The Malay World in the Medieval European Imagination: the Case of Ludovico Di Varthema’S Travel Accounts on the Malay World

THE MALAY WORLD IN THE MEDIEVAL EUROPEAN IMAGINATION: THE CASE OF LUDOVICO DI VARTHEMA’S TRAVEL ACCOUNTS ON THE MALAY WORLD

ZULKIFLI BIN ISHAK

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (History and Civilization)

Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences International Islamic University Malaysia

August 2009 ABSTRACT

Throughout the medieval period of the European history, images of the Malay World were constantly portrayed in the accounts of the medieval European travelers. These descriptions which are predominantly concerned with the people, geography and th traditions of the region were recorded to have existed as early as the 13 century. In th the first quarter of the 16 century, a Bolognese, Ludovico di Varthema produced descriptions of his travels which includes his journey to the Malay World between the years 1504 and 1505 C.E. His travel experience was first published in Italy in 1510 C.E. This study analyses the contents of the medieval European travelers’ accounts on the Malay World; with particular reference to Varthema’s travel accounts entitled Itinerario. It focuses on the factors that reflected Varthema’s apprehension in constructing pictures of the society and civilization of the Malay World. Finally, this study argues that the medieval European travelers’ accounts that were produced in constructing the images of the Malay World were written in accordance to the standard cliché of the medieval travel writings that was practiced in the course of the medieval period where it involved the influences of the classical Greco-Roman and the biblical traditions. In turn, this study attempt to raise questions on the authenticity and reliability of the medieval European travelers’ accounts as a source of information since they were not produced based on the first-hand travelers’ experience, rather, it was merely a mental designation of the authors of the travel accounts in fashioning and imagining the images of the Malay World.

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iii APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (History and Civilization).

...... Ataullah Bogdan Kopanski Supervisor

...... Hafiz Zakariya Examiner

This dissertation was submitted to the Department of Economics and is accepted as a partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (History and Civilization).

...... Wan Suhana Wan Sulong Head, Department of History and Civilization

This dissertation was submitted to the Kulliyyah of Economics and Management Sciences and is accepted as a partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (History and Civilization).

...... Hazizan Md. Noon Dean, Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences

iv DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references and a bibliography is appended.

Zulkifli Ishak

Signature ………….………….……… Date …………....………..……….

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

THE MALAY WORLD IN THE MEDIEVAL EUROPEAN IMAGINATION: THE CASE OF LUDOVICO DI VARTHEMA’S TRAVEL ACCOUNTS ON THE MALAY WORLD.

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder except as provided below.

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may only be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement

2. The IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or electronic) for institutional and academic purpose

3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universities and research libraries.

Affirmed by Zulkifli Ishak.

……………………….. …………..……….. Signature Date

DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OF MY LATE MOTHER:

Saniyah Abdul Hamid

th th [28 June 1950 – 24 December 2006]

‘A Son Never Forget’

vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, praise be to the Almighty Allah s.w.t. for His Wisdom, His ultimate guidance and assistance in helping me to accomplish this research.

I owe my supervisor, Professor Ataullah Bogdan Kopanski a debt of gratitude for his fruitful consultations, his assistance and guidance which led to the accomplishment of my writing. I am also indebted to the Department of History and Civilization, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) with special gratitude to Dr. Hafiz Zakariya. Also to Professor Ahmed Ibrahim Abu Shouk, Dr. Wan Suhana Wan Sulong, Dr. Abdul Rahman Tang Abdullah, Dr. Ahmed Elyas Hussein and Dr. Arshad Islam for their wise counsel and suggestion. Above all, to each and everyone among lecturers, colleagues, and staffs which were affiliated to this department.

It is my pleasure to dedicate this work to my late mother, Saniyah Abdul Hamid, who inspired me a lot and instilled the spirit of perseverance in my struggle to face any trial; she made all this possible.

I am grateful to the staffs of the following institutions which provided me with assistance; Library of International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), National Library of Malaysia, National Archives of Malaysia, Malaysian Historical Society (Persatuan Sejarah Malaysia), IfLA of International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), English Language Department of International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM).

Also, sincere thanks goes to these peoples; My father Mr. Ishak Mohd Yusop, brother Khairul Nizam, sisters Noor Liza, Suhaila, Rohaidah, Noor Aishah and to all my respectful friends.

Special thanks goes to my ex-colleagues in SB-IIS, Madam Noorsaliza Saad, Datin Rohani Ismail, Mr. Rohaizi Rastam, Madam Marziyana, and the rest whom I gained a great moment and experience.

Along to my colleagues in Curatorial Affairs Department, Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia (IAMM), Mr. Lucien de Guise, Madam Rosmahwati Ahmad Zakaria, Adline Abdul Ghani, Nurul Iman Rusli, Juliana Abdul Rahim, Assim Zuhair Qisho, Badriya Yasmeen Dowe and Alhan T. Najim.

