THE ·OSLER·LI BRARY·NEWSLE TTER· NUMBER 100 · 2003

Osler Library of the History of Medicine, McGill University, Montréal (Québec)

• IN THIS ISSUE OSLER, BALTIMORE AND PUBLIC HEALTH

THE LEAD ARTICLE IN THIS ollowing the Civil War, limits and adding about 40,000 new by Baltimore like other major inhabitants to the city’s rolls. While Dr. Günther number of the Osler Library Newsletter F population centres on the the expansion generated a veritable is by the eminent American historian eastern seaboard witnessed an real estate and construction boom, Risse of medicine, Dr. Günther Risse. Dr. impressive economic growth the extension of municipal services punctuated by a succession of boom strained the city’s coffers. For a Risse’s wide ranging publications and bust periods. Its history and decade, house construction soared, include major monographs on geographic location made the city an with thousands of new units built— everything from the palaeopathology ideal metropolis to assist in the an average of 3,700 per year— postwar reconstruction of the South.1 following the economic slump of the of ancient Egypt, to medical practice Baltimore’s bankers, flush with capital 1870s. The result was a vast tract of in New Spain, to the hospitals of 18th obtained from government contracts “respectable” privately owned two- for cotton, iron, and steel, provided story row houses, somewhat elevated century Edinburgh. His most recent the necessary venture money to to avoid periodic flooding from book, Mending Bodies—Saving Souls: A create a number of domestic adjacent streams. These buildings History of Hospitals, was published by industries and transportation systems with their frequently polished marble to carry their wares—from farm “front steps” and sidewalks, were Oxford University Press, in 1999. In implements to millinery—to the constructed of a reddish-pink brick 1988, the American Association for southern states. At the same time, the by well-paid bricklayers who became the History of Medicine awarded him city used its port facilities to establish world famous. Behind the town- an active international trade in houses with their yards and cesspools the William H. Welch Medal “for tobacco, wheat, and flour with particular contributions of out- Europe. Prominent among the new The well-known standing scholarly merit in the field entrepreneurs contributing to Baltimore’s development was a native cartoon of 1896 of medical history.” of Maryland, Johns Hopkins (1795- by Max Brödel 1873), a Quaker and president of the Merchants Bank. Hopkins was also in which the Dr. Risse teaches in the Department one of the directors of the Baltimore germs flee in of Anthropology, History and Social and Ohio Railroad, another Osler’s presence. Medicine at the University of important local economic player. His most enduring legacy, of course, was California, San Francisco. In this the endowment that created a essay, he explores the seamy, steamy, prominent university and hospital.2 and stinky underside of Osler’s Originally built in the early 1700s on Baltimore, and the challenges Osler low ground bordered on three sides faced in awakening professional and by marshes with flowing streams, public consciousness of public health. Baltimore quickly expanded towards higher ground through repeated annexations, following a checker- board grid of streets and buildings. The sprawl during the 1880s was especially directed towards the northwest, nearly tripling the city’s •

·1· • were labyrinths of alleys and small Frostburg. Home owners, especially July, August, September, and overcrowded shacks. in German and Bohemian neigh- October. The newly accepted cause bourhoods, had their water piped to of typhoid fever was a bacillus By 1890, the city’s cesspools had their private property but not to the discovered in 1880 by the German greatly increased in number—every shacks located in the inner alleys. scientist Carl J. Eberth (1835-1926), dwelling had its own—and they were Many of them were well-paid a finding later confirmed by the connected to old and new storm mechanics, in contrast to the cannery prominent bacteriologists Robert water sewers which discharged all labour force, that also included Poles Koch (1843-1910) and Georg Gaffky “Fortunately wastes directly into the harbor basin. but was increasingly replaced with (1850-1918). However, since Eberth’s it is now a Failure to clean them regularly and unskilled workers, as machines took causal agent still failed to fulfill Koch’s keep them closed caused a constant over production of the cans. third postulate of inoculation and great and overflow into yards, courts, and alleys reproduction of the disease in an growing producing noxious odors. To The inner city, Oldtown, and Fells experimental animal, many physi- compound the problem, Baltimore’s Point, as well as areas located west cians continued to question the role function of water pipes were made from hemlock and south of Camden Station of this particular microorganism in the medical logs. Cracks and joints in these log obtained their water through free the pathogenesis of the disease.8 Two pipes allowed seepage from public fountains from shallow wells, distinct contemporary paradigms profession to contaminated soils near privies and vulnerable to pollution from privies competed for the attention of search out the stables, a situation that created a and street drainage. Attracted by the physicians concerned with public perennial contamination of water city’s demands for labourers and health. One was the ground-water laws about supplies coming from Jones Falls and domestic servants, newly freed Blacks hypothesis proposed by the German epidemics and the Gunpowder River reservoir had migrated there after 1870 from sanitarian Max J. Pettenkoffer (1818- outside the city. Lack of a chemical Virginia, North Carolina, and 1901) of Munich, who postulated these outside and bacteriological laboratory at the Georgia, and by 1891 made up about that particular soil conditions were Health Department, in turn, 15% of Baltimore’s population. They responsible for drainage, and that enemies of hindered periodic analyses of this mainly lived near the waterfront and epidemics spread because of man, and to water so that its actual impurity was in the segregated ghetto in South alterations in the soil caused by never suspected until 1892.3 Milk Baltimore named “Pigtown,” and their fluctuations in levels of ground teach you, supplies, lacking refrigeration and mortality rates were twice that of the water.9 The other theory was the public— exposed to flies and urban dust, were city’s white population.5 Many Black supported by the new bacteriologists equally contaminated. There was no females were part of a contingent of including Koch who attributed these dull, stupid inspection of dairies. 