Proceedings Book

Associação Portuguesa de Engenharia Zootécnica

Proceedings Book

Associação Portuguesa de Engenharia Zootécnica

Ficha Técnica

Organização: APEZ - Associação Portuguesa de Engenharia Zootécnica

Colaboração: UTAD - Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro

Comissão Organizadora Ana Luísa Lourenço Ana Sofia Santos Divanildo Monteiro Elisabete Mena Luís Ribeiro Mariana Almeida Pedro Vaz Sandra Oliveira Sílvia Ferreira Sofia Botelho Telma Pinto

Comissão Científica Ana Luísa Lourenço Esther Hagen-Plantinga Guido Bosch Ronald Corbee

Título Proceedings Book I Congresso Internacional de Nutrição e Alimentação de Animais de Companhia (edição electrónica)

Edição Associação Portuguesa de Engenharia Zootécnica

Editores Ana Luísa Lourenço Ana Sofia Santos Divanildo Outor Monteiro Elisabete Gomes Mena Telma Pinto

ISBN 978-989-20-8056-7 [Título: I Congresso Internacional de Nutrição e Alimentação de Animais de Companhia]; [Autor: Vários]; [Co-autor(es): ]; [Suporte: Eletrónico]; [Formato: PDF / PDF/A]

Associação Portuguesa de Engenharia Zootécnica

Organização/Organisation

A Nutrição e Alimentação de Animais de Companhia é uma área cada vez mais desafiante em resultado do aumento da importância social e económica destes animais. Cabe aos diversos profissionais, independentemente da sua área de ação, procurar a informação que lhes permita dar resposta aos seus desafios profissionais, da forma mais atual e científica possível.

No sentido de dar um primeiro contributo a APEZ, em colaboração com a UTAD, propôs-se reunir um conjunto de especialistas de reconhecido mérito internacional, para que, de forma independente e baseada em evidência científica, pudessem partilhar connosco os seus conhecimentos e os seus pontos de vista. Deste esforço nasce o I Congresso Internacional de Nutrição e Alimentação de Animais de Companhia, para o qual temos a honra e o prazer de o poder convidar.

The Feeding and Nutrition of Pet Animals is an increasingly challenging area as a result of the socio- economic growing importance of these animals. It is up to the professionals in the field, regardless of their area of action, to seek to perform based on the most up to date scientific information.

In order to make a first contribution in this direction, APEZ in collaboration with UTAD decided to bring together a group of experts of recognized international merit, so that, independently and based on scientific evidence, they could share their knowledge and their points of view. This effort gives birth to the I International Congress of Feeding and Nutrition of Pet Animals, for which we have the honor and the pleasure to invite you.

I Congresso Internacional de Nutrição e Alimentação de Animais de Companhia APEZ - Associação Portuguesa De Engenharia Zootécnica Vila Real, Portugal 27 e 28 de Outubro de 2017

PROGRAMA

25 de Outubro: Seminário 26 de Outubro: Workshop 27 de Outubro: Nutrição e Alimentação ao Longo da Vida 28 de Outubro: Da Natureza à Cidade

9:00 – Receção dos Participantes Sessão V - Moderação: Ana Sofia Santos 9:30 – Alimentação natural do gato e idiossincrasias de um Sessão I - Moderação: Divanildo Monteiro carnívoro estrito 10:00 – Abertura Drª Esther Hagen-Plantinga, PhD, Dip. ECVCN – Univ. de Reitor da UTAD: António Fontainhas Fernandes Utrecht Presidente da ECAV da UTAD: Ana Nazaré Pereira Presidente da APEZ: Divanildo Outor Monteiro 10:15 – Alimentação natural do cão e idiossincrasias de um Presidente da Comissão Científica: Ana Lourenço carnívoro adaptável

Eng. Guido Bosch, PhD – Univ. de Wageningen 10:30 – Onde encontrar informação sobre necessidades nutricionais Drª Ana Lourenço, PhD, Dip. ECVCN – UTAD Pausa Café

Pausa para Café Sessão VI - Moderação: Maria João Fradinho Sessão II - Moderação: Aulus Carciofi 11:30 – Alimentos comerciais secos e húmidos: características e 11:30 – Nutrição e alimentação do cão: do nascimento a adulto fabrico. Drª Esther Hagen-Plantinga, PhD, Dip. ECVCN – Univ. de Dr. Aulus Carciofi, PhD – Univ. de S. Paulo Utrecht 12:30 – Rótulos: Como fazê-los, como entendê-los 12:15 – Nutrição e alimentação do gato: do nascimento a adulto Dr. Víctor Romano - FEDIAF Drª Ana Lourenço, PhD, Dip. ECVCN – UTAD 13:00 – Almoço 13:00 – Almoço Sessão III - Moderação: Luís Barros Sessão VII - Moderação: Guido Bosh 14:30 – Nutrição e alimentação do cão e gato órfão 14:30 – Opções e novas tendências na alimentação de cães e Drª Galena Quist – Rybachuk, PhD, Res. ECVCN gatos 15:00 – Nutrição e alimentação do cão: de adulto jovem a Drª Wendy Wambacq, Dip. ECVCN – Univ. de Gante sénior Drª Cecilia Villaverde, PhD, Dip. ECVCN e ACVN 15:00 – Ameaças e oportunidades no futuro da alimentação de cães e gatos 15:45 – Nutrição e alimentação do gato: de adulto jovem a sénior Drª Wendy Wambacq, Dip. ECVCN – Univ. de Gante Drª Ana Lourenço, PhD, Dip. ECVCN – UTAD

15:30 – Como decidir o que oferecer? A perspetiva do tutor! Pausa Café Drª Stefanie Handl, Dip. ECVCN Sessão IV - Moderação: Miguel Rodrigues

17:00 – Nutrição e alimentação do cão e gato reprodutor Pausa Café Dr. Ronald Corbee, PhD, Dip. ECVCN – Univ. de Utrecht

Sessão VIII - Moderação: Ana Luísa Lourenço 17:45 – A alimentação de cães de caça que facilita a sua manutenção e recuperação 16:30 – DGAV; ECVCN; FEDIAF; IACA Drª Geraldine Blanchard, PhD, Dip. ECVCN 16:45 – Mesa redonda: debate e discussão 18:30 – Estratégias para enriquecimento alimentar no cão e no gato Drª Galena Quist – Rybachuk, PhD, Res. ECVCN 18:00 – Encerramento dos trabalhos

20:00 – Jantar de Confraternização

I International Congress of Feeding and Nutrition of Pet Animals APEZ - Associação Portuguesa De Engenharia Zootécnica Vila Real, Portugal October 27 - 28, 2017

PROGRAMME

October 25: Seminar October 26: Workshop October 27: Feeding and Nutrition Throughout Life Stages

9:00 – Registration October 28: From Nature to the City

Session I Session V 10:00 – Conference Opening 9:30 – Natural feeding of the cat and the idiosyncrasies of Rector of UTAD: António Fontainhas Fernandes a strict carnivore Presidente da ECAV da UTAD: Ana Nazaré Pereira Drª Esther Hagen-Plantinga, phD, Dip. ECVCN – Utrecht President of APEZ: Divanildo Outor Monteiro University President of the Scientific Commission: Ana Lourenço 10:15 – Natural feeding of the dog and the idiosyncrasies of 10:30 – Where to find information about nutritional requirements an adaptive carnivore Drª Ana Lourenço, phD, Dip. ECVCN – UTAD Dr. Ir. Guido Bosch, phD – Wageningen University

Coffee Break Coffee Break

Session II Session VI 11:30 – Feeding and nutrition of the dog: from birth to adulthood 11:30 – Dry and wet commercial food: characteristics Drª Esther Hagen-Plantinga, phD, Dip. ECVCN – Utrecht and manufacture University Dr. Aulus Carciofi, phD - S. Paulo University

12:15 – Feeding and nutrition of the cat: from birth to adulthood 12:30 – Pet food labels: how to make and read them Drª Ana Lourenço, phD, Dip. ECVCN – UTAD Dr. Víctor Romano - FEDIAF

13:00 – Lunch 13:00 – Lunch

Session III Session VII 14:30 – Feeding and nutrition of the orphan kitten and puppy 14:30 – Options and new trends in pet food Drª Galena Quist – Rybachuk, phD, Res. ECVCN Drª Wendy Wambacq, Dip. ECVCN – Ghent University

