0.002 <0.01 FT060 0.002 2.5 4.44 36.6 99.5 <0.005 <0.002 0.011 0.009 0.21 0.50 0.005 5.06 0.006 0.002 0.01 FT062 0.002 1.8 4.15 33.3 74.5 0.010 <0.002 0.015 0.009 0.31 0.29 0.004 1.62 0.003 0.002 <0.01 FT068 <0.002 2.6 0.61 39.6 166 0.010 <0.002 0.012 0.11 1.09 0.21 0.016 1.70 0.013 <0.002 <0.01 FT069 0.003 2.3 1.33 24.0 105 <0.005 <0.002 0.035 0.005 0.56 0.46 0.006 1.25 <0.002 <0.002 <0.01 FT070 0.002 4.3 1.90 85.7 138 0.007 <0.002 0.12 0.042 1.33 0.24 0.22 2.23 0.004 0.002 <0.01 FT074 0.003 4.2 0.38 87.4 156 <0.005 0.002 0.013 0.12 0.87 0.19 0.006 4.12 0.017 0.003 <0.01 FT077 0.003 18.6 0.21 83.2 57.5 <0.005 0.004 0.007 0.12 1.19 0.45 0.13 3.67 0.021 0.005 <0.01 FT078 0.007 3.1 1.15 52.8 119 <0.005 0.002 0.025 0.013 0.81 0.43 0.043 3.95 <0.002 0.002 <0.01 FT082 0.15 2.7 0.067 12.3 863 <0.005 0.008 0.052 0.007 0.49 0.22 0.005 3.12 <0.002 0.002 <0.01 FT084 0.005 2.0 1.11 17.4 58.7 <0.005 <0.002 0.004 0.012 0.20 0.14 0.009 2.23 <0.002 0.003 <0.01 FT086 0.007 2.4 0.61 66.2 107 <0.005 <0.002 0.027 0.016 0.31 0.27 0.002 4.43 <0.002 0.002 <0.01 FT089 0.004 2.2 0.61 39.4 138 <0.005 <0.002 0.005 0.007 0.31 0.21 <0.002 3.31 <0.002 <0.002 <0.01 FT092 0.002 3.1 0.34 53.4 359 <0.005 <0.002 0.007 0.37 0.96 0.25 0.004 0.88 0.011 0.004 <0.01 FT095 0.090 2.4 0.87 56.8 372 0.011 <0.002 0.11 0.005 9.68 0.40 0.006 2.00 0.003 0.002 <0.01 FT097 0.039 2.1 0.56 60.5 204 0.010 0.002 0.063 0.005 0.31 26.9 0.003 1.39 0.004 0.002 <0.01 FT104 0.009 2.8 0.21 63.6 87.6 <0.005 <0.002 0.008 0.013 0.29 0.51 0.002 1.79 0.004 0.002 <0.01 FT105 <0.002 3.5 0.54 51.5 81.4 <0.005 <0.002 0.005 0.17 2.53 0.46 0.006 0.92 0.057 0.003 0.03 FT109 <0.002 2.9 0.47 74.6 95.4 0.012 <0.002 0.011 0.11 0.23 0.48 0.005 2.05 0.018 0.002 <0.01 FT118 0.003 1.7 3.08 77.1 175 0.007 <0.002 0.019 0.004 0.32 0.63 0.006 8.22 0.005 <0.002 <0.01 FT143 <0.002 7.6 0.85 55.8 88.6 0.007 <0.002 0.017 0.031 2.35 0.67 0.008 2.85 0.009 0.002 <0.01 FT153 0.005 41.3 0.31 88.8 242 <0.005 <0.002 0.013 0.085 0.75 3.41 0.007 3.89 0.014 0.002 <0.01 FT154 0.003 2.2 0.65 98.4 86.2 0.010 0.005 0.01 0.013 1.33 0.40 0.007 2.56 0.046 0.012 0.02 FT155 0.014 2.3 1.37 44.8 255 0.002 0.004 0.026 0.009 0.30 0.57 0.025 1.30 0.021 0.002 0.01 FT156 0.094 3.0 3.64 121 70.9 0.014 0.004 0.035 0.008 0.26 0.30 0.005 2.91 0.004 0.004 0.01 FT157 0.040 3.2 2.73 50.2 199 <0.005 0.002 0.084 0.011 0.34 0.40 0.004 1.45 0.004 0.003 <0.01 69