20,000 domestics employed in the outbreaks to the contamination of pupils you city. In Oldtown and Fells Point, water supplies. Infection occurred The major obstacles to an improved similar unhealthy conditions pre- when such water, containing Eberth’s are too as a public health in Baltimore were vailed among the nearly 16,000 bacillus, were ingested.10 Although rule—the linked to its rapid and unprecedented overworked and underpaid garment the causal agent had been cultured growth. Fueled by an influx of workers, many of them Jewish. They from the blood and stool of typhoid way of immigrants, Baltimore’s modest were mostly women and children, fever victims, it was still difficult to nature that infrastructure was quickly over- among them immigrants from Italy, identify and isolate the bacteria in the whelmed by new settlements that Lithuania, Bohemia, and Russia who water. Recent evidence from typhoid you may outstripped existing water supplies, worked twelve hours a day in small, fever outbreaks in Hamburg and walk therein dwellings, pavement, sewerage, and ill-ventilated sweatshops of East Berlin, as well as Boston, Plymouth, garbage removal, thus creating Baltimore, part of a clothing industry and Pennsylvania, however, pointed and prosper.” significant hazards to the city’s public facing increasingly acute compe- to a lack or failure of water filters, an health.4 Indeed, the land additions of tition. Indeed, following the Civil indirect confirmation of this 1888 had provided vast housing War, Baltimore had become “the city hypothesis.11 tracts with quite primitive sanitary that tries to suit everybody.”6 conditions, especially large numbers Under the circumstances, Baltimore’s of polluted wells. Garbage removal Discussions concerning Baltimore’s Health Department, devoid of both became deficient, with an abundance impure water supply and its links to adequate funding and expertise, of refuse from slaughterhouses and epidemics of typhoid and cholera remained a passive spectator in the packing plants rotting on streets. A were already common in the late battle against contagious diseases, large and sustained German im- 1880s. The British Public Health Act and considered them nuisances to be migration, especially from 1860 of 1875, based on the ideas of the blamed, in the traditional manner, on onwards, now made up a third of English physician William Budd foul “miasma.” Even Daniel C. Baltimore’s population. Many of them (1811-1880), had already accepted Gilman, president of the Johns participated in the city’s various the view that typhoid fever was Hopkins University and interim industries, as furniture makers and spread by means of water and food.7 director of the Hospital, questioned piano manufacturers, brewers and By this time, typhoid was already at the opening of the institution in butchers, shoe and can makers. In endemic in Baltimore, peaking during 1889 “whether Baltimore is now 1882, a special contingent of German the late summer and early fall. Most fortified as it should against the miners was brought to the mines near cases occurred during the months of hostile incursions of epidemic • ·2· disease.”12 Political corruption and prevalence of typhoid fever in the microscopist who followed in the administrative inefficiency compoun- United States and especially tradition of French medicine by ded public indifference towards the Baltimore “was a source of deep studying the correlation between importance of public health. aggravation to him and he called for clinical observations and pathological Although diphtheria, scarlet fever, the use of all his powers of voice and anatomy. He also strongly supported and typhoid were widely prevalent pen to bring light into the darkness, after 1875, the first two were not included among the reportable diseases until 1882 and typhoid was The Johns only listed in 1895. By 1890, Hopkins Baltimore’s new health commissioner, Hospital George F. Rohe, began advising the Bulletin, Vol. 1, disinfection and fumigation of houses in which a death or recovery from a No. 8, communicable disease had already November 1890 occurred. People with diphtheria and with the paper scarlet fever were to be hospitalized. Indeed, during Rohe’s brief tenure, by Charles E. Baltimore entered an era of greater Simon on the public health consciousness that use of Ehrlich’s would eventually turn the city around in the following decade.13 Test in Typhoid The Johns Fever which Hopkins On February 22, 1891, Dr. William became a key, Hospital Osler (1849-1919), since 1888 a quick diagnostic professor of medicine at the Johns became an Hopkins University, and physician- method to detect in-chief of the newly established the presence of ideal site to Johns Hopkins Hospital, gave the the disease. carry on the main address during the ceremonies commemorating the fifteenth bacteriological anniversary of the University. Taking advantage of the presence of local research dignitaries, his talk stressed the necessary to importance of sanitary science in the prevention of disease and the need make the for physicians to educate city differential authorities and the public about its that rational legislative measures the newer linkages between the basic principles. At stake were issues of might be inaugurated to restrict its medical sciences and clinical events.20 diagnoses pure water, clean streets, and incidence.”17 since both adequate drainage, all capable of Earlier in the nineteenth century, so- cutting in half the mortality of certain In agitating for sanitary improve- called continuous fevers had been malaria and infectious diseases, including typhoid ments in Baltimore, Osler was gradually separated on the basis of typhoid fever fever.14 For Osler, the presence of consciously following the example of careful clinical observations.21 By the typhoid fever was an important index the doyen of German medicine, 1840s, the distinction between were quite of sanitation, and in his opinion Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902), a typhoid and typhus fever was prevalent in Baltimore obviously faired badly in famous pathologist and originator of gradually accepted both in Europe this regard.15 In another talk on this the cell-theory of disease, who and America.22 By 1891, Osler and this southern subject in 1891 to the first class of decades earlier had quite eloquently others were also confident that, city. graduates from the Training School reported on typhus conditions in despite decades of medical controver- for Nurses at the Johns Hopkins Silesia.18 Osler’s earliest documented sy, malaria and typhoid fever could Hospital, Osler ranted and raved: encounter with the public health now be separated from a peculiarly “Fortunately it is now a great and aspects of typhoid fever can be traced American disease entity designated as growing function of the medical back to his days at the typho-malarial fever. This creation of profession to search out the laws General Hospital and his the Civil War had erroneously fused about epidemics and these outside membership on a committee that had the manifestations of malaria and enemies of man, and to teach you, studied and reported on an outbreak typhoid fever into a single disease. A the public—dull, stupid pupils you of the disease in Canada at the resolution to this problem began after are too as a rule—the way of nature Bishop’s College School in the discovery of separate causal that