15:00 – Feeding and nutrition of the dog: from young adult to 15:00 – Threats and opportunities in the future of pet geriatric foods Drª Cecilia Villaverde, phD, Dip. ECVCN and ACVN Drª Wendy Wambacq, Dip. ECVCN – Ghent University 15:45 – Feeding and nutrition of the cat: from young adult to geriatric 15:30 – How to decide what to offer? The owner's Drª Ana Lourenço, phD, Dip. ECVCN – UTAD perspective! Drª Stefanie Handl, Dip. ECVCN Coffee Break Coffee Break Session IV 17:00 – Feeding and nutrition of the reproductive cat and dog Session VIII Dr. Ronald Corbee, phD, Dip. ECVCN – Utrecht University 16:30 – IACA; FEDIAF; ECVCN; DGAV

17:45 – Feeding hunting dogs to facilitate maintenance and 16:45 – Roundtable: clarification and discussion session recovery Drª Geraldine Blanchard, phD, Dip. ECVCN 18:00 – Closing

18:30 – Tips and tricks for feeding enrichment in dogs and cats Drª Galena Quist – Rybachuk, phD, Res. ECVCN

20:00 – Congress Dinner

Índice/Index

Where to find information about nutritional requirements of Cats and Dogs Ana Luísa Lourenço ------13

Feeding and nutrition of the dog; from birth till adulthood Esther A. Hagen-Plantinga ------19

Feeding and nutrition of the cat: from birth to adulthood Ana Luísa Lourenço ------27

Orphan feeding and nutrition of the orphan kitten and puppy, birth to weaning Galena Quist ------33

Feeding and nutrition of the dog: from young adult to geriatric Cecilia Villaverde ------43

Feeding and nutrition of the cat: from young adult to geriatric Ana Luísa Lourenço ------49

Nutrition and dietetics of reproducing dogs and cats Ronald Jan Corbee ------57

Feeding hunting dogs to facilitate maintenance and recovery Géraldine Blanchard ------61

Tips and tricks for feeding enrichment in dogs and cats Galena Quist ------67

Natural feeding of the cat and dog and the idiosyncrasies of these carnivores Guido Bosch, Esther Hagen-Plantinga, Wouter Hendriks ------69

Dry and wet commercial food: characteristics and manufacture Aulus Carciofi ------77

Petfood Labels: How to make them and how to read them Víctor Romano ------101

Alternatives and New Trends in Pet Food Wendy Wambacq ------105

Threats and Opportunities in the Future of Pet Foods Wendy Wambacq ------111

How to decide what to offer – the owners perspective Stefanie Handl ------115

A Direcção Geral de Alimentação e Veterinária José Manuel Costa ------121

Mesa Redonda ------123

Nota Final ------125

Name: Ana Luísa Lourenço

Short CV

Obtained her Master in Animal production in 1999, her Veterinary degree in 2003 and a PhD in Animal nutrition in 2008 by the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD).

Completed an alternative residency program in small animal clinical nutrition in UTAD/Ghent and Utrecht Universities in 2015 and is board certified in veterinary nutrition by the European College of Veterinary and Comparative Nutrition (ECVCN) since 2016.

Is Assistant Professor at the Animal Science Department of UTAD since 2008 and provides clinical nutrition service at UTAD Veterinary Hospital since 2014.

Founded this year a spin-off company of UTAD that provides expert nutrition services for pets (Nut4Pet, Lda).

Where to find information about nutritional requirements of Cats and Dogs

Ana Luísa Lourenço

Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD), Vila Real, Portugal E-mail: [email protected]

Introduction Information on nutritional requirements and on how to feed a cat or a dog can literally be found everywhere, from the neighbour next door, till the self-proclaimed expert on theinternet, there is a never ending spring of “information”. At the end the difficult part is where and how to find scientifically sound information and how to make sure the information you are presented with is indeed trustworthy. Nutritional goals of feeding healthy companion animals are to maintain optimal physiological functions, enhance quality of life, prevent disease and, if possible, increase life expectancy while maintaining high performance standards, if applicable. Although the “ideal” diet cannot be identified and probably differs from animal to animal, much was already researched and known for each species and life stage. It is thus, essential to base nutritional decisions on the most solid scientific knowledge to be able to achieve your nutritional goals. This document is constructed to give a compact overview on where to find scientifically substantiated and sound information on nutritional requirements for cats and dogs, for practical reference.

Resources available on Nutritional Requirements of Cats and Dogs National Research Council (NRC) In 2006, the Ad Hoc Committee on Dog and Cat Nutrition of the National Research Council published, after extensive review of all the scientific literature on dog and cats nutrition, the document: National Research Council (NRC). 2006. Nutrient Requirements of Dogs. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. This document is an extensive compilation of relevant information on nutrient physiology and requirements of cats and dogs and related issues, critically reviewed by the council throughout the publication. The summary on the daily provision of energy and nutrients to dogs and cats, based on their energy and nutrient requirements are summarized and presented in tabular form in the last chapter of the book (chapter 15). The energy and nutrient requirements are presented in separate tables, per species and life stage. First, formula’s on the daily metabolizable energy requirements are presented followed by data on the:

a) Minimal Requirement - defined as the minimal concentration or amount of a bioavailable nutrient that will support a defined physiological state. b) Adequate Intake - defined as the concentration in the diet or amount required by the animal of a nutrient that is presumed to sustain a given life stage when no Minimal Requirement has been demonstrated. c) Recommended Allowance - defined as the concentration or amount of a nutrient in a diet formulated to support a given physiological state. The Recommended Allowance is based on the Minimal Requirement and, where applicable, includes a bioavailability factor (~+20%) to account for individual variation in nutrient absorption and metabolism If no Minimal Requirement is available, the Recommended Allowance is based on the Adequate Intake. Last, data for Safe Upper Limit, or the maximal concentration or amount of a nutrient that has not been associated with adverse effects, are presented.

European Pet Food Industry Federation (FEDIAF) Many of the NRC minimum nutrient requirements are based on research with purified diets and/or highly bioavailable nutrient sources that are not practical to use in commercial dog and cat foods. That is why the European pet food industry, in close cooperation with a Scientific Advisory Board (SAB) of independent nutritional scientists from European countries, have adapted the scientific recommendations for nutrient levels into guidelines for manufacturing of pet food, herewith ensuring that the latest research results are transferred into the practical guidelines. The FEDIAF nutritional guidelines include minimum and maximum recommended nutrient levels for dogs and cats in separate tables. The guidelines for all the life stages (maintenance, growth and reproduction) are presented in clear tables. The nutritional tables provide nutrient allowances in “units/100g dry matter (DM)”, “units/1000kcal ME” and “units/MJ ME” and also, in annex, in “units/kg of metabolic weight”. The recommended nutrient levels reflect the minimum requirement plus a safety margin for differences in availability between individual animals and for nutrient interactions. In practice this would be translated as the levels of essential nutrients that healthy individuals should consume over time to ensure adequate and safe nutrition. The legal maxima that are stated in the tables are based on EU legislation, and are expressed on 12% moisture content and do not account for energy density. Therefore, in these guidelines the legal maxima are only provided on a dry matter basis. The guidelines assume a protein digestibility of ≥ 80% and if that cannot be guaranteed, it is recommended to increase the essential amino acid levels by a minimum of 10%. The guidelines also assume an energy density of 16.7kJ (4.0kcal) ME/g DM. For foods with energy densities different from this value, the recommendations should be corrected for energy density. The document gives guidance on how to correct for differences in energy density as well. Besides nutrient recommendations, the document also presents practical calculations for daily

17 metabolizable energy requirements for cats and dogs in different life stages. The FEDIAF nutritional guidelines also include other related useful information relating to nutrition of dogs and cats. These guidelines, and some other documents (e.g. nutritional guidelines for rabbits), are published online and freely available in http://www.fediaf.org/self-regulation/nutrition.html

Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) The AAFCO is a voluntary membership association of local, state and federal agencies in the United States of America, which are charged by law to regulate the sale and distribution of animal feeds and animal drug remedies. One of its goals is to safeguard the health of animals and humans, and as such AAFCO developed, among others, a document of nutritional guidelines for dogs and cats. The AAFCO dog and cats nutrient profiles are published in an official report that can be purchased as a book or an online version. These guidelines can be considered the American equivalent of the FEDIAF guidelines, and were designed to establish practical minimum and some maximum nutrient concentrations for dog and cat foods. The AAFCO official report, containing the nutrient profiles for cats and dogs, can be purchased through the AAFCO website htttp://www.aafco.org.