Finally, to each and every person I’ve known, thanks for everything.

viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract…………………………………………………………………...... …...… ii Abstract in Arabic……………………………………………..………...... …… iii Approval Page ……………………………………………………..……...... ……. iv Declaration Page………………………………………....………..………...…….. v Copyright Page………………………………………...………….....……………. vi Dedication………………………………………....…………..…...…...….……… vii Acknowledgements………………………………….....…….…...……….……… viii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY AND METHODOLOGY.... 1 1.1 Background of the Study……………………………………….…...… 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem……………………………………………... 3 1.3 Significance of the Study………………………………………...…… 4 1.4 Literature Review…………………………………………..…………. 5 1.5 Research Methodology…………………………………...…………… 13 1.6 Chapterization of the Study…………………………….……………... 14

CHAPTER TWO: THE MEDIEVAL EUROPEAN QUEST FOR THE REGION OF THE MALAY WORLD 16 2.1 The European Geographical Horizon on the Far-Eastern region……... 17 2.2 Medieval European Imagio Mundi (Image of the World)……..……… 22 2.3 Taprobane: The Farthest Inhabited Landmass of the Eastern Continent. 25

CHAPTER THREE: WHO IS LUDOVICO DI VARTHEMA?...... 30 3.1 Ludovico di Varthema: Biography and his Travels…………………... 31 3.2 Varthema’s Travel Account: Itinerario………………….…………… 33 3.3 Varthema: Motives of his Travel……………………………………... 35 3.4 Varthema Becomes a “Muslim”……………………………………… 37 3.5 Varthema: A Soldier/Artilleryman…………………………………… 40 3.6 Varthema: The Physician………………………………………...…… 41 3.7 Varthema: As a Portuguese Comrade………………………………… 43 3.8 Varthema: The Father of Several Children…………………………… 46 3.9 Did Varthema Exist?...... 47

CHAPTER FOUR: THE MALAY WORLD DURING EUROPEAN’S MIDDLE AGES: A CONSTRUCTION OF ITS IMAGES BY LUDOVICO DI VARTHEMA……………………………………………………………………... 49 4.1. The Malay World: People………………………..…………………… 51 4.1.1. The Existence of Muslims’ Entities………………….………… 51 4.1.2. The Physical Features of the Inhabitants in the Region…...…… 55 4.1.3. “Beasts” and Savages in the Malay World…………………..… 57 4.2. The Malay World: The way of life of Its Inhabitants………….……… 59 4.2.1. The Paganism in the Malay Archipelago……………….……… 59 4.2.2. The Tradition of Sati…………………………………………… 60 4.2.3. The tradition of Consuming Human Flesh or Cannibalism…… 62

ix 4.2.4. Skilled Navigators and Peoples’ Craftsmanship………..……… 66 4.2.5. Commercial Societies………………………………..………… 68 4.3. The Malay World: Geography………………………………………… 70 4.3.1. Natural Resources ………………….…………………..……… 70 4.4. Varthema: Did Varthema Travels to the Malay World?...... 74

CHAPTER FIVE: MEDIEVAL EUROPEAN TRAVELERS’ ACCOUNTS ON THE MALAY WORLD: FACT OR FICTION?...... 76 5.1. Twisted Facts in the Descriptions of the Medieval European………… 79 5.2. Confabulations in the Medieval European Travelers’ Descriptions….. 86 5.3. Travelers’ Accounts as Reflections on Medieval European Curiosity.. 93 5.4. Manifestations of the Lost Spirit of the Crusades..…………………… 97 5.5. Medieval European Travelers’ Accounts Othering The Others…….… 102

CONCLUSION………………….………………………………………………… 105

BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………….……… 109

APPENDIX I: Chronology …………………………………………………...... … 115 APPENDIX II: ……………………………………………………………...... … 117 APPENDIX III: ………………………………..…………………………...... … 118 APPENDIX IV: ………………………………..…………………………...... … 119 APPENDIX V: ……………………………………………………………...... … 120 APPENDIX VI: ……………………………………..……………………...... … 121 APPENDIX VII: …………………………...…………..…………………...... … 122 APPENDIX VIII: ………………………………..…..……………………...... … 123

x CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY AND METHODOLOGY

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

This study concerns the history of early European encounter with the society and civilization of the Malay World. This research attempts to examine the travel accounts of Ludovico di Varthema the Bolognese, concerning his description on the region of

th the Malay World in the first half of 16 C.E. This research will examine the medieval

European tradition that reflected Varthema’s perception and that of his predecessors in understanding the society and civilization of the Malay World.