you may walk therein and Lennoxville in December 1880.19 microorganisms—Laveran’s malarial prosper.”16 Later, one of Osler’s Now in his early forties, Osler was a parasite and Eberth’s typhoid contemporaries remembered that the well-trained pathologist and bacillus—in 1880. In sharp contrast ·3· • to a majority of contemporary Based on information from the yearly one of Osler’s aphorisms.28 Treat- American physicians, Osler accepted Baltimore Health Reports, the ment, for the most part, remained Laveran’s etiological claims. The mortality rates from typhoid fever in symptomatic, consisting of the Johns Hopkins Hospital became an the city during the years 1888-1892 traditional and repeated application ideal site to carry on the bac- only confirmed Osler’s concerns. of cold water to lower the high fever teriological research necessary to There averaged around 229 official of the patients. In fact, Osler simply make the differential diagnoses since cases per year, affecting dispro- took an expectant attitude, both malaria and typhoid fever were portionately poor Blacks and white eschewing a number of antiseptic “gospel of quite prevalent in this southern city.23 city dwellers of German and Irish intestinal treatments then popular in preventative extraction. The lack of reporting and Europe and trusting in the natural Osler re-visited Munich in May 1890, diagnostic confusion surrounding the recuperative powers of his young medicine” and was impressed with the city’s new disease, as well as its average patients.29 Hospital statistics at Johns that drainage system and concomitant mortality rate of 12% suggested at Hopkins revealed 10% mortality reduction in cases of typhoid fever. least 2,750 cases of the disease per from the disease. Osler told his recommended He remarked that Munich was now year in a population estimated at colleagues: “Year by year we pure water, one of the healthiest cities on the 450,000 in the early 1890’s. physicians sit at the bedside of continent.24 Typhoid fever periodi- Baltimore’s largest number of fatal thousand upon thousand, chiefly of good cally continued to seize Baltimore typhoid fever cases came from the youths and maids whose lives are drainage, and despite what Osler described as more outlying areas of the city, especially offered up at the altars of Ignorance than fifty years of a “gospel of the first Ward, followed by Wards 17, and Neglect.”30 the prompt preventative medicine” that recom- 21, and 22, where there were a large isolation of mended pure water, good drainage, number of dairies, and where well At the 97th annual meeting of the and the prompt isolation of the sick.25 water was used. Cases reported from Medical and Chirurgical Faculty of the sick. In addition to the lack of a proper Ward 19 on the western fringes of Maryland, held in Baltimore on April sewage system and scheme for the city had the highest mortality 23, 1895, Osler organized a sym- inspecting dairies and slaughter- rates. Faced with such statistics, Osler posium on typhoid fever.31 His houses, a compulsory reporting bluntly stated that it “behooves growing frustration at seeing mechanism for contagious diseases civilized communities to insist upon” significant numbers of sufferers under and isolation facilities for those public health measures. Creating a his care die of the disease gave further already infected were wanting. proper sewage system and providing impetus to his quest for prevention. Moreover, Baltimore’s cobbled streets an ample supply of clean water could By now, the bacteriological evidence were simply swept, not watered, dramatically reduce the incidence of for the transmission of the disease creating unhealthy clouds of dust water-borne diseases.27 through contaminated water, milk, composed of filth and horse manure. raw vegetables, and oysters was The problem, of course, was that the Osler’s keen interest in preventing overwhelming and could no longer city only had a surface drainage typhoid fever was closely related to be ignored by public health system designed to collect excessive his clinical experiences with the authorities. Although the city of rainwater and household waste. disease at the Johns Hopkins Baltimore had finally established a Human wastes, in contrast, went into Hospital. During certain times of the bacteriological laboratory and an estimated 70,000-80,000 privy year, nearly half of the hospital’s enacted legislation to begin pits, many of which were leaking and medical wards were filled with new compulsory reporting of typhoid contaminating the adjacent ground. and relapsed typhoid cases, mostly fever, little else was in the offing Thus, Osler was on target when he single Caucasian males, many of regarding key reforms of the city’s pointed out that local conditions them recent immigrants living in infrastructure, especially the cons- allowed typhoid fever to remain nearby slums. In spite of con- truction of sewers. Once again, Osler endemic in the city throughout the temporary advances in bacteriology, urged city leaders to support entire year, although the continued Osler and his team of residents measures intended to avoid the prevalence of the disease during continued to struggle in making an contamination of Baltimore’s water autumn was imperfectly understood. early diagnosis based on cultures of supply by abolishing the local According to Osler, “Baltimore has the etiological agent. Partly cesspool system of drainage. Indeed, the unenviable distinction of having responsible for the difficulties was the the city was to take control of the the largest number of privy pits of any morphological similarity between the Gunpowder River and Jones’ Falls city on this continent, the major Eberth and coli bacilli when the watersheds but the polluted stream portion of which are, in the words of stools were cultured. Presumptive was merely tamed by the the last report of the medical officer diagnoses continued to be made construction of granite walls to of health, filthy, unsanitary, mostly on clinical grounds, including prevent flooding.32 A year later, a threatening and positively dange- temperature charts that revealed the report from the city’s sanitary rous.”26 In 1891, the local Health disease’s characteristic fever pattern. inspectors declared the general water Department responded by issuing “Typhoid fever has a Pennsylvania- supply seriously polluted.33 Osler regulations that every privy, well, and Railway-like directness in distinction persisted in bringing up the subject cesspool had to be watertight. to the zigzag Baltimore-and-Ohio again when Simon Flexner came to chart of aestivo-autumnal fever,” read town in November of 1896 for the • ·4· purpose of explaining to local stave off epidemic disease. He Athens, continued to pay “Delian” physicians the novel serum diagnosis admitted that the death of patients tribute, sacrificing young innocent of typhoid fever designed by the from typhoid caused him a “heart- lives to the “Minotaur” of infectious French physician Fernand Widal searching dread lest something had diseases, typhoid fever.40 After Osler (1862-1929). Widal’s agglutination