Other Books Apart from the above mentioned documents, there are several books available that relate to dog and cat nutrition in general and to nutritional requirements in particular. Below a short overview of books is given that can be considered a trustworthy source of nutritional information. Case, L. P., Daristotle, L., Hayek, M. G., & Raasch, M. F. (eds.) 2010. Canine and Feline Nutrition: A Resource for Companion Animal Professionals. Elsevier Health Sciences, UK. Fascetti, A. J., and Delaney, S. J. (eds.). 2012. Applied veterinary clinical nutrition. John Wiley & Sons, New Yersey, USA. Hand, M.S., Thatcher, C.D., Remillard, R.L., Roudebush, P., and Novotny, B.J. (eds.) 2010. Small Animal Clinical Nutrition (5th ed). Mark Morris Institute, Topeka, KS, USA. McDonald, P., Greenhalgh, J.F.D. , Morgan, C.A. et al. (eds.). 2011. Animal Nutrition (7th ed.). Pearson Education Limited, London, UK. Encyclopedia of Feline Clinical Nutrition. Pascale P, Biourge V, Elliott D, (eds.) 2008. Aimargues: Aniwa SAS Ltd. Encyclopedia of Canine Clinical Nutrition. Pascale P, Biourge V, Elliott D, (eds.) 2006. Aimargues: Aniwa SAS Ltd.

Scientific Journals (Articles): The scientific journals mentioned below are peer reviewed journals that often contain manuscript related to dog and cat nutrition, and may be considered sound sources of information (this is not an exhaustive list): Advances in Nutrition http://advances.nutrition.org/ American Journal of Clinical Nutrition http://ajcn.nutrition.org/ British Journal of Nutrition https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/british-journal-of-nutrition European Journal of Nutrition https://link.springer.com/journal/394 Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics http://jandonline.org/ Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1439-0396 Journal of Nutrition http://jn.nutrition.org/ Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry https://www.journals.elsevier.com/the-journal-of-nutritional- biochemistry Nutrition Reviews http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1753-4887 Veterinary Clinics of North American Small Animal Practice http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01955616?sdc=1

Websites The following websites contain scientifically substantiated information on dog and cat nutrition, and can be considered trustworthy sources of information (this is not an exhaustive list): European Pet Food Industry Federation http://www.fediaf.org/ Mark Morris Institute (MMI): http://www.markmorrisinstitute.org/index.html Pet Food Manufacturers Association https://www.pfma.org.uk/ Waltham Centre for Pet Nutrition: https://www.waltham.com/waltham-research/ World Small Animal Veterinary Association: www.wsava.org/nutrition-toolkit

Name: Esther Hagen-Plantinga

Short CV

Dr. Esther Hagen-Plantinga received her veterinary degree from Utrecht University in the Netherlands, where she also obtained her doctorate degree in animal nutrition in 2003. Since 2007 she is an assistant professor in animal nutrition at Utrecht University. She is a board certified specialist in comparative veterinary clinical nutrition at the European College of Comparative Veterinary Nutrition. Her research interests include influence of nutrition on (disease of) the urinary system in companion animals and palaeolithic nutrition of dogs and cats. She is involved in development of education and teaching of multiple courses in the field of animal nutrition, in various courses in both the Bachelor and Master phase of the study Veterinary Medicine, and in guest lectures at Wageningen University and Continuing- Education in Veterinary Medicine.

FEEDING AND NUTRITION OF THE DOG; FROM BIRTH TILL ADULTHOOD

Esther A. Hagen-Plantinga

Utrecht University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chair of Nutrition, Utrecht, The Netherlands. Email: [email protected]

Introduction Healthy growth is the basis of a healthy life. We know this to be true for humans, but this is also very true for our pets. To obtain a healthy growth, balanced nutrition is especially important. The nutrition is considered balanced when it contains all the nutrients the animal needs on a daily basis in adequate amounts. The nutrients also need to be easily digested and absorbed by the gut. During puppy growth different phases can be distinguished; the milk- phase, the weaning phase, and the post-weaning phase. Below, the different phases will be briefly discussed, and nutritional key factors for puppy growth will be considered.

Milk-phase The first 2 weeks after birth puppies are considered to be neonatal. Puppies are born in a relatively immature state and are completely dependent upon their mother’s care. The first 24 to 36 hours of a puppy’s life are critical because the sudden environmental changes that newborn puppies experience are very stressful. Controlling the environment as to assure a quiet and warm whelping area is thus of importance. A rapid uptake of milk within the first hours after birth is critical to assure good immunity. The bitch’s milk that is produced directly after birth (called colostrum) contains antibodies and bioactive factors that can be absorbed by the gut of the puppy during the first 24h of life. After this period, the gut “closes”, which prevents further transfer of these antibodies and bioactive compounds. The immune system of puppies is not fully developed until 16 weeks of age, which makes the transfer of antibodies via colostrum important for their survival and protection against infectious diseases. Puppies show a tremendous growth rate during the first weeks of life. They almost quadruple their birth weight in the first 3 weeks of life. As the bitch’s milk is the only source of nutrition during the early rapid growth phase, it needs to be rich in energy and nutrients. When considering the nutrient composition of bitch milk compared to other mammal species, it is noticeably rich in fat and protein, with a mean protein content of 8-10%, a mean fat content of 11 to 13%, and a mean energy content of 1500-1800 kcal/L (6.3 to 7.5 MJ/L) (Adkins et al., 2001). After 4 weeks, milk alone will no longer provide adequate nutrients and energy to support normal development, coinciding with the time that puppies will become increasingly interested in trying new foods. During this time the introduction of semi-solid food can be advised, marking the start of the weaning process.

Weaning phase The introduction of semi-solid food to puppies should begin at 3 to 4 weeks of age. It is highly recommended to use a commercial food to wean the puppies, instead of a homemade “weaning mixture”, as the latter mostly does not contain sufficient minerals and vitamins to support health and balanced growth. Specific commercially available puppy foods are advised, which can be mixed with warm water to make a thick gruel for easy uptake. By 5 to 6 weeks of age the teeth of the puppies are fully erupted and they will be able to chew dry food. Cow’s milk should not be used to make the semisolid mixture, because this is higher in lactose than bitch’s milk and may cause diarrhea in the puppies. The semisolid mixture should be provided several times per day, and should be freshly prepared every time. At 6 weeks of age the puppies mostly consume the large part of their calories as solid food, and at 8 weeks of age most puppies can actively be weaned from their mother. Complete weaning before 7 weeks of age, which is nutritionally possible, is not advised because there is also an emotional and behavioral need for the puppy to suckle with their mother until 8 weeks of age.

Post-weaning phase Most puppies will be fully weaned at 8 weeks of age and will then be primarily dependent on food provision by the owner. Depending on breed and size, the growth phase from weaning to adult weight will last 10 months (small dog breeds) to over 2 years (large and giant dog breeds).The nutritional need during the growth phase consists of maintenance needs + additional energy and nutrients for the growth of body tissue. As the growth rate decreases, the need for additional energy and nutrients for growth decreases relatively and the overall energy demand will decrease. It has been scientifically shown that when a puppy grows too fast, or has a suboptimal nutrient intake during its growth phase, this may lead to health problems later in life. Important health consequences that are scientifically linked to a speedy growth phase are hip dysplasia and obesity (Hedhammer et al., 1974; Kealy et al, 1992, 1997, 2002; Riser et al.,1964). It is thus of the utmost importance to make sure the puppy is being fed with a suitable diet that supports growth, while the growth speed of the puppy is being controlled. The best way to control the growth speed is to regularly weigh the puppy and adjust the feeding amount when too fast or too slow growth (compared to the “ideal” growth curve) is observed. To support veterinarians and animal owners in monitoring the growth rate of puppy's and adjusting the food and feeding amount, a new web-based application has been developed: My Puppy Plan (www.mypuppyplan.eu). This program helps puppy owners to monitor the growth of their puppy and gives the owners a nutritional advice (read: feeding amount) based on the puppy's actual growth rate and the type/brand of food that is given. The program is completely independent, so any type/brand of food can be used. The program checks the selected food on composition, and gives advice when the composition is not properly suitable for the growth phase of the puppy. By weighing the puppy on a regular basis and entering this weight into My

Puppy Plan (at least 1x per 2 weeks), the food amount is constantly matched to the current weight, growth rate and growth phase of the puppy. In this way, too fast growth in puppy's is detected quickly, and the food amount will automatically be adjusted by the program to inhibit excessive growth. This will help to prevent many growth related problems at a later age. This web-based application will be available as of December 2017.