1 The focal point of this research will be directed to the region of the Malay World.

Current geographical explanation has indicated that the Malay World or Malay

Archipelago was an area that comprises of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java,

2 Singapore, Borneo, southern Philippines and southern Thailand. For two islands which are located on the western part of this archipelago; namely Nicobar and Andaman Islands, both were included under the authorities of India; laid on the Bay of Bengal and were identified as the Indian chains islands. However, some of the writers of earlier times have

3 denoted that both islands were under the domains of the Malay World. In accordance with that, this study consecutively will treat both islands under the area of observation.

1 The term “Malay World” has various connotations and has also been commonly identified as the Malay Archipelago as well as Nusantara (the world of Islands). 2 For the modern geographical determination, the region of the Malay World was located on the Southeast Asian region. This region comprises of the areas that include Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, North and of the South Vietnam and Malay Peninsula on the mainland. With another two islands that comprise the Republic of Philippines and the Republic of Indonesia. See Daniel George Hall, A History of South-East Asia, (London: Macmillan Education, 4th edn., 1981), 3. 3 Alfred Russel Wallace, 19th century European traveler to the Malay World has defined that the Malay Archipelago stretched from the ‘Malay Peninsula, as far as Tenasserim, and the Nicobar Islands on the West, the Philippines on the North, to the Solomon Islands beyond Guinea on the East’. His definition

1 Another important aspect that needs to be noticed is the establishment of Islam in this region. The history of the Malay World is conventionally associated with the

th Islamization process that had taken place around the 12 century. Islam that progressively penetrated inside the community of the Malays managed to affect the

4 identity of the people of this region. The process of Islamization in this area was not an overnight phenomenon since this region was closely characterized with Buddhist

5 and Hindu influences long before the coming of Islam. Because of this, it seems inconvenient to prevent the medieval European in viewing the civilization of the

Malay World without taken into consideration their personal encounter with Islam.

Thus, this study will deal with the phenomenon of the western encounter with Islam apart from confining it to the racial confrontation inside the Malay World per se.

In order to specify the scope of this study in reference to the medieval period, it will propose the centre of observation from the period of the beginning of the medieval age until the period of the early European voyages (c. 1600 C.E). Scholars are not in agreement on an exclusive explanation in defining the exact period for the

6 beginning of the Middle Ages. However, the general application of this term is usually referred to the centuries between the decline of the Roman civilization (c. 500

C.E.) and the eve of the modern history (c. 1500 C.E), and this term was linked

was mainly based on the uniformity of the climate and the distribution of the animal life in this region. See Alfred Russell Wallace, The Malay Archipelago, (Singapore: Graham Brash, 1983), 2. 4 In accordance with the emergence of Islam that had started globalizing itself to the furthest region in the east, along with the natural willingness of the Malay World in absorbing the cultural influences, whether from the east and the west, the new cultural identity of the Malay World was born. See Osman Bakar, “Islam and the Malay civilisational identity tension and harmony between ethnicity and religiosity,” Jurnal Peradaban Melayu [Journal of the Malay Civilisation], (2003): 107. 5 Some of the scholars have labeled the Malay World as ‘Greater India’ due to the archeological and material discovery such as figurines, Hindu temples and Buddhist stupas that became the evidences of the existence of Hindu and Buddha influences in this region. See introduction by Mohd. Taib Osman, Islamic civilization in the Malay World, (Kuala Lumpur: DBP, 1992), xxvi. 6 Concerning the exact beginning of the Middle Ages, “though quite a well-defined period between ancient and modern times, it has no obvious beginning”, as quoted in Chambers Dictionary of World History, edited by B. P. Lenman & T. Anderson, (New York: Chambers Harrap Publishers, 2000), 537- 538.

2 specifically to the western history. The Middle Ages, on the other hand, is the term

th that was created by European scholars of the mid-17 century in order to study and interpret western history. Since then, this term has started to be embedded in the

7 complete periodization of world history. In other words, Middle ages or medieval ages are laid on the time span in the “middle” of the ancient Greco-Roman civilization and the eve of the modern history of Europe.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The purpose of this study is to analyze descriptions that were represented through the writings of Ludovico di Varthema concerning his travel account on the Malay World

th during the first half of the 16 C.E. and his predecessors. The medieval European tradition and the importance of his presence on this region will be examined respectively. Thus, this study will raise some of the following questions:

1. Who is Ludovico di Varthema and why his presence in history was

unknown even by name, except to the scholars of history?

2. What were the reasons behind the descriptions of the Malay World by the

medieval Europeans that had been colored by imagination, skepticism and

“fakeloric” accounts?

3. What could we understand about the Malay World as perceived during the

period which was equivalent to the medieval ages of Europe, particularly

during the period of Ludovico di Varthema’s presence in this region?

4. What are the importance and the impacts that could be gained by the

contemporary Malay people in addressing the presence of the medieval

European travelers regarding the history of their land?