been left undone,” and “poignant left for Oxford University in 1905 to test was based on the observed fact grief” for parents and friends of the assume the chair of Regius Professor that persons infected with the Eberth bacillus—now salmonella typhi— developed antibodies to this Dr. Osler microorganism’s outer wall. quizzing a Unfortunately, the test often proved student at Johns 34 inaccurate. Hopkins In his keynote address to state health Hospital at the officers and other dignitaries in 1897, Saturday Osler once more complained about morning clinic the “penalties of cruel neglect” in th relation to the prevention of typhoid (4 yr.). fever. “To our shame,” he added, “we Tabulation of do [this] with full knowledge, with typhoid and an easy complacency that only long years of sinning can give.”35 The pneumonia conference, however, led to the cases on creation of the Maryland Public blackboard. Health Association. Under the leadership of William H. Welch Taken 1902-3. (1850-1934), Osler’s Hopkins colleague, this organization began pressuring the legislature for public health reforms. Baltimore, in turn, commissioned its first epide- miological study of typhoid fever in 1899. In another speech that same year before the Medical Society of victims, “worn by the strains of of Medicine, public health in America “Typhoid the State of New York in Albany, anxious days and still more anxious entered its most critical period of Osler discussed the prevalence of nights.”38 reform and expansion, and like fever has a typhoid fever in the United States Theseus in the myth, eventually slew Pennsylvania- including the experiences of the By the early 1900s, Osler continued the febrile monster.41 Spanish-American War with its high to ridicule the meager accomplish- Railway-like incidence of the disease among the ments of Baltimore’s past and present directness in troops in military camps.36 Suspicions public health officials, lashing out in of disease transmission by healthy public at the current mayor and distinction to carriers had been confirmed and bitterly complaining about the End Notes the zigzag almost 20% of the soldiers stationed continuing lack of a proper sewer 1 Sherry H. Olson, Baltimore: The Building in the US had fallen ill of typhoid in system and isolation hospital for of an American City (Baltimore: Johns Baltimore- contrast to a war termed the “most infectious diseases.39 In contrast to Hopkins University Press, 1980), 198- 241. and-Ohio bloodless campaign in history.” In medical affairs at Johns Hopkins 2 Hospital under Osler’s immediate For details, see Hamilton Owens, chart of Europe that year, Koch investigated Baltimore on the Chesapeake (Garden City, control, the glacial pace of the city’s another typhoid fever epidemic in NY: Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1941), aestivo- Trier, Germany, similarly stressing the politicized bureaucracy proved very especially chapter XXV, “Pride and need for early detection and isolation frustrating to him. Although disease Prejudice,” 288-303. autumnal of the sick.37 Osler considered the reporting was slowly improving, 3 William T. Howard, Jr., Public Health fever,” neglect of sanitary laws that had cases from rural Maryland continued Administration and the Natural History of fostered this carnage “criminal” and to be included, perpetuating the Disease in Baltimore, Maryland, 1797-1920 a paradox for people who paid hitherto murky data. Although the (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institu- growing problem of urban tuber- tion, 1924), 108-40. attention to their personal hygiene 4 but somehow were careless about the culosis came to engage more of his Similar conditions existed in Pittsburg. energies before his departure for See C.R. Koppes and W.P. Norris, public’s health. Osler expressed a “Ethnicity, Class, and Mortality in the “keen sense of personal defeat in a England, Osler continued to express Industrial City: A Case Study of closely contested battle” against concern for typhoid fever. Taking a Typhoid Fever in Pittsburgh, 1890- those who had failed to take the page from ancient Greek mythology, 1910,” in Journal of Urban History 11 necessary public health measures to he insisted that Baltimore, like (1985): 259-79. ·5· • 5 J.S. Billings, “Municipal Sanitation in (New York: Oxford University Press, methods of sewage disposal do not Washington and Baltimore,” in The 1940), 342. have much influence on the health of Forum 15 (1 Aug. 1893): 727-37. 15 William B. Bean, ed., Sir : the community.” Billings, “Municipal 6 J.A.E. Argersinger, “The City That Aphorisms from his Bedside Teachings and Sanitation,” 735. Tries to Suit Everybody: Baltimore’s Writings (New York: H. Schuman, 28 Bean, Osler Aphorisms, #282, p. 129. Clothing Industry,” in The Baltimore Book: 1950), #325, p. 140. For a sketch of 29 Osler, “The Cold-Bath Treatment in New Views on Local History, E. Fee, L. Osler’s interests in public health see G. Typhoid Fever,” in Medical News 61 Shopes, and L. Zeidman, eds. Rosen, “Osler and Public Health,” in (1892): 628-31. Details of Osler’s (Philadelphia: Temple University North Carolina Medical Journal 10 (1949): management of typhoid fever at the Baltimore, Press, 1991), 81-101. 277-9. Johns Hopkins Hospital in 1891 can like Athens, 7 For a summary, see C.W. Le Baron and 16 William Osler, Doctor and Nurse be gleaned from a case history in D.W. Taylor, “Typhoid Fever,” in The (Baltimore: J. Murphy & Co., 1891), 8. Guenter B. Risse, “The Limits of continued to Cambridge World History of Human Disease, 17 H.B. Jacobs, “Osler as a Citizen and Medical Science,” in Mending Bodies- K.F. Kiple, ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge his Relation to the Tuberculosis Saving Souls: A History of Hospitals (New pay “Delian” University Press, 1993), 1071-77. For Crusade in Maryland,” in Bulletin of the York: Oxford University Press, 1999), tribute, conditions in England, see B. Luckin, Johns Hopkins Hospital 30 (July 1919): 399-422. “Evaluating the Sanitary Revolution: 206. 30 Osler, “The Problem of Typhoid Fever sacrificing Typhus and Typhoid in London, 1851- 18 Osler, who admired Virchow, saw in the United States,” in Medical News 1900,” in Urban Disease and Mortality in himself as a “man who translates the 74 (1899): 229. young Nineteenth-Century England, R. Woods, hieroglyphics of science into the plain 31 Osler, “Typhoid Fever in Country innocent lives ed. (London: Batsford, 1984), 102-19. language of healing.” See Been, Osler Districts,” in Maryland Medical Journal 33 8 Budd’s Typhoid Fever: Its Nature, Mode of Aphorisms, # 257, p. 123. (1895-96): 55-7. to the Spreading and Prevention was published in 19 Cushing, Life of Osler, 183-4. 