Pr.-Nr. Ag Al As B Ba Be Bi Cd Ce Co Cr Cs Cu Ga Hf (Hg) FT162 0.008 3.8 0.17 60.3 468 <0.005 0.002 0.015 0.011 0.25 0.35 0.002 4.48 0.004 0.003 <0.01 FT167 <0.002 1.0 2.46 17.0 41.9 0.012 <0.002 0.005 0.013 0.14 0.15 0.012 2.51 0.003 0.002 <0.01 FT168 <0.002 2.0 10.3 71.5 194 <0.005 <0.002 0.065 0.14 5.39 0.38 0.035 3.75 0.029 0.002 <0.01 FT183 <0.002 3.3 0.34 63.7 70.3 0.015 <0.002 0.003 0.017 2.22 0.34 0.054 1.16 0.089 <0.002 0.01 FT185 0.012 2.1 244 85.3 38.0 <0.005 0.002 1.39 0.018 32.0 0.37 0.066 7.94 0.029 <0.002 0.02 FT187 0.012 1.6 25.7 26.6 102 0.011 <0.002 0.023 0.006 3.58 1.92 0.006 4.26 0.006 <0.002 <0.01 FT188 <0.002 5.6 0.16 41.3 176 0.018 <0.002 0.022 0.088 0.37 0.17 0.002 1.94 0.032 <0.002 0.01 BHA1 0.027 2.1 0.22 244 28.3 0.010 <0.002 0.014 0.010 0.73 1.27 0.018 4.29 0.010 <0.002 <0.01 BHB1 0.082 5.6 2.58 312 42.9 <0.005 0.002 0.026 0.083 1.29 0.79 0.11 3.27 0.005 <0.002 <0.01 BHD1 0.057 0.9 2.11 270 96.5 <0.005 <0.002 0.013 0.027 0.38 0.54 0.041 2.37 0.004 <0.002 <0.01 BHA1 old 0.096 3.9 0.70 175 67.0 0.017 <0.002 0.027 0.028 0.67 1.60 0.062 5.71 0.007 0.002 <0.01