7 Joseph R. Strayer, Dictionary of the Middle Ages, vol. VIII, (New York: Charles Scribner, 1987), 309.

3 1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The Europeans have made many efforts in order to understand the world beyond their own borders, and this determination already took place since the period of the middle ages in European history. By tracing and examining this early endeavors historically, along with the content examination on Varthema’s and other medieval European descriptions concerning the region of the Malay World respectively, it will contribute towards the general understanding on the medieval European perception and thought that were laid down on society and civilization of the Malay World before 1600.

There is a perception that European history appears to be unimportant to the

Malaysian insight since the Malay World itself already experienced the era of decolonization. In addition, if there exist an awareness to relate the history of this region with Europe, it is also not often emphasized in relation to the pre-colonial era rather than confining the scope of research towards the colonial works. Such feeling perhaps contributes to the lack in undertaking an effort towards interpreting the relationship that had occurred between the Malay and medieval European civilization.

The apprehension that was populated in the colonial works in this region for instance, whether by scholars, natural scientist or perhaps European travelers, will be understood as a new chapter in the European literary discourse. However, the works that appeared during the colonial heyday should be treated as the legacy and the continuation of the pre-colonial literary traditions. The skeptical images of Muslims

8 9 for example, had appeared both in medieval and colonial descriptions where the old

8 On Varthema’s returned from the region of the Malay World, he and his Persian companion sailed to India where they both stayed in Calicut where Varthema met two Milanese Christians. In order to keep frequent contacts with these Christians and hiding from the others Muslims who knew his disguise, he kept isolating himself by staying in one of Christian’s house at night and mosque during daylight. Cunningly escaping from the suspicion from his Persian companion, he stated in his account in reference to the Muslims, “And wishing to escape from them, I thought that I could only deceive them by hypocrisy, for the Moors are the most stupid people in the world,…”. See Ludovico di Varthema, The travels of Ludovico di Varthema in Egypt, Syria, Arabia Deserta and Arabia Felix, in Persia, India

4 tradition seems to have survived. By treating the European history before the colonial era with a separate treatment, will only lead to the deficiency in understanding the true picture of history.

Via the effort that is proposed, this study aims to redefine and reconstruct the perceptions that were implanted by the Europeans in interpreting the Malay World, along with the Muslim World, in the wider sense. The need to challenge the authenticity and unfold the misrepresentation upon the historical information, intellectually vis-à-vis academically becomes essential in order to retrieve the appropriate and in-depth understanding in evaluating history of any region.

This research will give fascinating experiences to the readers in order to widen the intellectual and geographical horizon concurrently, via indirect involvement, in the medieval European exploration on the Malay World. This study also hopes to evoke the mind of the readers that the travel records play an important role in affecting the shape of our history today. Thus, apart from uncovering its importance, it also suggests to treat this type of historical material with serious consideration.

1.4 LITERATURE REVIEW

This study covers the various literatures involving the medieval European and Malay

World studies. In order to organize these scant literatures reviewed, it will be

and Ethopia, A.D. 1503-1508, translated by J.W. Jones & edited by G.P. Badger. In Fuat Sezgin (ed.), In The Islamic World in foreign travel accounts, vol II. Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, 1994. (Reprint of the Edition London, 1853), 262. 9 Francis Train in his travel narrative An American merchant in Europe, Asia and Africa: A series of letters from Java, Singapore, China, Bengal, Egypt, The Holy Land, The Crimea and its battle grounds, England, Melbourne, Sydney, etc., that published in 1857 showed his perception concerning his encounters with some Arabs on their pilgrimage to the Holy Land, Mecca, “singular costumed men of white robe huge turban, sandal footed, moustached and whiskered sons of Mahomet”. Most pertinently, they were soon to become “Mahometan priest” who had and will rise up against the Westerners whenever they deem necessary. As quoted in Syed Muhd Khairudin Aljuneid, “Western Images of Indonesian ‘Hajjis’ in the nineteenth century,” In The Past In Our Future: Challenges facing Muslim in the 21st Century, (n.d.), 17.

5 categorized into six major categories. The first category is related to the sources that provide the information regarding the central figure of this research, Ludovico di

Varthema. These literature consist of the translation of his original version of the

10 travel account entitled Itinerario which were published in Italy in 1510 C.E. ,

11 including background and his career and other information related to his life. This category is considered as the most essential part of this research since it is related to the main component of the objective of this study.

The second category concerns the literatures that are grouped together and comprise of a series of medieval European descriptions on the Malay World. In order to uncover the middle ages literary tradition and to gain an overall dimension of medieval European perception on this region, this study inaugurated various figures.

12 13 14 These historical figures include Marco Polo , Sir John Mandeville , Tomé Pires as

15 well as Friar Odoric of Pordenone.