Key nutritional factors during growth Nutritional factors that play an important role during the growth phase are energy, protein, fat, calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D. The recommended levels for the growth phase of puppy and kittens are shown in Table 1:

Table 1: Recommended levels of some key nutritional factors in in puppy food (adjusted from DeBraekeleer et al., 2010) Nutritional factor Puppy’s with an adult BW Puppy’s with an adult BW <25 kg >25 kg Energy (kJ/100g DM*) 1550-1800 1400-1750 Protein (g/100g DM) 22-32 22-28 Fat (g/100g DM) 15-25 12-20 Calcium (g/100g DM) 0,7-1,7 0,7-1,2 Phosphorus(g/100 g DM) 0,6-1,3 0,6-1,1 Ca : P ratio 1 : 1 – 1,8 : 1 1 :1 – 1,6 : 1 Vitamin D (IU/100g DM) 35 35 * DM, dry matter

Energy Adequate energy intake during the growth phase is important for puppies to support growth. During the fast growth phase, the daily growth of puppies is variable and ranges from 10-30 grams for toy breeds to more than 200 grams per day for giant breeds. It should be noted that small breeds need relatively more energy to facilitate growth than larger breeds. This is due to the fact that small breed dogs need relatively more energy for maintenance because of a larger surface-area-to-volume ratio. On top of that, the daily growth as a percentage of the final weight is higher in small breed dogs compared to larger breeds. In order to facilitate this relatively higher energy requirement for smaller breeds, a diet with a slightly higher energy, and thus fat content, is indicated. On the other hand, it is advisable to feed a larger breed dog with a diet slightly lower energy content to help prevent too rapid growth.

Protein Protein delivers the major building blocks for the body, and therefore during growth it is of primary importance. A good quality protein (read: a balanced amino acid composition with sufficient essential amino acids) is needed to support growth. A shortage of high-quality protein

can suppress growth. In puppies, a protein content ranging from 25-30% on a dry matter basis is often recommended, as this is the amount of protein present in the bitch’s milk. However, many of the commercially offered puppy diets contain much more protein. This is mainly due to the fact that puppy owners prefer to feed a high amount of protein, as they consider the dog to be a carnivorous animal. The surpluses of protein that are fed in this way pose no health problems to the puppy, but also do not contribute to better / healthier / more balanced growth.

Fat Fat is important as an energy-bearing substance, as a supplier of essential fatty acids and fat- soluble vitamins, but also for delivering building blocks to the body. Adequate fat in the diet, with sufficient essential fatty acids, is of importance. On the other hand, a too high fat content in the diet may lead to overconsumption of energy, which predisposes to development of obesity later in life. With regard to the need for essential fatty acids, the need for linoleic acid of growing puppies is estimated to be 250 mg/kg body weight per day, corresponding to a nutritional content of 1.3 g linoleic acid/100g dry matter (NRC, 2006). With a level of 5 to 10% fat in the diet, this need is already met, provided that the fat source is of good quality. When commercial diets are fed to puppies, linoleic acid deficiencies are rarely observed. Calcium and phosphorus Special reference should be made with regard to the need for calcium and phosphorus, especially in fast growing dog breeds. The calcium and phosphorus content of the diet should be well balanced (minimum ratio of Ca: P of 1: 1, maximum 1.6: 1 to 1.8: 1 for the larger and smaller breeds, resp.) and the levels of calcium and phosphorus in the diet should not exceed. 1.2% and 1.1% DM for calcium and phosphorus (or 0.96 g Ca / MJ ME), especially when feeding large- and giant breed puppies. Research has shown that an excessive calcium intake and an unbalanced calcium-to-phosphorous ratio during the growth phase can lead to orthopedic problems (Schoenmakers et al., 2000). The additional supplementation of calcium and phosphorus to a complete and balanced diet should be discouraged at all times. Foods with extra attention to be paid with regard to calcium and phosphorus levels are commercially offered fresh meat foods, home-made foods (BARF or self-cooking / elimination diets), high protein dry foods (> 35% DM) for puppy's, and adult dog foods fed to puppies.

Feeding management With regard to feeding management, portion-controlled feeding is recommended for growing puppy's. In this way, the growth rate can best be controlled. It is recommended to divide the daily ration over at least 3 (preferably 4) servings per day, especially in younger puppies (<6 months). From 6 months of age can puppies can be fed twice a day. Ad libitum feeding is not recommended for growing puppies.

Further reading Adkins, Y., Lepine, A.J., and Lönnerdal, B., 2001. Changes in protein and nutrient composition of milk throughout lactation in dogs. Am J Vet Res. 62(8): 1266-1272. DeBraekeleer, J., Gross, K.L., and Zicker, S.C. 2010. Feeding growing puppies: Postweaning to adulthood. In: Small Animal Clinical Nutrition, 5th edition. Eds. Hand, M.S., et al. Mark Morris Institute, Topeka, Kansas, USA, 311-319. Hedhammar, A., Wu, F.M., Krook, L., et al., 1974. Overnutrition and skeletal disease. An experimental study in growing Great Dane dogs. Cornell Vet. 64 (Suppl):1-160. Kealy, R.D., Olsson, S.E., Monti, K.L., et al., 1992. Effects of limited food consumption on the incidence of hip dysplasia in growing dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 201: 857–863. Kealy, R.D., Lawler, D.F., Ballam, J.M., et al. 1999. Five-year longitudinal study on limited food consumption and development of osteoarthritis in coxofemoral joints of dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 210: 222–225. Kealy, R.D., Lawler, D.F., Ballam, J.M., et al. 2002. Evaluation of the effect of limited food consumption on radiographic evidence of osteoarthritis in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 217: 1678– 1680. NRC. 2006. Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., U.S. Riser, W.H., Cohen, D., Lindqvist, S., et al. 1964. Influence of early rapid growth and weight gain on hip dysplasia in the German Shepherd dog. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 145: 661–668. Schoenmakers, I., Hazewinkel, H. A., Voorhout, G., et al., 2000. Effects of diets with different calcium and phosphorus contents on the skeletal development and blood chemistry of growing great danes. Vet Rec 147(23): 652-660.

Feeding and nutrition of the cat: from birth to adulthood

Ana Luísa Lourenço Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD), Vila Real, Portugal Email: [email protected]

Introduction The ultimate goal of the nutritional management of a kitten is to ensure it will develop into a healthy adult. The growth period of a cat’s life is highly demanding in particular in the early phases and, thus, small nutritional (or other) imbalances have major impact on the cat’s health, not only as a kitten, but often, throughout the entire cat’s life. Due to the demanding nature of growing, this is the period where most frequently nutritional deficiencies and imbalances are clinically detected.

The growth period can be divided in, at least, two phases:

a) the pre-weaning phase from birth till effective weaning, that occurs around 6-9 weeks of age, and b) the post-weaning phase from effective weaning till the cat reaches adult body weight (BW) and body maturation, which is reached around 12 months of age.

The pre-weaning phase of the healthy nursing kitten The milk produced during the first 24-72h after parturition by the queen is called colostrum and will provide nutrition (water, nutrients and digestive enzymes), immunity (immunoglobulins) and growth factors to the kitten. During the first 16 hours of life, the immaturity of the kitten’s intestine will allow the acquisition of passive systemic and local immunity. After this initial period, only local immunity will continue to be acquired, first from colostrum and after from mature milk, since both seem to have high immunoglobulin concentrations (Casal et al., 1996). First colostrum, and after, the mature milk are considered to be complete foods for the pre- weaning period of the kitten. This means that colostrum and milk are capable of providing water, protein, fat, lactose, minerals and vitamins in amounts adequate for normal growth and development of the kitten, as long as they are ingested in the proper amounts (for queen’s colostrum and milk composition see Gross et al., 2010b) Body weight, body temperature, stool characteristics, behavior, activity level, are variables that should be regularly checked. The best way to assess the proper nutrition of the kittens is through their behavior and regular check of their growth rate. Thus, frequent observation of the kittens and queen behavior, and regular weight of the kittens are essential to quickly correct imbalances. Kittens are expected to show a strong suckling reflex immediately after birth and, after nursing, well-fed kittens exhibit an extended abdomen, are quiet and frequently fall asleep. Normal activity and interactions with the queen and littermates are also good indications of the nutritional and health status of the kitten.

Kittens are born with an average BW of 100g (85-120g) and during the first 6 months they are expected to grow an average of 100g per week and a minimum of 7g per day (Lawler and Bebiak, 1986). Special attention should be given to kitten’s with low birth weights. Growth rates of male kittens tend to be slightly higher than the females (for normal growth pattern in male and female kittens see Gross et al., 2010b). Inadequate growth of an individual kitten in the litter might be due to disease or inability of the kitten to suckle, while inadequate growth of the entire litter suggests an unhealthy mother and/or an inadequate milk production. The food that is being fed to the queen, with a complete and balanced composition for lactation (according to according to NRC, 2006 and FEDIAF, 2017) is also adequate to feed to the kittens and should be left freely accessible to them. From 3rd week post-partum, the kittens will start eating increasing amounts of their mother’s food and, progressively, less milk. Intestinal lactase activity declines when milk is no longer ingested (Kienzle, 1993). Food intake and stool characteristics should be regularly checked. Ideally, if not before, as soon the kitten starts eating other food than milk, clean and fresh water should always be available. The period before weaning, while the kitten is still with the mother, until 6 months of age is the period where it is advised to introduce foods with different textures and tastes. This lowers the risk of food fixation and food neophobia (Bradshaw, 2006). At least 1-2 weeks before the kittens are separated from the queen, the food that will be fed after effective weaning should also be available to the kittens. This assures full adaptation to the post-weaning diet before the stressful events of weaning. Alternatively, the diet that they are eating before weaning should be extended after weaning, until the kitten shows normal eating behavior and normal growth rate.