32 Cushing, Life of Osler, 413-14. See also 1875. For a contemporary discussion 20 For details, see Cushing, Life of Osler, S. Bonsal, “The New Baltimore,” in “Minotaur” at the 40th annual meeting of the especially chapters I-XII dealing with Harper’s New Month Magazine 92 (Feb. of infectious A.M.A. in June, 1889, see Boston Medical his life before coming to Baltimore. For 1896): 331-50. & Surgical Journal 121 (July 18, 1889): another, more recent biography of 33 Howard, Public Health, 256. diseases, 63-4. Osler see, , William 34 Cushing, Life of Osler, 441-2. See also 9 A.S. Evans, “Two Errors in Enteric Osler: A Life in Medicine (Toronto: Osler, “The Relation of Typhoid typhoid fever. Epidemiology: The Stories of Austin University of Toronto Press, 1999). Mortality and Sewerage,” in Maryland Flint and Max von Pettenkofer, in 21 L.G. Wilson, “Fevers and Science in Medical Journal 38 (1897-98): 217-18. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 7 (May/June Early Nineteenth-Century Medicine,” 35 Jacobs, “Osler as a Citizen,” 206. 1985): 434-40. in Journal of the History of Medicine & Allied 36 G. Sternberg, “Sanitary Lessons of the 10 A.C. Abbott, “The Relation Between Sciences 33 (1978): 386-407. War,” in J.A.M.A. 32 (1899): 1287-94. Water Supply and Epidemics,” in 22 D.C. Smith, “Medical Science, Medical 37 L.G. Stevenson, “Exemplary Disease: Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital 1 Practice, and the Emerging Concept The Typhoid Pattern,” in Journal of the (May 1890): 55-6. Abbott was an of Typhus in Mid-Eighteenth-Century History of Medicine & Allied Sciences 37 assistant at the Johns Hopkins Britain,” in Theories of Fever from Antiquity (1982): 159-81. Hospital’s bacteriology and hygiene to the Enlightenment, W.F. Bynum and V. 38 Osler, Counsels and Ideals (Boston: laboratory. Nutton, eds. (London: Wellcome Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1908), 260. 11 C.V. Chapin, “Some Points in the Institute, 1981), 121-34. See also See also Medical News 74 (1899): 229. Etiology of Typhoid Fever,” in Boston William Budd, “Introduction,” in On the 39 Osler, “Tuberculosis,” in Maryland Medical & Surgical Journal 120 (June 20, Causes of Fevers (1839), D.C. Smith, ed. Medical Journal 45 (1902): 134-5. For 1889): 604-7. As of 1884, Chapin was (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University British models of isolation hospitals, superintendent of health for the city Press, 1984), 1-39. For America, see see J.M. Eyler, “Scarlet Fever and of Providence and one of the leaders D.C. Smith, “Gerhard’s Distinction Confinement: The Edwardian Debate of a new bacteriologically-informed Between Typhoid and Typhus and its over Isolation Hospitals,” in Bulletin of public health. See also James H. Reception in America, 1833-1860,” in the History of Medicine 61 (1987): 1-24. Cassedy, Charles V. Chapin and the Public Bulletin of the History of Medicine 54 (1980): 40 Osler, “Typhoid Fever in Baltimore,” Health Movement (Cambridge, MA: 365-85. 159. Harvard University Press, 1962). 23 D.C. Smith, “The Rise and Fall of 41 For details, see Elizabeth Fee, Disease 12 Alan M. Chesney, The Johns Hopkins Typhomalarial Fever II: Decline and and Discovery: A History of the Johns Hospital and the Johns Hopkins University Fall,” in Journal of the History of Medicine & Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health, School of Medicine: A Chronicle, 3 vols. Allied Sciences 37 (1982): 287-321. 1916-1939 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University 24 Osler, “Letters to my House Officers,” University Press, 1987) especially Press, 1943), vol 1, p. 260. in New York Medical Journal 52 (1890): chapter 1, pp. 9-25, and E. Fee and 13 Howard, Public Health, 150. For an 192. R.M. Acheson, eds., A History of analysis of another nearby city, see 25 Osler, “Typhoid Fever in Baltimore,” in Education in Public Health (New York: Michael P. McCarthy, Typhoid and the Johns Hopkins Hospital Reports 4 (1895): Oxford University Press, 1991). Politics of Public Health in Nineteenth- 159-67. Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia: 26 Osler, “Typhoid Fever in Baltimore,” American Philosophical Society, 167. 1987). 27 Osler, “Typhoid Fever in Baltimore,” 14 The address titled “Recent Advances 166. The need for a sewer system was in Medicine,” was published in Science somewhat disputed by John S. Billings, 18 (1891): 170. See also Harvey who believed “that so long as the water Cushing, The Life of Sir William Osler supply is pure and abundant, the • ·6· for $25, or $20 for Friends of the Osler Library. Canadian Friends should remit in Canadian currency OSLER LIBRARY GRAND PRIX (the price includes GST), and American and international Friends RESEARCH DU JURY in U.S. currency. The price also includes postage. FELLOWSHIP 2003 he City of Montreal and Heritage Montreal have by Adriana Benzaquén T awarded the Grand Prix du Jury, Commerce Design, Montréal, to the Department of History firm of Fournier, Gersovitz and Moss, “THE STORY OF Mount Saint Vincent University for the restoration of the Gault Hotel in old Montreal. The firm recently AUGUSTUS WHO received an Osler Research won an additional prize for work WOULD NOT HAVE Fellowship to conduct research done on the Canadian Heritage I on the formation of a “medical headquarters. The Osler ANY SOUP” science of childhood” during the Library was fortunate enough to have Enlightenment and the early Julia Gersovitz plan and design the nineteenth- century. I was looking for hugely successful renovations at the he lead article in our last Osler Library. newsletter, “Maysie’s Memo- evidence concerning physicians’ The attempts not just to diagnose and T ries…” brought the following treat the diseases of childhood but to Octavio Salcedo, the cabinetmaker letter from H.D. Vos in Amsterdam. adventures of guide the treatment of all infants and for our project also won the Prix de “The song that Uncle Bill sang to children, in other words, to bring the l’artisan, awarded by the same body. soup-hating Gwyn was not his own “Shockheaded entire domain of infant and child care Congratulations to everyone for invention. I recognize it immediately Peter”(the under the purview of medical these much deserved honours. as “SupenKaspar” from Heinrich doctors. Thanks to the fellowship I Kinderlieb’s Struwwelpeter. It is English was able to spend two intense and standard repertoire – has been for translation) productive weeks in August 2003 more than a century – for reciting to toddlers in my family while they are are vintage mining the excellent resources of the THE LIFE AND Osler Library. I examined the works being fed.” A quick search on the web Osler boys. of medical popularizers such as Nils WORK OF J.L.W. revealed “The History of Rosen von Rosenstein and Simon Struwwelpeter,” posted by Robert Tissot and of practitioners dedicated THUDICHUM, Godwin-Jones of Virginia Common- to the care of infants and children wealth University. “The Story of such as George Armstrong, William 1829-1901 Augustus who would not have any Buchan, and Alphonse Leroy. Other Soup” http://www.fln.vcu.edu// valuable sources of information I struwwel/kaspar_e.html. The first consulted included official and r. Theodore Sourkes, English edition was published in unofficial inquiries into the problem Chairman of the Standing Leipzig in 1848 and it is hard to of infant mortality, French medical D Committee of the Osler imagine the Osler family not being theses (several of which were devoted Library, has just