10 Ludovico di Varthema, The travels of Ludovico di Varthema in Egypt, Syria, Arabia Deserta and Arabia Felix, in Persia, India and Ethopia, A.D. 1503-1508, translated by J.W. Jones & edited by G.P. Badger. In Fuat Sezgin (ed.), In The Islamic World in foreign travel accounts, vol II. Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, 1994. (Reprint of the Edition London, 1853). This book is consider as the main reference for this research; this source is an authoritative translation from its original Italian version that was published in 1510 C.E. 11 Other sources that covered on Varthema’s travel account, such as the Four pilgrims by William Boulting, published by Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., London, with no date of publication. Thomas Suarez also mentioned a brief biography of Ludovico di Varthema, see Thomas Suarez, Early mapping of Southeast Asia, (Singapore: Periplus Editions, 1999), 79. 12 The main source that will be used in this study concerning the travel account of Marco Polo, titled The book of Ser Marco Polo, volume I &II, edited and translated by Sir Henry Yule & Henri Cordier, published by Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi, 1993. The travel of Marco Polo was published in various versions, for instance Marco Polo and the discovery of the world by John Larner, published by Yale University Press, London, 2001. Another example is The travels of Marco Polo the Venetian, which is revised from Marsden’s translation and edited with introduction by Manuel Komroff, published by W.W. Norton & Company, New York, 1953. 13 John Mandeville, The travels of Sir John Mandeville, translated by C.W.R.D. Moseley, (London: Penguin Classics, 1983). 14 Tomé Pires, The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires: an account of the East, from the Red Sea to Japan, written in Malacca and India in 1512-1515, and the book of Francisco Rodrigues, rutter of a voyage in the Red Sea, vol. II. (Poruguese MS in the Bibliothèque de la Chambre des Députes (Trans.) and Cortesao, Armando (ed.), (New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1990). 15 Henry Yule, Cathay and the way thither: Odoric of Pordenone, vol. II, (Trans. and ed.), (New York: Kraus Reprint, 1967).

6 The next category of literature review consists of the publications that touched the historical information on the early knowledge of the medieval European society and civilization concerning the region of the Malay World. Starting from the classical age of

European civilization when their in-depth knowledge concerning this archipelago was still limited; the interest, curiosity and the spurring spirit of inquisition had generated classical European cartographers, geographers as well as the classical academia of

16 Greco-Roman civilization in looking at this region. Traditionally, the region of the

17 Malay World was also not uncommon in being perceived as the land of gold, for the

Malay Peninsula during this time has developed an international reputation as a source of gold. Coupled with that, it was indicated and famously being known among the

18 medieval Europeans as “Chryse” and “Argyre”. The medieval European also perceived and believed that behind the far-eastern world lay Paradise, also known as the

Garden of Eden, the place of origin of human beings Adam and Eve; the great realm of

19 Prester John as well as the demoniac realm of Gog and Magog. All these factors became the imperatives for medieval Europeans to venture into the Malay World. The quest for Paradise for instance, was definitely “the goal of certain imaginary travel

20 literature, as well as some medieval travelers”.

16 For further details information concerning an academia of Greco-Roman civilization that put special interest in tracing the existence of the South East Asian region such as Ptolemy, Pliny and Eratosthenes, see Paul Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese: studies in the historical geography of the Malay Peninsula before A.D. 1500, (Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Universiti Malaya, 1980). 17 Lynda Norene Shaffer, by depicting the term “Asian El Dorado”, stated that the Indians were among the first outsiders that traced the wealth of gold in Southeast Asia and even identified this region with “The Land of Gold”. See Lynda Norene Shaffer, Maritime Southeast Asia to 1500, (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1996), 2. 18 Chryse and Agyre, particularly to the early medieval Europeans have meant to be the islands of gold and silver, signified the terms which it derived from. Pomponius Mela and Ptolemy (Greco-Roman academia) were among the pioneers that paved the way for this idea to be transferred on the medieval European civilization. See Thomas Suarez, Early mapping of Southeast Asia, (Singapore: Periplus Editions, 1999), 72. 19 Ibid., 66. 20 As quoted in J.B. Friedman, K.M. Figg, D.W. Scott & G.G. Guzman, Trade, travel and exploration in the Middle Ages: an encyclopedia, (New York: Garland Publishing Inc., 2000), 469-470.

7 The fourth category is related to the sources which uncover the characteristics of the medieval European descriptions through the examination on the history of medieval European civilization, and the examination on various accounts in relation to the medieval European descriptions on the Malay World before 1600 C.E., the purpose of the category is to extract these characteristic to be revealed and explain systematically.