70

Pr.-Nr. La Li Mo Nb Ni Pb Rb Sb Sc (Se) Sn Ta Te Th Ti Tl FT006 0.009 10.5 0.23 0.003 0.63 0.034 0.14 0.017 8.71 0.53 0.005 0.003 <0.005 0.011 0.071 0.004 FT008 0.016 17.2 0.80 0.003 1.08 0.040 0.50 0.027 12.6 0.57 0.006 0.002 <0.005 0.009 0.11 0.004 FT010 0.023 6.26 0.44 0.002 2.85 0.35 2.91 0.016 19.6 0.73 0.005 <0.002 <0.005 0.004 0.41 0.015 FT021 0.29 67.0 4.23 0.003 4.27 1.11 2.17 0.050 14.8 3.03 0.035 0.002 0.021 0.006 1.55 0.011 FT026 0.030 7.54 1.36 0.002 2.83 0.032 0.87 0.026 10.4 1.06 0.027 0.002 0.022 0.003 2.02 0.009 FT046 0.030 23.5 0.62 <0.002 1.61 0.042 0.70 0.022 16.4 0.83 0.014 0.002 <0.005 0.003 0.44 0.003 FT048 0.021 17.4 0.86 0.002 1.90 0.012 0.38 0.020 16.4 0.40 0.007 <0.002 <0.005 0.003 0.60 0.002 FT049 0.084 7.43 3.38 0.003 5.79 0.060 0.42 0.042 14.5 0.88 0.016 0.002 <0.005 0.004 0.87 0.003 FT051 0.004 11.3 8.06 0.002 5.69 0.021 9.56 0.049 6.43 0.97 0.018 <0.002 <0.005 0.002 1.01 <0.002 FT055 0.040 9.68 1.37 <0.002 3.70 0.075 0.64 0.031 17.1 1.03 0.004 <0.002 0.017 0.002 0.92 0.003 FT058 0.027 5.99 5.56 <0.002 1.08 0.054 5.95 0.025 6.68 0.83 0.019 <0.002 <0.005 0.007 0.47 <0.002 FT060 0.029 9.70 0.57 <0.002 1.89 0.053 0.44 0.037 16.5 1.02 0.010 <0.002 0.015 <0.002 0.20 0.002 FT062 0.029 8.67 0.68 <0.002 2.18 0.26 0.64 0.039 15.7 0.57 0.019 <0.002 0.008 <0.002 0.29 0.002 FT068 0.048 9.34 1.10 0.002 3.62 0.043 2.56 0.056 14.6 0.67 0.014 <0.002 0.009 0.002 0.82 0.009 FT069 0.018 8.21 0.54 <0.002 1.53 0.052 0.98 0.035 9.58 0.38 0.006 <0.002 <0.005 <0.002 0.47 0.003 FT070 0.058 13.8 1.13 <0.002 5.76 6.00 7.36 0.067 18.4 0.77 0.007 <0.002 0.006 <0.002 1.04 0.032 FT074 0.055 18.1 2.81 <0.002 2.18 0.054 0.87 0.026 10.5 4.35 0.013 <0.002 <0.005 0.008 0.97 0.007 FT077 0.073 5.68 1.83 0.002 5.43 0.40 4.41 0.096 11.8 1.59 0.031 0.002 0.006 0.01 1.95 0.004 FT078 0.024 11.2 1.32 <0.002 2.71 0.21 1.46 0.053 16.0 3.82 0.026 <0.002 0.017 0.004 1.40 0.009 FT082 0.044 9.89 0.15 <0.002 5.66 0.074 0.71 0.022 6.19 9.69 0.052 <0.002 0.019 0.002 0.82 0.006 FT084 0.025 12.2 0.25 <0.002 1.89 0.065 1.07 0.028 11.7 1.23 0.023 <0.002 0.004 0.002 0.19 0.005 FT086 0.017 1.77 1.42 <0.002 2.69 0.10 0.70 0.018 8.28 3.19 0.016 <0.002 0.011 <0.002 0.94 0.007 FT089 0.051 8.55 0.16 <0.002 2.67 0.066 0.39 0.020 9.98 2.07 0.011 <0.002 0.007 0.002 1.73 0.003 FT092 0.22 12.0 1.67 0.002 2.24 0.20 0.81 0.019 8.77 2.29 0.010 <0.002 <0.005 0.002 0.92 0.002 FT095 0.055 9.77 0.72 0.002 3.61 0.089 1.96 0.032 12.0 4.34 0.017 <0.002 0.008 <0.002 1.20 0.006 FT097 0.029 8.92 0.30 <0.002 3.06 0.035 2.82 0.033 12.6 4.59 0.014 <0.002 <0.005 <0.002 1.64 0.009 FT104 0.042 6.48 0.76 <0.002 2.03 0.034 0.24 0.030 15.3 1.29 0.007 <0.002 <0.005 <0.002 0.67 <0.002 FT105 0.055 4.65 1.96 0.002 4.84 0.036 0.59 0.034 21.0 0.70 0.011 <0.002 <0.005 0.005 0.50 <0.002 FT109 0.083 6.54 1.93 0.002 2.66 0.047 0.62 0.029 18.6 1.58 0.010 <0.002 <0.005 0.003 0.96 0.004 FT118 0.018 5.68 0.29 <0.002 2.95 0.34 0.95 0.043 12.0 1.57 0.015 <0.002 <0.005 <0.002 0.75 0.003 FT143 0.028 8.13 1.95 0.002 5.69 0.021 0.50 0.039 15.3 1.19 0.010 <0.002 <0.005 0.002 2.54 <0.002 FT153 0.075 9.68 1.15 0.004 4.44 0.26 0.76 0.027 17.2 2.47 0.021 <0.002 <0.005 0.005 5.02 0.004 FT154 0.057 9.10 1.36 0.005 2.08 0.059 1.85 0.025 17.2 0.94 0.011 0.003 <0.005 0.019 1.80 0.009 FT155 0.028 7.85 0.28 0.003 2.65 0.06 2.44 0.050 9.98 2.35 0.014 0.002 <0.005 0.003 0.92 0.010 FT156 0.023 19.7 3.33 0.003 2.33 0.10 1.27 0.059 13.2 4.75 0.017 <0.002 <0.005 0.004 1.41 0.008 FT157 0.040 8.80 0.62 <0.002 3.09 0.092 0.67 0.046 11.0 1.98 0.012 <0.002 <0.005 0.002 1.19 0.003