published The Life and aware of it. The adventures of to the “physical and moral education” Work of J.L.W. Thudichum, 1829-1901, “Shockheaded Peter”(the English of children), and early nineteenth- No. 9 in the Osler Library Studies in translation) are vintage Osler boys. century medical dictionaries. I am the History of Medicine series. Dr. What makes the poem even more grateful to the selection committee Sourkes first produced an exhibition pertinent is that the author was a for offering me this opportunity to on this versatile, talented and doctor from Frankfurt, Dr. Heinrich collect raw material for my research controversial doctor who published Hoffmann, (1809-1894) who inven- project and to the Osler Library staff on a broad variety of topics, from a ted the Struwwelpeter stories to for all the help they provided during cookbook to the chemistry of the amuse his son and drawings, to calm my stay. brain. During the course of his nervous or frightened young patients. research, Dr. Sourkes unearthed a Osler’s rapport with children, great deal of original material, whether patients of not, is well- producing an important, well known. illustrated and very readable medical biography. He also located works by Thudichum which we did not own but have since been lucky enough to purchase. Copies may be ordered from the Library or by our web page ·7· • Struwwelpeter remained at McGill until 1914, when cance” and in September 2003 the by Heinrich Hoffmann she moved to Toronto as Librarian of Minister of Canadian Heritage The Story of Augustus the Toronto Academy of Medicine. approved the Board’s recom- who would not have any Soup mendation. A Government of In 1897 the British and Canadian Canada plaque honouring her Augustus was a chubby lad; Medical Associations met in accomplishments will be erected Fat ruddy cheeks Augustus had; Montreal and it is there that she first outside the McGill University Health And everybody saw with joy met William Osler. They became Sciences (formerly Medical) Library The plump and hearty healthy boy. involved in the formation of the in due course. There are already He ate and drank as he was told, Association of Medical Librarians, HSMB plaques on the McGill And never let his soup get cold. founded in 1898 with the objectives campus for Sir William Osler and But one day, one cold winter's day, of fostering medical libraries and . He threw away the spoon and screamed: maintaining an exchange of medical "O take the nasty soup away! literature. Miss Charlton served as the Further information is available at: I won't have any soup to-day: Association’s first Secretary from http://www.health.library.mcgill.ca/ I will not, will not eat my soup! 1898-1903 and again from 1909- osler/charlton/index.htm I will not eat it, no!" 1911, after it had become (in 1907) the Medical Library Association. One Next day! now look, the picture shows of the other founding members, How lank and lean Augustus grows! Marcia C. Noyes (who was to Yet, though he feels so weak and ill, become the first woman and first BIBLIOTHECA The naughty fellow cries out still: non-physician President of the "Not any soup for me, I say! Association in 1933), writes of OSLERIANA O take the nasty soup away! Margaret Charlton as follows: I will not, will not eat my soup! slerians will be pleased to I will not eat it, no!" “Miss Charlton was the one learn of several develop- person who indirectly brought O ments at the Osler Library The third day comes. O what a sin! the Association into being from that will help to make the Bibliotheca To make himself so pale and thin. speaking with Dr. Osler. She had Osleriana more available to scholars. Yet, when the-soup is put on table, belonged to the American Library Association. Their He screams, as loud as he is able: problems were not our Firstly, the textual matter from the "Not any soup for me, I say! problems, and she felt lost and 1929 edition and its 1969 reprint O take the nasty soup away! that time was wasted, yet she have been made available on the I won't have any soup to-day!" had striven for contact with Osler Library’s web-site. This those doing just the sort of work includes Sir William Osler’s Introduc- Look at him, now the fourth day's come! she was doing. And so she tion to the catalogue, the Editors’ He scarce outweighs a sugar-plum; suggested to Dr. Osler that it preface and Lloyd Stevenson’s would be a fine thing if the prologue to the reprint. This project He's like a little bit of thread; Medical Libraries could do the was carried out by David Crawford, same thing the American Library And on the fifth day he was-dead. former Health Sciences Librarian and Association was doing.” (Bulletin of the Medical Library Association, 23 Curator and now McGill’s first (1934): page 33.) Emeritus Librarian. The Osler www site is at www.health.library.mcgill. Miss Charlton was recently proposed ca/osler MARGARET to the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada (HSMB) as a Secondly, as was announced last year, RIDLEY CHARLTON “person of national historic signifi- the library has now completed adding catalogue records for all the printed 1858-1931 books in the Bibliotheca Osleriana to the library’s online catalogue MUSE. In addition to being able to locate items by David S. Crawford by the normal author, title and Emeritus Librarian subject it is also possible to locate the McGill University record for a specific BO number by using a keyword phrase search argaret Charlton came to (example: Osler 1234 – where 1234 the McGill University is the BO number). M Medical Library in 1895 and was appointed to be the library’s Thirdly, it is now possible to browse first Assistant Librarian in 1896. (The the BO records, in numerical order, Librarian being, as was then common in MUSE using the newly created practice, a faculty member.) She Bibliotheca Osleriana browse index. To • ·8· use this one must go to the Osler discovery of insulin and also of how treatments. Die Krankenjournale is Library’s ‘sub-catalogue’ and select the Osler described anaemia. At the published in Heidelberg and edited Bibliotheca Osleriana browse index. other end of the scale, we have had by Heinz Henne. Today’s privacy Enter only the number e.g. 1234. You an artist, funded by an academic legislation makes publication and can go directly to the full MUSE research grant, searching our early even retention of more recent catalogue or to the Osler sub- illustrated anatomy books gathering medical records difficult to the point catalogue from http://www.health. inspiration for a computerized work library.mcgill.ca/osler/ of art which he is in the process of Bibliotheca%20Osleriana/bib-osler/ preparing. Members of the Osler DSC-intro.htm. The bulk of this Society arranged for a tour and Dr. major cataloguing project was done Rolando Del Maestro, Head of the by Anneli Lukka, the Health Sciences Montreal Neurological Institute’s Library’s technical services manager, Brain Tumour Research Centre who also prepared the index to the brought the members of his Osler Library Newsletter a few years ago. laboratory to examine early works on neurology.