The post-weaning phase Energy The energy requirement of a growing kitten changes along with their growth curve and can be estimated using different equations (NRC 2006; FEDIAF 2017 and Gross et al., 2010a). All of them take into account that the growth rate changes along the growth curve. Before the body weight (BW) of the kitten reaches 50% of its adult BW (i.e. before ≈ 4 months old) the energy requirement is very high, when BW is between 50 and 80% of the adult BW (between ≈ 4 to 9 months old) the energy requirement is lower and, after 80% of the adult BW is reached (≈ 9 to 12 months old) the energy needs diminish again till they reach the energy level of an adult cat. The energy should be delivered in small and frequent meals (> 4 meals). When dry food is fed, it can be left in the bowl for the kitten to decide when to eat (ad libitum). This is possible because usually the kitten can regulate the amount of food ingested to fit its energy needs. Nevertheless, some kittens might not be able to regulate their food intake. Indoor lifestyle, high- fat foods, ad libitum feeding and neutering are risk factors for obesity (Scarlett et al, 1994). Neutering can reduce the energy requirements in kittens by 24 to 33% independently from the age of neutering (Root, 1995; Flynn et al, 1996).

The regular measurement of the BW allows to detect deviations from the expected growth rate. This can be evaluated using growth charts for kittens. As a reference, kittens grow at approximately 100 g/week until about 20 weeks of age but may grow at rates from 14 to 30 g/day (Gross et al., 2010c). At 20 weeks, males typically gain 20 g/day whereas females gain 11 g/day (NRC, 2006). The body condition of the kitten can also be evaluated by the 9 point body condition system developed by Laflamme (1997) for adult cats. It needs to be noted that this system is not validated for kittens, however it can be used to check if an intervention to adjust the amount of food might be indicated.

Nutrient Requirements The nutrient recommendations for growing kittens can be found summarized in the nutrient requirements tables of the NRC (2006). The FEDIAF guidelines (2017) also summarize nutrient recommendations for commercial diets formulated to feed growing kittens. The nutritional idiosyncrasies of cats are naturally present in kittens, and should be considered when formulating commercial as well as homemade diets for kittens (see for details of idiosyncrasies in cats in Morrison, 2002).

Protein Protein has a major impact on growth and development of the kitten due to its structural role in the maintenance and accretion of the lean body mass and also due to its functional role in a highly active metabolism. The ingredients selected for the kitten’s diet must be included in such a combination that is able to provide protein with high digestible and high biologic value. Arginine the protein requirements of kittens are relatively high, and diets formulated specifically for kittens have considerable concentrations of protein. Arginine, is an essential nutrient in the urea cycle, thus needs to be increased compared to adult maintenance diets. Diets with a higher protein content than recommended require more arginine. Taurine is an essential amino acid that cats cannot synthesize within their metabolism. It needs to be present in sufficient amounts in the diet for normal body function. It is needed for normal eye vision and heart function. A shortage in taurine can cause retinal degradation and a heart condition, called dilative cardiomyopathy. Taurine from dietary sources is more available to kittens than to adult cats, probably due to lower intestinal microbial degradation (Earle and Smith, 1994).

Fat and Fatty acids Fat is concentrated in energy, enhances food palatability includes essential fatty acids and is needed for the intestinal abortion of fat soluble vitamins. Kittens tolerate high concentrations of fat in their diet. Energy requirements are high during the growth phase. The higher the fat

concentration in the diet, the lower amount of food needed to be ingested to provide the same amount of energy. Overweight or neutered kittens might require lower levels of fat than their lean counterparts. The alpha-linoleic and arachidonic omega 6 fatty acids and the long chain omega 3 fatty acids are also essential for kittens. In particular docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 20:6 3), a fatty acid from the omega 3 series, is essential for normal neuronal, retinal and auditory development in kittens (Pawlosky et al., 1997). The inclusion of DHA in puppies diet’s improved trainability and learning ability (Kelley et al., 2004), and although not researched in kittens, the same might apply.

Calcium and phosphorus In kittens, calcium:phosphorus imbalances are not so dramatically associated with orthopedic diseases as is seen in puppies (Gross et al., 2010c). Nevertheless, dietary calcium interferes with other minerals absorption, thus, it is recommended that the calcium content of the diet is sufficient to fulfill the needs of the growing kitten, but in balance with other mineral like phosphorus and magnesium. Calcium deficiencies, when found, are usually seen in kittens fed all meat diets.

Feeding management Free-choice or ad libitum feeding allows for small and frequent meals and is a more suitable feeding strategy to feed kittens. Not only because the ingestion of small frequent meals reflects their natural feeding pattern, but also because their stomach is relatively small and their energy requirements are relatively high. Also the digestibility of some nutrients, namely fat, is lower around the weaning period, although it gradually increases till 24 weeks of age (Harper & Turner, 2000). Meal feeding is also possible and sometimes preferred due to owner convenience, or due to energy restriction need. In this case, minimums of 4 meals before 6 months of age and 2 meals after, is recommended.

Water Fresh and clean water should be provided at different locations and be available at all times.

Other Treats are unnecessary but when fed by the owner it should be in small quantities (<5-10% of the daily energy requirement), to prevent creating nutritional unbalances or providing excess energy intake.

References

Bradshaw JW, 2006. The evolutionary basis for the feeding behavior of domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) and cats (Felis catus). Journal of Nutrition, 136:1927S – 1931S. Casal ML, Jezyk PF, Giger U, 1996. Transfer of colostral antibodies from queens to their kittens. American Journal of Veterinary Research 57:1653 – 1658. Earle KE, Smith PM, 1994. The taurine requirement of the kitten fed canned foods. The Journal of nutrition. Journal of Nutrition, 124:2552S – 2554S FEDIAF (Fédération européenne de l’industrie des aliments pour animaux familiers), 2017. Nutritional Guidelines for Complete and Complementary Pet Food for Cats and Dogs. www.fediaf.org/self- regulation/nutrition) Flynn MF, Hardie EM Armstrong PJ, 1996. Effect of ovariohysterectomy on maintenance energy requirement in cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc 209: 1572 – 1581. Gross KL, Yamka RM, Khoo C, Freisen KG, Jewell DE, Schoener WD, Debraekeleer J, Zicker SC. 2010a. Macronutrients, micronutrients: minerals and vitamins. In: Hand MS, ed. Small Animal Clinical Nutrition, 5th Ed. Topeka, Kan: Mark Morris Institute, pp 49 – 148. Gross KL, Becvarova I and Debraekeleer J. 2010b. Feeding Nursing and Orphaned Kittens from Birth to Weaning. In: Hand MS, Thatcher CD, Remillard RL, et al (eds). Small animal clinical nutrition. Topeka, KS: Mark Morris Institute, pp 415 – 427. Gross KL, Becvarova I and Debraekeleer J. 2010c. Feeding growing kittens: postweaning to adulthood . In: Hand MS, Thatcher CD, Remillard RL, et al (eds). Small animal clinical nutrition. Topeka, KS: Mark Morris Institute, pp 429 – 436. Harper EJ, Turner CL, 2000. Age-related changes in apparent digestibility in growing kittens Reproduction Nutrition Development 40: 249 – 226. Kienzle E, 1993. Carbohydrate metabolism of the cat. 4. Activity of maltase, isomaltase, sucrase and lactase in the gastrointestinal tract in relation to age and diet. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 70: 89 – 96. Laflamme D, 1997. Development and validation of a body condition score system for cats: A clinical tool. Feline Practice 25: 13-18. Lawler DF, Bebiak DM, 1986. Nutrition and management of reproduction in the cat. Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Practice 16: 495 – 519. Morris JG, 2002. Idiosyncratic nutrient requirements of cats appear to be diet-induced evolutionary adaptations. Nutrition Research Reviews 15: 153 – 168. Morris JG, Trudell J, Pencovic T, 1993. Carbohydrate digestion by domestic cat (Felis Catus). British Journal of Nutrition 37: 365–73. NRC, 2006. Chapter 15: Nutrient requirements and dietary nutrient concentrations. In: Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. National Academies Press, Washington, DC, USA, pp 354 – 370. Root MV, 1995. Early spay – neuter in the cat: effect on development of obesity and metabolic rate. Veterinary Clinical Nutrition 2: 132 – 134. Scarlett JM, Donoghue S, Saidla J, Wills J, 1994. Overweight cats: prevalence and risk factors. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 18:S22 – 8.