71

Pr.-Nr. La Li Mo Nb Ni Pb Rb Sb Sc (Se) Sn Ta Te Th Ti Tl FT162 0.034 5.46 0.28 0.002 2.47 0.14 0.74 0.027 10.2 1.51 0.010 <0.002 <0.005 0.002 0.98 0.003 FT167 0.019 8.00 0.67 <0.002 1.96 0.057 0.33 0.031 13.6 0.57 0.008 0.002 <0.005 0.002 0.36 0.002 FT168 0.090 16.3 4.45 <0.002 5.04 0.070 1.99 0.068 14.3 1.63 0.011 <0.002 <0.005 0.003 0.67 0.012 FT183 0.012 8.83 1.55 0.002 3.54 0.016 1.56 0.046 17.8 0.19 0.008 0.002 <0.005 0.005 0.50 <0.002 FT185 0.026 9.26 2.05 0.002 10.3 0.67 4.75 0.58 17.4 3.53 0.009 <0.002 0.022 0.003 5.88 0.040 FT187 0.020 9.02 0.25 <0.002 3.54 0.076 0.56 0.13 16.1 1.73 0.011 <0.002 0.018 <0.002 2.02 0.003 FT188 0.046 6.10 1.73 0.002 7.96 0.071 0.26 0.027 16.6 0.53 0.049 0.002 0.010 0.002 0.75 <0.002 BHA1 0.023 24.7 4.43 <0.002 3.80 0.31 1.40 0.025 12.6 4.66 0.016 <0.002 0.008 <0.002 2.15 0.004 BHB1 0.074 25.1 9.30 0.002 10.7 1.88 4.32 0.029 11.7 11.1 0.034 <0.002 0.014 0.004 6.11 0.021 BHD1 0.039 27.5 4.38 <0.002 3.25 1.08 3.02 0.022 12.7 8.76 0.018 <0.002 0.018 <0.002 4.88 0.013 BHA1 old 0.040 26.2 1.67 <0.002 5.77 0.93 1.47 0.024 15.3 5.78 0.023 <0.002 0.026 0.002 1.46 0.012

72

Pr.-Nr. U V W Y Zn Zr FT006 1.13 23.0 0.080 0.019 0.79 0.007 FT008 3.24 34.8 0.20 0.093 1.44 0.005 FT010 0.40 32.9 0.11 0.16 2.08 0.005 FT021 60.7 34.5 0.44 2.00 6.84 0.081 FT026 11.1 17.4 0.036 0.35 5.28 0.013 FT046 6.49 36.1 0.19 0.20 1.86 0.004 FT048 8.50 29.5 0.18 0.20 1.02 0.13 FT049 20.9 40.3 0.90 0.26 1.70 0.020 FT051 0.54 0.74 0.62 0.014 1.55 0.017 FT055 8.28 35.8 0.066 0.30 49.2 0.005 FT058 0.20 0.53 13.0 0.013 1.21 0.011 FT060 2.51 36.3 0.12 0.22 18.1 0.005 FT062 2.08 34.6 0.11 0.17 6.31 0.007 FT068 5.17 21.7 0.14 0.16 2.96 0.021 FT069 3.34 26.7 0.083 0.079 3.93 0.003 FT070 5.58 46.7 0.20 0.28 2780 0.005 FT074 39.2 46.9 0.55 0.12 0.91 0.015 FT077 1.82 10.7 0.12 0.41 391 0.030 FT078 11.1 51.7 0.16 0.28 3.13 0.032 FT082 9.97 8.66 0.010 0.12 6.91 0.010 FT084 5.57 35.1 0.039 0.18 2.60 0.005 FT086 15.6 35.2 0.043 0.27 25.1 0.019 FT089 9.32 18.2 0.014 0.24 20.0 0.007 FT092 7.34 6.17 1.15 0.80 2.29 0.017 FT095 17.5 19.3 0.028 0.36 6.15 0.021 FT097 21.7 21.8 0.024 0.21 1.45 0.015 FT104 8.74 20.7 0.17 0.21 3.91 0.005 FT105 2.27 8.21 0.25 0.21 2.04 0.018 FT109 10.9 38.6 0.085 0.33 2.42 0.009 FT118 19.2 24.3 0.13 0.16 8.50 0.005 FT143 4.21 13.5 0.044 0.23 1.91 0.007 FT153 6.63 37.0 0.092 0.26 15.6 0.018 FT154 2.39 34.8 0.18 0.14 2.64 0.21 FT155 17.7 24.9 0.17 0.11 7.18 0.008 FT156 11.6 75.7 0.18 0.13 16.1 0.010 FT157 6.32 28.0 0.21 0.32 6.04 0.014 73