These characteristics of descriptions are then divided into various themes among which included in this research are “confabulation”, “twisted facts” and

“curiosity”. Confabulation is a general characteristic that could be found throughout the era of the Middle Ages of Europe, in particular to those which is related to the travel accounts. It denotes the phenomenon where the travel account of the medieval

European travelers’ did not exactly come from the story and words of the actual traveler but rather it was cribbed down by some others. The famous Venetian traveler

th of 13 C.E, Marco Polo, didn’t put in writing his travel experience himself. Syed

Manzurul Islam has questioned in what language Marco Polo the Venetian told his stories to his ghostwriter, Rusticello or Rusticiano the Pisan, since they spoke different languages. The oral story by Marco Polo itself in the first place was already

21 considered as a translation to Rusticello.

Another theme included in this part is the twisted facts. Medieval European travelers have a tendency in describing their accounts and populated their records with a series of encounters with strangeness such as the mythical creatures or deformed human beings. The travel account by Sir John Mandeville perhaps gives a clear example to show how this tradition was celebrated inside the travel literatures during the middle ages. Mandeville for instance described the existence of Cynocephalus;

21 Syed Manzurul Islam, The ethics of travel: from Marco Polo to Kafka, (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996), 121-122.

8 22 humans with heads of dogs in the Isle of Nicobar, along with homo monstrum; the

23 inhabitants of the Andaman Island. Another example includes Marco Polo mentioning his encounter with the magical unicorn in the Kingdom of Basma (which

24 lay on Java Island), which was actually as an ordinary encounter with rhinoceros.

The confrontation with monstrosity or human monsters that typically appear to exist in middle ages literary tradition generally are the reflection of the two different ways of looking at the world since the classical European period; what was known as

25 26 “Antipodes” and “Edges of the World”. These two concepts signified the area of

27 the world which was yet to be settled or an uninhabitable portion of the world.

Marina Munkler has highlighted that the encounter with the monstrous people at the edge of the world by medieval European travelers for instance, need to be understood as real or genuine confrontation with strangeness. Her article generally put forward arguments to justify the accusation by most of the modern historians that saw this medieval Ages tradition that contributed to the deficiency and stagnant the

28 progress and the development of cartography discipline. However, the authors of

22 Homo monstrum, a term signified as an unordinary form of human being or monster people, introduced by St. Augustine (354-430 C.E) in his magnum opus, City of God. 23 See John Mandeville, The travels of Sir John Mandeville, translated by C.W.R.D. Moseley, (London: Penguins Classic, 1983), 131-138. 24 As addressed by Marco Polo, “there are wild elephants in the country, and numerous unicorns, which are very nearly as big. They have hair like that of a buffalo, feet like those of an elephant, and a horn in the middle of the forehead, which is black and very thick”, on Marco Polo, The book of Ser Marco Polo, vol.II, translated and edited by H.Yule & H. Cordier, (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1993), 285. 25 Antipode means creatures that live far away from habitable world, with a strange outlook and behavior but still belong to the human race. The term applied under the idea of the spherical of the earth, where antipodeans were identified as the creatures who put their feet against our own (the bottom part of the spherical of the earth). 26 Edges of the World is the term signifying the end, edge, extreme outlying areas of the world. This are applied when the earth is understood as flat. The inhabitants as well as topography of this part also have strange and different features which exist as habitable areas of the world. 27 Both of these ideas originally were generated since around 6th B.C.E. by the Greek natural philosophers, geographers, as well as cartographers which later gradually being transferred to the medieval European civilization. 28 For further elaboration, see Marina Munkler, “Experiencing strangeness; Monstrous peoples on the Edge of the Earth as depicted on Medieval mappae mundi,” The Medieval History Journal, 5, 2, (2002): 195-222. To see another example regarding the traveler encounter with strangeness, see the article by J. Montgomery explained with slightly a different approach and dimension in defining Ibnu Fadlan, the Muslim traveler in confronting new and strange exotica, see J. Montgomery, “Spectral Armies, Snakes,

9 Trade, travel and exploration in the Middle Ages: An encyclopedia had understood this phenomenon by stating that, “geographical monstrosity is ultimately a cultural category that reveals more about the travelers themselves than it does about what they

29 encounter along the road”. In other words, what had been encountered and described by medieval European travelers’ mostly depended on their creative minds or imagination in picturing the newer exotica, society or the culture of the others.