Name: Galena Quist

Short CV

Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (2007, Louisiana State University, USA) with over 15 years of experience in wildlife and companion animal medicine and surgery, including primary and emergency care, shelter medicine, and hurricane rescue. Obtained a PhD in Molecular Medicine (2009, LSU, USA) with postdoctoral training at human and veterinary hospitals in Belgium and USA, on topics in endocrinology, biochemistry and microbiology. Completed a standard residency program of the European College of Veterinary and Comparative Nutrition (ECVCN) at Ghent University, specializing in companion animal clinical and comparative nutrition. Until recently, she owned a veterinary practice in Belgium, copyedited scientific manuscripts, and consulted industry in animal nutrition and biomedicine. Currently holds a position of Scientific Communication Manager at the Nestle Purina EMENA Headquarters in Barcelona, Spain.

Orphan feeding and nutrition of the orphan kitten and puppy, birth to weaning

Galena Quist Rybachuk, PhD, Res. ECVCN

Orphaned puppies and kittens, first and foremost, should be stabilized, and thus, treated for hypothermia, dehydration and hypoglycemia, as well as receive a complete physical examination (e.g. parasites, ocular and respiratory infections, wounds or any congenital malformations) before being fed. While warming up, warm water with electrolytes and sugar are the first in nutritional support neonate should receive. In severely hypovolemic patients, initial shock doses (30-45 ml/kg dogs or 20-30 ml/kg cats) of balanced crystalloid (lactated Ringer’s or 0.9% NaCl), ideally administered IV (peripheral or central), can be used. Rehydration is achieved slower via subcutaneous route, but it’s often the only option. Oral rehydration is contraindicated in hypothermic patients. Orogastric feeding tube, 5 or 8 French red rubber, or voluntary oral intake can be used only if neonate is normothermic and minimally dehydrated. Normal stomach volume is approximately 4 to 5 ml per 100 g body weight (Macintire, 1999; Little, 2013). Maintenance fluid requirement of neonates (120-180 ml/kg/day) is much higher than in older pediatric patients or adults due to higher surface to weight ratio, lack of body fat, higher metabolic rate, increased respiratory rate and thus, loses, and higher extracellular fluid content (Macintire, 2008; Hoskins, Fluid therapy in the puppy and kitten, 1995). Hypoglycemia complicated by inefficient hepatic gluconeogenesis, immature glucose feedback and decreased glycogen stores can result in neurodegeneration and cardiovascular collapse since brain and myocardium depend on carbohydrate metabolism in a neonate (Boluyt, 2006). Dextrose is administered buccally (0.5–1.5 mL/kg of 50% dextrose) or as 2.5%–5% in IV fluids (Lee, 2015; Davidson, 2014). The subsequent steps will require finding a caretaker, setting up enclosure, selecting the milk replacer and gradual initiation of nutritional support avoiding complications such as commensal infections, diarrhea, aspiration pneumonia, and refeeding syndrome. The first 2 days are critical. Foster queen or bitch are ideal caretakers, but not often available. Successful foster mother, will accept the neonate immediately allowing them to nurse, but the interaction and weight gain should be monitored closely in the first days. Human foster parents raise most orphan kittens and puppies. Conversely, majority of puppy and kitten neonatal deaths are not due to infectious diseases, but rather to caregiver error due to inadequate knowledge. Incorrect feeding and husbandry techniques, delay in identifying a problem or providing treatment result in reduced survival. Motherless kittens and puppies have vital requirements, they need to be kept warm, clean, and on safe bedding, be fed properly and stimulated to urinate and defecate, as well as be well socialized.

In home environment, a plastic container with sides deep enough for the neonate not to reach the edge with front paws is ideal, as it is easily cleaned and draft free. The box should be dry and warm, that easily accomplished by placing an electric heating pad set on low under half of the box. This way the neonate can crawl away from the heat if needed. Neonates, rely on brown fat, each other, and environment for thermogenesis, and do not have shiver reflex in the first week of life. If using the incubator, 29ºC for the first week of life, 26.5ºC for the next 2 weeks and room temperature of 24ºC until weaning can be used. Humidity of over 55% is needed as less humidity is dehydrating. Notably, the glomerular filtration rates are 20% of those of adult increasing to 50% by 2 months. The bedding should be soft, absorbent, and safe, that the sharp baby nails do not get caught in it and baby can’t get entangled in the folds of the material. So, towels are not a good idea, but fleece or flannel work well. A small plush toy is a good buddy for neonates that do not have a sibling. Bedding should be changed and cleaned frequently. Puppy enclosures are more challenging to keep clean. Once puppies are older, a large wire crate or a plastic kid pool with baby exercise pens around it can keep puppies contained and can be easily cleaned. When disease transmission across litters is not a concern, such as in home fostering of a single litter, soap and warm water are the best cleaning agents to avoid transdermal absorption of toxins or respiratory irritants from disinfectants.

Feeding – how frequently To determine how often a neonate should be fed, the age should be roughly determined. Puppy eyes start opening and ears unfolding at 1 week and are fully open at about 2 weeks of age, while kittens’ are a bit earlier. Kitten baby incisors will come in at about 2 weeks of age. Wobbly walking only starts at 3 weeks at the same time as canine teeth start to appear. In kittens, incisor and canine needle sharp primary teeth are out by 4 weeks and premolars by 6 weeks. In puppies, the incisors erupt around 4 weeks and premolars at 5 weeks, but all are out by 6 weeks of age. Kittens that are not malnourished can also be aged by weight, counting 50 to 150 grams for week one, adding 100 grams for each additional week of life. In the first week of life, frequent small meals should be offered every 2 hours including through the night. At one week of age, the feedings can be reduced to every 3 hours, and 1 more hour added for each additional week of life. Depending on the brand of milk replacer used, the amounts to feed and feeding frequency recommendations can vary. Generally, if the neonates belly is excessively distended after the feeding, the feeding frequency should be increased and the amount fed at each feeding decreased. Overfeeding at each meal can result in diarrhea and deadly dehydration or enteritis. Lengthy periods between feeding result in hypoglycemia, poor weight gain, and suckling on neonates own or littermates genitals for drops of urine, the latter leading to euthanasia in severe cases. Neonates that did not receive colostrum are at higher risk for illnesses. Kittens may receive as much as 25% of maternally derived antibodies via placental transfer, while puppies about 5 to 10% (Day, 2007). Gastrointestinal tract is no longer permeable to passive transfer after 1 day

37 of life. Antibodies can be provided by cross-matched serum from vaccinated adult orally within 24 hours, or subcutaneously thereafter, at 15 ml per kitten or 22 ml/kg for puppies, split in boluses every 12 hours (Levy, 2001). Some manufacturers add bovine or avian colostrum to the milk replacer to bridge the period until immune system maturation.

Feeding –what and how much For suckling neonates, the optimum nutrition is provided by the mother of the same species who herself is consuming adequate amounts of a balanced diet fulfilling her needs. The milk replacers have to match closely the milk composition of the respective species. Complete milk analysis have been investigated for domestic cat and dog (Adkins, 1997; Jacobsen, 2004; Debraekeleer, 1998). The minimum requirements and the recommended allowances for protein and amino acids are available for puppies from 4 weeks of age (NRC). For fats, vitamins, and minerals, the NRC makes recommendations only for growing puppies > 14 weeks of age. Although, cow and goat milk are too high in lactose compared to bitch’s milk, the homemade formulas can be used in emergency until a commercial diet is acquired. Commercial diets offer more balanced nutrition, but are still being improved by the manufacturers. A 2014 study comparing 15 commercial milk replacers to nutrient concentration in 5 samples of dog milk, found that none of the milk replacers were close match to dog milk (Heinze, 2014). Out of 21 essential nutrients analyzed, 11 to 18 were outside the range for dog milk, while over half of all nutrients did not match the dog milk ranges. Out of 3 milk replacers with the closest match, excess linoleic acid, low energy density, inappropriate Ca to P ratio and no measurable DHA were of concern. The feeding instructions did not match the necessary energy intake. So, adherence to feeding directions could easily lead to substantial over- or underfeeding. The study of the milk replacers use in large breed dogs, also showed that the protein and fat content was lower than dog milk and vitamin D was threefold higher (Corbee, 2012). Nutrient deficiency can result in significant abnormalities. For example, shortages in tryptophan, niacin, or taurine lead to cataract development (Frankel, 2001; Ranz D, 2002; Lange, 2017). In other words, while commercial diets strive to match the dog milk composition and provide the feeding recommendations, the progress of each animal should be monitored closely individually and the intake adjusted accordingly. Nutritional assessment of the orphan pup and kitten is based on weight gain, physical examination, and age appropriate activity levels as there are no standardized growth charts or body condition scoring available for nursing neonates. Nutrients requirements guidelines are guidelines are limited due to limitations in available research, but various formulas available for determining neonate’s energy requirements (e.g. 20-26 kcal/100g BW/day for pups and 15-25 kcal/100g BW/day for kittens). The period from birth to weaning is the time of anatomical, microbial and functional development of the feline and canine gastrointestinal tract. Sterile gastrointestinal tract is colonized right after birth and approximately 15% of foster kittens die before 8 weeks of age due to enteritis. Out of numerous infectious agents that can be the cause, the role of commensals and