Pr.-Nr. U V W Y Zn Zr FT162 13.6 10.3 0.061 0.24 21.6 0.009 FT167 1.73 19.2 0.050 0.22 6.10 0.004 FT168 15.7 49.1 0.44 0.28 49.5 0.009 FT183 5.52 3.74 0.74 0.095 1.36 0.009 FT185 2.94 25.4 0.68 0.25 122 0.006 FT187 1.18 20.4 0.25 0.14 103 <0.002 FT188 6.08 23.2 0.44 0.56 3.12 0.018 BHA1 13.1 82.2 0.24 0.15 1.65 0.033 BHB1 51.2 63.7 0.37 0.090 3.62 0.12 BHD1 23.0 67.4 0.21 0.071 2.11 0.19 BHA1 old 16.0 145 0.071 0.097 2.50 0.083

74

APPENDIX XI: DGS ION CHROMATOGRAPH RESULTS (PPM)

Field Borehole No. EC_Lab PH_Lab Field EC Field pH Temperature CO3 HCO3 F CL BR SO4 PO4 NO3 FT060 988 7.63 1055 6.89 23.4 0 598.34 -0.05 45.32 -0.5 7.89 -0.5 15.24 FT062 936 7.77 974 6.85 24.6 0 543.16 -0.05 42.13 -0.5 9.79 -0.5 22.5 FT021 2070 7.54 2220 6.69 26.1 0 662.09 -0.05 257.87 -0.5 124.1 -0.5 175.83 FT008 499 7.95 506 6.87 23.5 0 281.31 0.24 36.51 -0.5 4.21 -0.5 1.13 FT010 984 7.76 985 6.72 26.3 0 346.99 -0.5 37.02 -0.5 29 -0.5 172.34 FT077 1280 7.77 1338 7.42 25.7 0 505.15 -0.05 109.78 -0.5 104.4 -0.5 85.83 FT026 2040 7.65 2080 6.94 24.4 0 539.56 0.86 303.31 -0.5 131.61 -0.5 18.2 FT086 1567 7.52 1472 6.85 24 0 465.77 -0.05 161.48 -0.5 58.43 -0.5 120.95 FT089 1504 7.44 1548 6.8 24 0 350.48 -0.05 140.42 -0.5 104.98 -0.5 179.71 FT069 652 7.57 663 7.17 23.9 0 310.2 -0.5 31.91 -0.5 23.09 -0.5 26.18 FT070 1250 7.3 1270 7 24.9 0 600.79 -0.05 57.45 -0.5 50.35 -0.5 109.61 FT078 1623 7.34 16.44 6.94 26.4 0 510.06 -0.05 210.63 -0.5 75.69 -0.5 64.15 FT082 29.1 7.17 2930 6.72 24.2 0 208.44 -0.05 740.4 -0.5 37.25 -0.5 105.89 FT084 1002 7.32 1017 6.92 23.9 0 424.23 -0.05 91.91 -0.5 2.08 -0.5 43.12 FT092 1051 7.19 1069 6.76 25.9 0 404.61 0.33 80.42 -0.5 47.22 -0.5 96.45 FT049 1496 7.37 1510 6.98 23.3 0 553.39 0.83 160.08 -0.5 35.84 -0.5 16.04 FT048 1216 7.17 1226 7.17 24.5 0 604.47 -0.05 72.76 -0.5 30.25 -0.5 55.54 FT051 944 7.78 948 7.54 26.7 0 441.4 0.34 51.7 -0.5 58.92 -0.5 -0.5 FT058 410 7.45 420 7.35 24.8 0 120.16 0.42 44.68 -0.5 24.82 -0.5 -0.5 FT118 1146 6.63 1138 7.22 23.9 0 373.54 -0.05 92.68 -0.5 105.01 -0.5 73.78 FT143 1151 7.21 1143 6.62 25.3 0 472.05 0.12 81.7 -0.5 40.9 -0.5 109.25 FT154 1078 7 1078 7.01 25.1 0 310.13 0.82 64.59 -0.5 119.31 -0.5 161.89 FT097 1627 7 1612 6.93 24.7 0 426.68 -0.5 224.67 -0.5 87.88 -0.5 125.47 FT046 1063 7.4 1070 6.88 23.9 0 539.48 -0.05 57.45 -0.5 21.12 -0.5 46.35 FT068 1334 7.25 1313 6.72 25.6 0 465.77 0.23 109.53 -0.5 37.17 -0.5 129.26 FT167 786 7.37 795 6.86 24 0 373.54 -0.05 44.93 -0.5 6.55 -0.5 6.55 FT168 1396 7.56 1394 7.07 24.3 0 647.38 -0.05 109.15 -0.5 31.76 -0.5 57.6 FT074 2060 7.87 1793 7.32 24.8 0 765.09 -0.05 237.44 -0.5 63.83 -0.5 32.44 FT095 1955 7.24 1894 6.93 26.3 0 492.89 0.5 222.12 -0.5 54.96 -0.5 255.37 BHA1 1720 7.29 1669 6.93 23.1 0 559.1 -0.5 204.25 -0.5 123.87 -0.5 26.59 BHD1 2450 7.2 2380 6.88 23.1 0 387.37 -0.05 400.2 -0.5 164.26 -0.5 45.18