This study also implies the spirit of curiosity as among the major characteristics of medieval European descriptions. With the two branches of visionary

30 31 attitudes, in searching for individual salvation and to witness the newer exotica, it had generated interest and fascination and put the far-eastern corner of their world as special in the minds of the middle ages men. Reflection from this inner feeling of curiosity could be assumed by revising the contents of their travel accounts which

32 sometimes were put in a detailed explanation. In conjunction with this theme, this study suggests that the wealth of the Eastern World with spices, silks and other trading

and a Giant from Gog and Magog: Ibn Fadlan as Eyewitness Among the Volga Bulghars,” The Medieval History Journal, vol. 9, 1, (2006): 63-78. 29 J.B. Fried man, K.M. Figg, D.W. Scott & G.G. Guzman, Trade, travel and exploration in the Middle Ages: an encyclopedia, (New York: Garland Publishing Inc., 2000), 416. 30 Thomas Suarez had portrayed how the Eastern corner of the world had been perceived by the medieval European as the place with the environment like Paradise, the holy lands of Prester John and Ophir (the holy place which had recorded in Judeo-Christian Bible and were placed by some of the medieval European on Malaya and Sumatra), these factors made the region become special for the religious sentiment for the medieval European people. See Thomas Suarez, Early mapping of Southeast Asia, (Singapore: Periplus Editions, 1999), 66-73. 31 In case of the Malay Archipelago, in the context of Ludovico di Varthema’s travel account concerning this region on the first half of 16th century, he described the custom and tradition of the native people in this archipelago, the natural resources together with arts that produced from this area, religious and beliefs of the inhabitants, economic or trade activities along with the domestic and international relation among the society in the Malay World. The same tendency could also be discovered on the descriptions of other medieval Europeans, such as Marco Polo, Odoric of Pordenone and Sir John Mandeville, particularly in describing the natural resources of certain regions. 32 As stated in Varthema’s description when he was on the Island of Sumatra, “I saw the most beautiful works of art I ever saw in my life, that is some boxes worked in gold, which they gave for two ducats each, which, in truth, with us, would be valued at one hundred ducats”. See Ludovico di Varthema, The travels of Ludovico di Varthema in Egypt, Syria, Arabia Deserta and Arabia Felix, in Persia, India and Ethopia, A.D. 1503-1508, translated by J.W. Jones & edited by G.P. Badger. In Fuat Sezgin (ed.), In The Islamic World in foreign travel accounts, vol II. Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, 1994. (Reprint of the Edition London, 1853), 238.

10 commodities is never the sole attraction of medieval Europeans to the other regions

33 outside their own borders. These three characteristics; “confabulation”, the “twisted facts” and “curiosity” are among the major themes that will be taken into consideration in this research.

The fifth category of sources reviewed is related to the general publications in form of books or journals that provide information concerning the Malay World. In order to make a comparative study concerning the Malay World with medieval

European accounts on this region in the period equivalent to the medieval ages of

Europe, these sources are considered as significant. It covers the wide-ranging scopes such as the history of the region during the period equivalent to the medieval period of

34 Europe and the history of the emergence and the establishment of Islam in the Malay

35 World.

The sixth category deals with the scant literatures which present the opinions of scholars in the related fields, in addressing and evaluating the reliability of the travel accounts and descriptions by the medieval European travelers. It will provide the

33 Erik Ringmar suggests that the reason for European expansion should be approached and understood with more than an economic imperative. See Erik Ringmar, “Audience for a giraffe: European expansionism and the quest for the exotic,” Journal of World History, vol. 17, 4, (2006): 375 - 397. 34 See for instance works by Lynda Norene Shaffer, Maritime Southeast Asia to 1500, (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1996), P. Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese: studies in the historical geography of the Malay Peninsula before A.D. 1500, (Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Universiti Malaya, 1980), Syed Hussein Alatas, The myth of the lazy native: A study of the image of the Malays, Filipinos and Javanese from the 16th to the 20th century and its function in the ideology of colonial capitalism, (London: Frank Cass& Co. Ltd., 1977), Hood Salleh, The Encyclopedia of Malaysia: Peoples and traditions, (Singapore: Archipelago Press, 2004), Muhammad Yusoff Hashim, The Malay Sultanate of Malacca: a study of various aspects of Malacca in the 15th and 16th centuries in Malaysian History, (Kuala Lumpur: DBP, 1992), Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abdul Rahman, The Encyclopedia of Malaysia: Early history,(Singapore: Archipelago Press, 2004), D. Devahuti, India and Ancient Malaya, (Singapore: Eastern University Press, 1965) . For journals, see for example articles by R.J. Wilkinson, “Early Indian influence in Malaysia,” JMBRAS, vol. 13, 2, (1935), 1-16, B. E. Colless, “Persian merchants and missionaries in medieval Malaya.” JMBRAS, vol. 42, 2, (1969), 10-47 35 Series of works related to Islam in the Malay World, such as by Mohd. Taib Osman, Islamic civilization in the Malay World, (Kuala Lumpur: DBP, 1992), De Josselin De Jong, Agama-agama di gugusan Kepulauan Melayu [Religions in the Malay Archipelago], Abdullah Hussain (trans.), (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), G.E. Marrison, “The coming of Islam to the East Indies.” JMBRAS, vol. 24, 1, (1955), 28-37, G.R. Tibbetts, “Early Muslim traders in South-East Asia,” JMBRAS, vol. 30, 1, (1957), 1-45.