opportunistic bacterial pathogens of the diverse enteric microbiome is strongly suspected (Ghosh, 2013). Supplementing probiotics can boost immune system, improving response to vaccinations. Feeding – how Refeeding syndrome’s key prerequisite is prolonged nutritional deprivation. It has been shown in human preterm babies and other failing to thrive pediatric patients (Ross, 2013). The key features are the glucose metabolism abnormalities, disturbances in body-fluid distribution, hypophosphatemia, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, and thiamine deficiency upon reinstitution of nutrition in malnourished patients. In neonatal patients, the serum biochemical profiles and vitamin B status evaluation may not be always feasible, due to difficult venous access in toy puppies and kittens as well as costs. Empirically, the solution is to mix the first few feedings with balanced electrolyte solution instead of water and administer vitamin B complex. Neonates’ first meals should be less-rich formula mixture to allow gentle adjustment and to prevent diarrhea, by using an increased water-to-formula ratio of 1:10 at the first feeding. Then, the amount of formula-to water ratio can be gradually reduced for each subsequent feeding until reaching the amount specified on the product label over a course of a day or two. Thereafter, the formula should be made consistently in the same way and care taken to follow manufacturer’s instructions and not make it too concentrated or too dilute, to avoid diarrhea or malnutrition, respectively. Enough formula should be mixed to last for 1 day refrigerated. Immediately prior to feeding, best to warm the formula in hot water bath to avoid denaturing the nutrients in the microwave or by overheating. The milk should be offered at the animal’s body temperature, 38C. Switching formulas should be avoided to prevent onset of diarrhea. Some pet nipples do not have premade opening. A hot needle can be used to melt a hole in the nipple. The opening should allow milk to slowly drip out of the bottle when held upside down. Too large opening will risk aspiration, too small will require too much effort to suckle. Note: formula should never be squeezed from the bottle into the baby’s mouth! The milk should be fed slowly and never forced. To reduce the chance of aspiration pneumonia and to stimulate the development of suckling reflex to this unfamiliar for a kitten object, it is easier to use a 1cc syringe with a catac nipple attached to it for initial feedings. In author’s experience, rarely kittens can be safely started on a bottle in the first days of life. As both the kitten and the foster parent climb a steep learning curve of the feeding process over several feedings, the neonate can be transitioning to 3 cc, 5 cc and even 12 cc syringes and ultimately a bottle. Syringes allow the neonate to use his suction of the suckling to pull the syringe plunger as milk is delivered without aerophagia or the need to break suction to let the air back in the bottle. The caretaker can, in a highly controlled fashion, gently push on the plunger to put a few drops of milk in baby’s mouth to entice swallowing and suckling, encouraging and stimulating feeding. Resist the temptation to squeeze the bottle in baby’s mouth, it will inevitably lead to aspiration. Similarly, when feeding an orphan puppy, starting with a syringe and a nipple attached for smaller breeds is safest. Larger breed puppies, can eagerly pull the unsecured nipple of the syringe, so the pet or baby human feeding bottles may be more appropriate. Using a glass bottles prevents the caretaker from forcing the milk into pup’s mouth. The learning curve with a bottle may take longer and the intake at each feeding

39 should be clearly recorded to avoid malnourishment. Determining the exact amounts consumed when fed with bottles is difficult as gradation on bottles is not in small increments and printed milliliter lines easily fade after a couple of washes. Getting the weight of the bottle or the baby before and after on a kitchen scale (1 g is about 0.97 ml of milk) or using a large syringe to measure consumption is best. Some babies do not have adequate suckling reflex soon enough or are too malnourished to ingest adequate quantities of formula. The tube feeding via orogastric tube can be safely and easily done to replace a few feedings until the neonate is strong enough to sustain suckling. The tube should be measured from the last rib to the tip of the nose with the head extended and marked at this point. Inserting the tube at this length, with the head now flexed, ensures it is in the stomach and not the lungs or the esophagus, but instilling a few milliliters of water first, before administering formula is a good habit. Kink the tubing to avoid introducing air if using several syringes to administer formula and when removing the tube to avoid aspiration. It is easier for the first feedings to keep the neonate in sternal recumbency at caretaker’s chest level on the table, for example, onto and covered with a soft blanket, for ease of observation so proper technique can be learned. The head can be cradled in the palm of the hand and slightly elevated, but neck should be flexed, not overextended. The nipple placed straight into baby’s mouth, so the air is not sucked in with the milk. Caution should be exercised to prevent neonate from getting too cold during the feeding, especially if milk is spilled over his chest and front paws. Until 3 weeks of age, the neonates should be stimulated to defecate and urinate after each feeding by gently touching a piece of damp (warm water) cotton wool to their perineum. The general steps of the feeding process are preparing the formula and supplies, elimination, weighing, feeding, burping, weighing and perhaps another feeding and elimination. Check genital area for diarrhea or evidence of suckling by siblings. Daily record of neonates weight should be kept. As a rough estimate, they should gain their birth weight every week until weaning or 2.5 -5 gm per kg of anticipated adult weight each day. If baby has aspirated, the milk will come through his nostrils. Immediately, all milk has to be aspirated out of the nostrils with a human baby nose aspirator. Ideally, the neonates head should be below his body to help gravity keep the milk out of his lungs. Aspirated baby needs close monitoring over the next 24 hours. If clicking noise is heard upon respiration (well in advance of labored breathing), the intensive medical therapy for aspiration pneumonia should be initiated immediately. Puppy or kitten food can be introduced at 3 to 4 weeks of age, by offering a gruel of food mixed with milk replacer in a flat dish (for easy access and to prevent drowning). Water should also be offered. Smearing a bit of food onto neonates’s lips can entice them to lick the food. Neonates chin or front paw can be gently nudged into the gruel for the first taste, taking care not to get any food around the nostrils. By the age of 6 weeks orphan kitten and puppies can be completely weaned. Change in texture, bulk of the ingesta, exposure to new protein, carbohydrate and fat sources are stressful for the GI. Rapid introduction of solid food can negatively affect the microbial population or lead to dehydration. The first litter box for kittens should contain litter safe to ingest, so no clumping litter! The

paper-based litter is ideal. If few other toys are available, the kittens will play in the litter, so adequate space to play, toys to play with and socialization with other pets or humans should be provided. Puppies are harder to keep clean. When they are large enough and stable on their legs, frequent trips out are best. A pee pad is easiest, but they may play with and ingest the plastic lining, so newspaper, a safer solution. In case of onset of diarrhea, rule out, overfeeding, too rich formula or weaning diet, and intestinal microbial imbalance or parasites (toxocara, ascarids, helicobacter, spirochetes, trichomonas, coccidia and toxoplasma). Other feeding complications may include lack of suckling reflex, aspiration pneumonia, lack of adequate weight gain, constipation (no bowel movement for 2 days), failure to thrive, and infections, such as herpesvirus and panleukopenia. This constituted a brief summary of most important consideration in rearing orphan puppies and kittens from birth to weaning. Additional information on feeding orphan kittens and puppies is readily available (Iben, 1994; Abrams-Ogg, 2006; Hoskins, 2001; Johnston, 2001; NKC, 2017).