75

Field Borehole No. EC_Lab PH_Lab Field EC Field pH Temperature CO3 HCO3 F CL BR SO4 PO4 NO3 BHB1 2860 7.71 2660 6.9 23.6 0 534.95 -0.05 477.43 -0.5 257.58 -0.5 24.21 FT109 1134 6.95 1051 6.91 23.5 40.82 484.22 1.01 78.64 -0.5 42.15 -0.5 15.22 FT156 1832 7.18 1780 7.17 25.4 0 505.15 -0.05 201.7 -0.5 78.43 -0.5 173.24 FT157 1389 7.06 1285 7.05 25.8 0 348.21 -0.05 103.4 -0.5 70.07 -0.5 304.62 BHA1 2250 7.64 2090 6.83 25.1 0 634.09 -0.05 375.63 -0.5 72.96 -0.5 89.91 FT104 1011 7.29 1000 6.75 24.1 0 447.33 0.56 108.83 -0.5 31.35 -0.5 31.42 FT105 887 7.63 884 6.85 25.2 0 451.94 0.47 42.13 -0.5 23.32 -0.5 4.08 FT183 899 7.63 945 7.19 24.2 0 484.22 -0.05 47.74 -0.5 9.74 -0.5 -0.5 FT152 1480 6.9 1460 6.89 25 0 480.63 -0.05 118.72 -0.5 51.55 -0.5 236.3 FT153 1723 6.94 1626 6.89 25.6 0 426.57 -0.05 134.8 -0.5 80.77 -0.5 371.48 FT155 1453 7.03 1436 7.01 24.8 0 308.98 -0.05 99.57 -0.5 46.14 -0.5 339 FT162 1113 6.93 1100 6.99 19.9 0 396.6 -0.05 98.3 -0.5 42.69 -0.5 82.83 FT185 2080 7.28 2040 7.02 23.5 0 428.88 -0.05 199.4 -0.5 208.02 -0.5 209.05 FT187 1606 7.12 1572 6.85 24.5 0 249.03 -0.05 109.53 -0.5 117.67 -0.5 501.34 FT188 1005 7.17 1013 6.83 25.8 0 456.55 0.79 42.13 -0.5 24.91 -0.5 24.02