Apart from our rare collections, we are proud to be able to keep providing the latest books for our APPEAL TO THE researchers as well as out-of-print material, thanks to your help which FRIENDS, provides us with about 80% of our purchasing funds. This year, we have 2003-2004 increased our spending for recent that many institutions are reluctant publications, rare books and archives, Methods for or unable to keep these documents. conservation and special projects. For by Pamela Miller Unfortunately, future historians may bandaging the example, we have added the History of Medicine Librarian not have the same wealth of material head from Correspondence of Robert Boyle, edited by at their disposal. In 1720, Heinrich Michael Hunter, Antonio Clericuzio Henrich Bass’ Bass (1690-1754) published a highly he Osler Library sprang into and Lawrence M. Principe, Pickering Grundlicher illustrated book on bandages and action following our re- and Chatto, London 2001, contained bandaging, …Grundlicher Bericht von Bericht von T opening in December of in 14 volumes, edited, footnoted and Bandagen…. which the Library was 2002. Our newly refurbished in certain cases, translated. Each Bandagen…, fortunate enough to purchase, thanks research rooms filled up rapidly. The volume contains a glossary and Leipzig, 1720. to our Friends. Working closely with summer always brings researchers biographical guide for easy reference. Professor George Weisz of the from out of town who need to spend The final volume contains the index. Department of Social Studies of extended periods of time working The letters transport the reader back Medicine, we were able to bid here and last summer was no in time giving personal insight into successfully at auction in Paris on 41 different. The recipient of our the ferment of scientific research in rare books on paediatrics covering Fellowship award arrived to consult the 17th century. These letters provide such subjects as early work on our collection of paediatric books and the context in which Osler’s physical education for children, the her report appears in this newsletter. impressive collection of Boyle’s works effects of poverty on children and Now, with the return of students, the were published. The Emergence of Wellcome Camera is generally full Neuroscience in the 19th Century, edited by and both our new research rooms are Nicholas J. Wade, Routledge/ in steady use. A new and much Thoemmes Press, 2000 comprises 8 appreciated feature is the availability volumes of reproductions of essential of our circulating collection in the works which contributed to the evenings and on weekends, one of advances in the knowledge of the many happy results of our recent brain during the course of the 19th renovations. Several international century. The series includes the conferences held in Montreal in the works of Charles Bell, Charles Blode past months brought research visitors on F.J. Gall, Johannes Muller, to see the newly renovated facilities Alexander Bain, Jean Marie Charcot, and to use the collections. The first David Ferrier and Charles Sherring- edition of Osler’s Principles and Practice ton. Researchers interested in the of Medicine continues to attract history of homeopathy will be attention 111 years after it first amazed by the recent multi-volume Taken from La cure d’exercice aux différents âges de la appeared. It was consulted to verify publication of Samuel Hahnemann’s for example, how Osler recommen- (1755-1853) patient records, vie et pour les deux sexes, by Maurice Boigey, Paris, ded treating diabetes before the including names, illnesses and 1934 ·9· • infant mortality. Proceeds from the from McGill in 1868 and at the age Lore and Healing, please do check the auction (which took place on the day of about 40 embarked as ship’s doctor page, or write to us and we can send of the opening ceremonies at the on the Allan Line’s “S.S. Pomeranian.” you the list. Osler) went to UNESCO. Thanks to During five voyages between money from the Friends, it was Montreal and London, Wye painted Your generosity has enabled us to possible to react quickly to the sale 50 watercolours including scenes of carry out special projects. This

A ‘medieval’ the St. Lawrence, Belle Island and summer we hired a student to help bath from Le Cape Breton Island, and sketches of to prepare brief entries to our the ship. Over the course of the next Edinburgh theses and to make this livret de three years Dr. Wye crossed the information available on the public l’enfant: (notes Atlantic many times, employed by catalogue. This project is one of the sur la santé des different shipping companies, visited many fortunate side effects of our the Holy Land and the East Indies renovations. When re-shelving and enfants) by and sketched as he travelled. assigning new locations for our rare Armand Interestingly, at the beginning of each volumes, we discovered that 76 Fumouze- entry, he records his dreams, some in identical volumes had only one shorthand which keeps his most record on MUSE, “Edinburgh Albespeyres, personal dreams away from all but the Theses,” not very helpful! Years ago, Paris, c. 1906. most determined researcher. Apart close to 1000 theses dating from 1756 from observations on his surroun- to 1827 were collected by the McGill dings and fellow passengers, Wye Medical Library. This is a great consistently records his religious collection, for its content and its activities and his attendance at church services, including the sermons. So far, no one seems to know much about his subsequent career, although possibly he practised in London after his seafaring days were over. knowing that we have funds specifically for this purpose. We were We continue to add books in many also able to purchase, from another languages to our circulating source, a number of turn-of-the- collection, among them La cartografia century books on tuberculosis and its del cervello: il problema delle localizzazioni treatment including the organization cerebrali nell’opera di David Ferrier, fra of tuberculosis classes, open-air fisiologia, psicologia e filosofia, by treatment and a popular medical Carmela Morabito, published in guide of 1880 about watering places Milan and Los artistas valencianos de la and mineral springs of Germany, illustracion y el grabado biologico y medico Austria and Switzerland. (1759-1814), by Felipe Jerez Moliner, Valencia, 2001. Mary Simon Four illustrated diaries kept by John regularly publishes a list of our new Henry Wye from 1888-1891 proved acquisitions on our web page and so to be irresistible. Dr. Wye, the son if you want to know what else we of a farmer from near Brantford, have acquired along with Cold Wars Ontario, earned his medical degree or Leechcraft: early English Charms, Plant • ·10· biographical information. With this Finally, conservation is still a priority new information, if you want to know and what a thrill it is to place a newly if and when (between 1756-1827) restored book back on the shelf and your ancestor graduated in medicine know that it is now in the best from the University of Edinburgh, all environment possible. Helkiah FRIENDS OF THE Mikrocosmographia, A you have to do is type in the name of Crooke’s OSLER LIBRARY