11 scholars’ apprehension and will help this research to come out with conclusion. C.F.

Beckingham for instance, had observed that the medieval European travelers records could be easily underestimated since there were only three categories of European people during the Middle Ages that have been set up for the journey to Asia and North

Africa. The first group was the pilgrims or crusaders that had made their way to

Palestine or Egypt. The second group was merchants who had sought profits and thirdly, official agents or spies outside the European borders. These three groups hardly shared their travel records publicly unless they were confined to certain people.

For example the accounts of pilgrims became the guidelines for pilgrimage descendents, while the next two group’s accounts are confidential; and will never be

36 exposed to their rivals or competitors.

Frank Grady in another example had categorized the Travel of Sir John

37 Mandeville as lacking reliability. This author of the Travel of Sir John Mandeville, according to him, misrepresented the Muslims by putting the voice of Mandeville’s own on behalf of the Sultan of Egypt, propagating the superiority of Christianity over

th 38 Muslims to the western world up to 16 C. E.

Muhammad Yusoff Hashim, a prominent Malaysian historian questioned the methodology used by Tome Pires in collecting the information concerning the society and civilization of the Malay World, particularly in the Malaccan Sultanate in the first

th half of the 16 century. Tome Pires’s account known as Suma Oriental are mainly taken from the verbal accounts of the local informants which might have had different

36 See introduction by C.F. Beckingham, Between Islam and Christendom: Travellers, facts and legends in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, (London: Variorum Reprints, 1983). 37 Concerning the travel account of Sir John Mandeville, Frank Grady stated, “…the text’s obvious inaccuracies…its lack of susceptibility to scientific and empirical confirmation, left it to languish in a state of malign neglect, punctuated by an occasional editor’s diatribe about its status as plagiarism and forgery.” See F. Grady, “‘Machomete’ and Mandeville’s travels,” In Medieval Christian perception of Islam, edited by J. V. Tolan, (New York & London: Routledge, 2000), 271. 38 Ibid., 271-288.

12 opinions and were bias in their observations as well as the affiliation upon the situation in Malacca. Furthermore, the background of Tomé Pires himself as the conqueror of Malacca along with his religious background which viewed the society and civilization of the Malaccan people suspiciously needs to be taken into

39 consideration. What he had portrayed more or less belonged to his own opinion.

Another example is the work by Syed Manzurul Islam who delivers his

40 arguments in analyzing the authenticity of the travels of Marco Polo. As matter of fact, Marco Polo, the most famous figure among the European travelers, ironically becomes the most controversial person in the matter of the truth behind his

41 adventurous story in reaching the far eastern world.

These six categories of literature review will represent the various sources which are applicable to this research. The perception of medieval European towards the region of the Malay World that reflected on their descriptions will be analyzed historically; in particular to the travel account of Ludovico di Varthema on the Malay World.

1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In general, this research is based on descriptive analysis in the context of the various medieval European descriptions in portraying the region of the Malay World.

Ludovico di Varthema’s travel account that was translated from the original Italian version that was published in 1510 C.E., with particular reference to his description on

th the Malay World in the first half of the 16 century which will become the central observation in this study.

39 Muhammad Yusoff Hashim, The Malay Sultanate of Malacca: a study of various aspects of Malacca in the 15th and 16th centuries in Malaysian history, (Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa Pustaka, 1992), 11-12. 40 Syed Manzurul Islam, The ethics of travel: from Marco Polo to Kafka, (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996). 41 See example in R. Stewart, “Was Marco Polo a great explorer or a liar?,” In Mysteries of the World, (Washington D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2003), 70-79.

13 By examining this travel accounts along with Varthema’s predecessors, it will be picturing general reflections of the society and civilization of the Malay World during the period equivalent to the medieval era of Europe, or in other words the pre- colonial period in the history of this region. In this process, the traditions that backboned the medieval European perceptions on this archipelago will be discovered.

Research methodology used relies on the non-survey data; where it involves analysis on books, journals, pictures and maps. Two major different fields of studies were required in accomplishing this task; the Malay World before 1600 and the

Medieval European studies and both will be examine concurrently.

1.6 CHAPTERIZATION OF THE STUDY

This research comprises of six major chapters including the conclusion of this study.

Chapter one outlines the introductory remarks of this research. It includes the background that determines the area of concentration and the scope of investigation. It also provides the importance of this study along with the methodology used and literature reviewed.

Chapter two focuses on the brief introduction on the historical background in quest of the medieval European to the far-eastern corner of the world; where the region of the Malay World lies. It tries to uncover the general images of this region that were implanted in the minds of the society and civilization throughout the medieval period of Europe.

Chapter three deals with Ludovico di Varthema’s background and career. This part of the research will make an endeavor in order to explain who is Varthema, and tries to highlights his biography.