76

Sum of Sum of Ionic Borehole No. NO2 SIO2 Anions K NA CA MG Cations TDS Balance FT060 -0.3 70 736.78 1.63 32.6 81 70.8 186.03 664 0.77 FT062 -0.3 63 680.58 1.47 31.5 70.5 68.75 172.22 612 0.39 FT021 -0.3 63 1282.89 7.63 100 148 144.5 400.13 1444 -0.56 FT008 -0.3 41 364 0.63 29.25 27.85 35.45 93.18 228 1.48 FT010 -0.3 67 652.35 1.09 24.5 87.75 60.5 173.84 620 -1.61 FT077 -0.3 36 841.17 1.86 57.5 76.5 76.5 251.11 790 1.18 FT026 -0.3 35 1028.54 5.6 113 110.5 111.75 340.85 1052 1.79 FT086 -0.3 24 830.63 4.06 188.25 30.5 71.4 294.21 672 -1.05 FT089 -0.3 30 805.59 1.4 45.25 138.25 79.25 264.15 752 -2.08 FT069 -0.3 35 426.39 4 28.2 65.6 29.7 127.5 308 -1.11 FT070 -0.3 73 891.19 3.17 84.25 85.7 76.5 249.62 706 -0.09 FT078 -0.3 57 917.53 2.04 110 107 92 311.04 796 -2.38 FT082 -0.3 21 1112.99 4.89 37.5 396 70.75 509.14 1960 -1.01 FT084 -0.3 40.02 601.34 1.69 37.3 82.4 60.7 182.09 492 -2.29 FT092 -0.3 29 658.04 2.18 81.8 101 28.65 213.63 580 2 FT049 -0.3 69 835.19 2.06 125.75 66.25 68.54 262.56 692.02 0.61 FT048 -0.3 84 847.03 1.15 59.5 80.5 87.9 229.06 690 -1.36 FT051 -0.3 31 583.36 4.59 74.5 94.5 26.65 200.24 488 -1.6 FT058 -0.3 30 220.08 1.96 59.1 20.8 3.38 85.24 138 -2.16 FT118 -0.3 71 716.01 1.32 41 87 65.75 195.07 810 2.33 FT143 -0.3 56 760.02 3.32 55.25 106.5 58.75 223.82 754 0.12 FT154 -0.3 75 731.74 3.33 82.1 65.25 57.75 208.43 770 1.62 FT097 -0.3 56 920.7 3.74 85.5 161.5 60.75 311.49 1116 0.94 FT046 -0.3 83 747.4 1.06 50.9 62.25 80.25 194.46 684 -1.24 FT068 -0.3 66 807.96 2.51 83 55.25 80.75 221.51 884 1.97 FT167 -0.3 62 500.29 1.03 39.3 33.75 48 122.08 500 2.69 FT168 -0.3 66 911.89 6.57 90.57 95.25 83.25 275.82 854 -1.39 FT074 -0.3 52 1150.8 2.82 331.5 54 45.3 433.62 1202 0.44 FT095 -0.3 51 1076.84 4.7 97.75 202.25 68.75 373.45 1220 -1.21 BHA1 -0.3 56 969.81 4.89 136.25 104.75 75 320.89 1028 1.39 BHD1 -0.3 59 1056.02 6.84 232.5 76.5 92.5 408.34 1526 0.18

77

Sum of Sum of Ionic Borehole No. NO2 SIO2 Anions K NA CA MG Cations TDS Balance BHB1 -0.3 55 1349.17 8.54 310 129 86.5 534.04 1818 1.34 FT109 -0.3 80 742.06 0.48 97 91 55.25 243.73 720 -2.39 FT156 -0.3 62 1020.53 3.06 169 117 70.5 359.56 1160 -1.77 FT157 -0.3 45 871.31 2.95 66.75 141.75 51.75 263.2 928 2.36 BHA1 -0.3 69 1241.59 7.6 170.5 143 116.25 437.35 1378 -0.71 FT104 -0.3 66 685.49 0.69 45.75 95.25 54.75 196.44 658 1.45 FT105 -0.3 86 607.94 0.99 62.75 46.1 49.3 159.14 516 0.36 FT183 -0.3 48 589.7 1.55 50.25 54.4 51.6 157.8 526 1.64 FT152 -0.3 79 966.2 1.25 117.75 102.5 67.5 289 972 0.92 FT153 -0.3 79 1092.62 2.16 135.5 109.5 91.25 338.41 1070 -1.19 FT155 -0.3 45 838.69 2.96 46.8 154.25 59.5 263.51 290 -1.37 FT162 -0.3 47 667.41 3.41 62.25 96.25 46.5 208.41 696 0.35 FT185 -0.3 75 1120.35 3.21 53.2 191 111.25 358.66 1536 -1.73 FT187 -0.3 74 1051.57 1.9 32.9 171 99.5 305.3 1132 -1.35 FT188 -0.3 77 625.39 1.43 64.25 41.2 60.7 167.58 630 -132

78