he Library gratefully acknowledges the support it T has received from Friends, both old and new, who have responded to the appeal for funds for the 2002-2003 academic year. Over the year, 231 Friends have given a total of approximately $41,330 and they are listed below. Most of the contributions have come from Friends in Canada and the United States of America. However, very welcome contributions have also come from several other continents. the student under “author” in the description of the body of man. Together with The appeal to the Friends for the MUSE catalogue and the individual’s the controversies thereto belonging, London, 2002-2003 academic year concluded thesis appears (or does not if he did 1631, is a splendid example of a book on May 31, 2003. Contributions not attend). Our set is not complete, restored to health and happiness. received after May 31, 2003 will be but it is excellent for the dates it Treatment of this book included recorded in the 2004 fall issue of the covers. On the topic of theses, we washing, resizing, flattening and Osler Library Newsletter. continue to work our way through removal of earlier repairs, aqueous The appeal for the 2003-2004 boxes of unbound theses, supposed deacidfication, treatment of mould, academic year is made in this issue, duplicates of our bound set of French re-sewing and re-backing the binding No. 100-2003. medical theses purchased in 1988. and finally preperation of its own We have discovered that some of the custom made box. At some point, a Contributing Friends theses are not duplicates and the only previous owner decided to varnish Anne G. Abel Anne Andermann way to be certain that we have the title page, which is now shiny and Jacques Bernier everything is to go through each box somewhat brown. After very careful Elizabeth Jane Bland and verify each title, one by one. testing to see whether it was possible J. Walker Butin to remove the varnish without Robert Campbell harming the ink, it was decided to Library, leave well enough alone. Helkiah Canadian Centre for Architecture Crooke (1576-1635) was physician Fernande K. Cantero Carmine J. Capalbo to King James I. Françoise P. Chagnon Richard R. Cherry This brief report launches our annual Jack Cohen Plate from Die appeal. It is an attempt to convey the David S. Crawford Krankheiten der excitement of this extraordinary Stacey B. Day Brustdrüsen, Library and to express our gratitude Peter S.B. Digby Alfred M. Donovan by Theodor to you for your great generosity. Patrick Doran Donald E. Douglas Billroth, The Duke Medical Center Library, Stuttgart, 1880 unvarnished Duke University Jamie Flamenbaum title page from Robert R. Forsey Helkiah Robert A. Fortuine Thomas Emmett Francoeur Crooke’s Toby Gelfand Microcosmographia, Allan Gibofsky Laura T. Gifford A Description John T. Golden Maurice S. Goldstein of the Body of Rosemary Haddad Man, London, Edward C. Halperin H. Alexander Heggtveit 1631. Robert Jackson ·11· • Guy Joron Douglas G. Kinnear Alfred R. Henderson Harriet Joseph Philip W. Leon Lewis W. Hersey Norbert Kesteloot J. Peter MacLeod Ross O. Hill Camilo Larrain Breen N. Marien Shigeaki Hinohara Michael Allan Lefson Robert U. Massey Julian Hoff Douglas W. MacEwan Wayne McShane John D.W. Hsu Health Sciences Library, Thomas G. Middlebro’ Braham B. Hyams McMaster University Pamela Miller Joan K. Jackson Erich Meyerhoff John R. Moore Stuart G. Kenning J.P. Morgan & Chase Foundation Kimie Moriyama Edward L. Krawitt Sumner E. Moulton Margret Nathanson Donald G.M. Lawrence Sean B. Murphy Benjamin E. Potter Charles P. Leblond Harry Oxorn Jill Oakley Reidy Roy B. Lacoursiere Murray C. Patrick James B. Roche Geoffrey W. Lehman Charles R. Perakis J.W. Savacool Joseph W. Lella Benjamin E. Potter June Schachter Hoong Lim Susan C. Reid Mark E. Silverman A. Brian Little Editorial Stuart A. Rosenberg Thomas M. Sinclair Victor K.S. Lui N. Paul Rosman Howard McCrum Snyder Ian M. Macdonald Committee for G.M. Ruckerbauer Ralph H. Speken C. Dunella MacLean the Newsletter: Seymour A. Siegal Krystyna Z. Starker (In honour of Drs. Josiah Macy Jr. Foundation Faith Wallis, Michael J. Shea Theodore and Shena Sourkes’ 60th John P. McGovern Editor; South Florida Neurological Institute wedding anniversary) James Robert Osler McIntyre Pamela Miller, Donald E. Stanley Ruth Tannenbaum (In honour of Drs. Peter J. McLeod History of William G. Stein Theodore and Shena Sourkes’ 60th James C. Mead Medicine Richard Sveum wedding anniversary) Jonathan L. Meakins Ada and Issac Tannenbaum (In honour of Michael Leslie Terrin Robert G. Mennel Librarian and Drs. Theodore and Shena Sourkes’ John T. Truman Robert E. Mitchell Assistant 60th wedding anniversary) Allen Weisse J. Fraser Muirhead Editor; William A. Taylor John Whaley Paul Mueller Lily Szczygiel, Stanley Thompson Joel Arthur Wirth T.J. Murray Editorial R. Carmichael Tilghman Andrew T. Nadell Assistant. A.H. van Soest Patrons Granville H. Nickerson Walter Van Emde Boas Jeremiah A. Barondess Richard T. O’Kell Ronald E. Vlietstra L. George Bendikas Silvio J. Onesti Address: H.D. Vos Michael Bliss E. Henrietta Osler Osler Library Karin-Maria Waterhouse John W. Brennan Robert Z. Perkins of the History Hugh R. Brodie M.B. Pranesh of Medicine, Supporting Friends Ronald Forbes Buchan Raymond H. Prince McGill University, Lawrence K. Altman William J. Couldwell Peter C. Pulrang McIntyre Charles T. Ambrose Richard L. Cruess Robin Quinlan Clayton Joseph Baker June R. Cumberland Preston J. Robb Medical Sciences J. Ronald D. Bayne James H. Darragh Charles Robert Building, Gerald Beasley Andre Dascal Harold N. Rode 3655 Promenade Gregory Kent Bergey Arthur D. Dawson Fred B. Rogers Sir-William-Osler, Zlata Blazina Eric de Bellaigue Charles G. Roland Montréal, Québec, Stuart S. Burstein Rolando Del Maestro Arnold Rosenblatt Canada, H3G 1Y6. Richard M. Caplan Anthony R.C. Dobell (In honour of Dr. Abraham Fuks) Tel: Donald Chambers Martin A. Entin Clark T. Sawin Alan J.H. Coffey William H. Feindel David Schiff (514) 398-4475 Eugene Conner Fidelity Investments Charity Gift Fund Henry J. Scott ext. 09873 David F. Copeland William R.W. Fitz Huntington Sheldon Fax: Audrey Copping Jennifer Jane Fraser Samuel Shuster (514) 398-5747 Richard A. Currie Sameul O. Freedman Kenneth C. Smith E-mail: Lyubica Dabich Palmer H. Futcher Theodore L. Sourkes [email protected] Thomas W. Dukes Richard R. Galpin Edward T. Stevens URL: http://www. David G. Eastman William C. Gibson Sarah Stevenson Charlotte I. Ferencz Alan B. Gold Marvin J. Stone health.library.mcgill. Reginald Fitz Joseph Stratford ca/osler/ Clare M. Flint Richard L. Golden Philip M. Teigen Robert Armour Forse John H. Greist Samuel Tirer Legal Deposit F. Clarke Fraser Frances Groen Marshall Trossman 2/2003 Richard S. Fraser Julia and Seymour Gross Foundation, Inc. De Heer J. Van Gijn ISSN 0085-4557 Arthur D. French (Menard M. Gertler) Faith Wallis Esther and Leonard Geller Arthur Gryfe Karen Ward Peter G. Gillett Tee L. Guidotti A. Kevin Watters James Tait Goodrich Beatrice Hampson H. Bruce Williams Peter E. Greig Eve Osler Hampson Robert G. Wilson Theodore J. Haywood Hannah Chair History of Medicine, Charles F. Wooley Alfred R. Henderson Queen’s University David C. Young Campbell P. Howard M.E. Hart Foundation

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