References Abrams-Ogg, A. (2006). Hand-rearing newborn puppies and kittens. In K. Mathews, Veterinary emergency and critical care manual. Guelph, Ontario: Lifelearn. Adkins, Y. Z. (1997). Changes in nutrient and protein composition of cat milk during lactation. Am. J. Vet. Res, 58:370–375. Boluyt, N. v. (2006). Neurodevelopment after neonatal hypoglycemia: a systematic review and design of an optimal future study. Pediatrics , 117:2231-2243. Corbee, R. J. (2012). Composition and use of puppy milk replacers in German Shepherd puppies in the Netherlands. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 96: 395–402. doi:10.1111/j.14 Davidson, A. (2014). Neonatal resuscitation: Improving the outcome. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract , 44:191-204. Day, M. (2007). Immune system development in the dog and cat. J Comp Pathol , 137(Suppl 1):S10- 15. Debraekeleer, J. ( 1998). Comparative analysis of milk replacers for puppies and kittens. . Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 80: 185–193. doi:10.1111/j.1439- 0396.1998.tb00525.x Frankel, D. J. (2001). Malnutrition-induced cataracts in an orphaned kitten. The Canadian Veterinary Journal, 42(8), 653–654. Ghosh, A. B. (2013). Mortality in Kittens Is Associated with a Shift in Ileum Mucosa-Associated Enterococci from Enterococcus hirae to Biofilm-Forming Enterococcus faecalis and Adherent Escherichia coli. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 51(11), 3567–3578. Retrieved from http://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00481-13 Heinze, C. R. (2014). Comparison of the nutrient composition of commercial dog milk replacers with that of dog milk. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 244(12): 1413– 1422. Hoskins, J. (1995). Fluid therapy in the puppy and kitten. In R. Kirk, Current Veterinary Therapy XII (pp. 34-37). Philadelphia: Saunders. Hoskins, J. (2001). Nutrition and nutritional problems. In J. Hoskins, Veterinary pediatrics: dogs and cats from birth to six months. St. Louis: Saunders/Elsevier. Iben, C. e. (1994). Handrearing of orphaned puppies and kittens. J Nutr. Jacobsen, K. D. (2004). Influences of stage of lactation, teat position and sequential milk sampling on the composition of domestic cat milk (Felis catus) . J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr., 88:46–58. Johnston, S. R. (2001). The neonate: from birth to weaning. In S. R. Johnston, Canine and feline theriogenology. St Louis: Saunders/Elsevier. Lange, R. R.-F. (2017). Cataracts and strabismus associated with hand rearing using artificial milk formulas in Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris spp tigris) cubs. Open Veter. Lee, J. C. (2015, February ). Pediatric Critical Care, Part 2—Monitoring & Treatment. Retrieved from cliniciansbrief.com:

http://www.cliniciansbrief.com/sites/default/files/attachments/CE_Pediatric%20Critical%20C are%20Part%202.pdf Levy, J. C. (2001). Use of adult cat serum to correct failure of passive transfer in kittens. JAVMA , 219:1401-1405. Little, S. (2013). Playing mum: Successful management of orphaned kittens. J Feline Med Surg, 15:201-210. Macintire, D. (1999). Pediatric intensive care. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract, 29:971-988. Macintire, D. (2008). Pediatric fluid therapy. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract, 38: 621-627. NKC, N. K. (2017, February). Launching and operating a successful kitten nursery: a review of approaches and practices for animal shelters and rescue organizations. Retrieved October 10, 2017, from kittencoalition.org: http://kittencoalition.org/wp- content/uploads/2017/03/KittenNurseryManual02.pdf Ranz D, G. F. (2002). Nutritional lens opacities in two litters of newfoundland dogs. J. Nutr, 132:1688–1689. Ross, J. F. (2013). Refeeding syndrome in very-low-birth-weight intrauterine growth-restricted neonates. Journal of Perinatology , 33:717–720. doi:10.1038/jp.2013.28

Name: Cecilia Villaverde

Short CV:

Obtained her veterinary degree in 2000 and a PhD in animal nutrition in 2005 by the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB). She worked as a post doctoral researcher at the University of California Davis (UCD), where she also completed a residency in small animal clinical nutrition. She is board certified in veterinary nutrition by the American College of Veterinary Nutrition (ACVN®) and by the European College of Veterinary and Comparative Nutrion (ECVCN) since 2010, and is president of ECVCN since 2016.She was an adjunct professor at the Departament de Ciència Animal i dels Aliments (UAB) and the chief of service of the teaching hospital nutrition service (UAB) form 2010 to 2016. After working as faculty at the Nutrition Support Service at UCD for one year she is now a consultant in clinical nutrition for Expert Pet Nutrition (www.expertpetnutrition.com) and Veterinary Information Network (VIN).

Feeding and nutrition of the dog: from young adult to geriatric Cecilia Villaverde Expert Pet Nutrition, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland

Introduction Feeding healthy dogs requires the provision of a diet that is specific (for dogs), adequate (complete and balanced), safe (free of contaminants, toxins, and pathogens), and palatable. This diet must be fed in sufficient amounts to maintain a stable body weight (BW) and an ideal body condition score (BCS).

Energy requirements There are a variety of formulas that provide the energy requirements of adult dogs, see NRC (2006). FEDIAF (2017) and Gross et al. (2010), depending on the lifestyle, age, and breed of the dogs. These formulas are all empirical and based on metabolic BW (kg0.75) and they have an associated error that can be very high. These equations are for daily energy requirements, thus including basal metabolic rate, thermogenesis, thermic effect of food, and physical activity. Effect of breed Some breeds are prone to obesity, which suggests that there might be differences in either their drive to eat (which has been shown in Labrador Retrievers by Raffan et al., 2016) or their energy requirements. Effect of neutering Neutering is clearly a risk factor for obesity (Larsen and Villaverde, 2016. It has been suggested that sterilization results in an increased food and energy intake (Jeusette et al., 2004), but there is no clear described effect on basal metabolic rate. Neutering seems to have an effect on voluntary physical activity (Schauf et al., 2016), which could be the drive for the lower energy needs described in castrated dogs (Bermingham et al., 2014; Thes et al., 2016). Effect of activity In the above mentioned meta-analysis, Bermingham et al. (2014) found that racing dogs had higher energy requirements than pet and kennel dogs, with working and hunting dogs falling in the middle. Effect of age Even though some studies have found that older dogs have lower energy requirements than young adults (Thes et al., 2016), the Bermingham et al. (2014) did not identify this finding, but likely due to the small sample size. Obesity is more common in middle aged dogs vs young adults, which supports the theory that older dogs have lower energy needs, likely

related to lower physical activity. Moreover, osteoarthritis, a disease that decreases physical activity, is common in older dogs. |FEDIAF (2017) gives different recommendations for 3 age groups: 1-2, 3-7, and older than 7, where the kcal/kg0.75 are 130, 110, and 95 respectively.

Nutrient requirements The diet must provide all required essential nutrients by adult dogs; 41 according to the NRC (2006) and 38 according to FEDIAF (2017); above the minimum requirement and below any safe upper limit (or a legally determined maximum). Nutrients should be in balance with each other when required and they should be balanced with the energy density of the diet. Thus, when the dog eats the energy required to maintain a stable BW, all nutrient requirements will be met in those amounts. Non-essential nutrients commonly included in dog food include starch (source of energy), fiber (effects on satiety and intestinal tract function), and some functional ingredients. Regarding macronutrients, there is no ideal macronutrient profile (protein/fat, carbohydrates) described, as long as minimum needs for protein and fat are met (carbohydrates are not considered an essential nutrient in non-reproducing dogs) and the maximums are not exceeded. There is no maximum described for protein, but there is for fat, associated to the risk of pancreatitis. The effect of aging on nutrient requirements (separated from energy) is controversial, and there are at this point no general recommendations for senior pets vs young adults. Larsen and Farcas (2014) have a good review on this topic

Feeding protocols for adult dogs A complete nutritional evaluation (Freeman et al., 2011) has to be performed in each patient at each visit in order to identify factors that might affect energy and nutrient needs. Information from the signalment (breed, age, sexual status), history (activity, temperament, vomiting/diarrhea, presence of diseases, medications), and physical exam (BCS, muscle condition score, skin and coat condition, diagnostic of new diseases) will all give pertinent information to decide on the best feeding plan. The WSAVA has a nutrition toolkit (www.wsava.org/nutrition-toolkitnutrition) with BCS charts, muscle condition score charts, diet history forms, etc. to help us perform this. Amount to feed This will be determined by energy needs. Pet food companies give their gram recommendations based on these or other equations. In any case, this is a starting point and the amount fed will require adjustment (initially every 2 weeks, monthly after) to ensure a stable BW and an ideal BCS. One study found that Labradors that were maintained at a BCS of 4/9 lived longer and health issues appeared later compared to a control group with a BCS of around 6/9 (Kealy et al., 2002). Neutering is considered to decrease energy needs by 20-30%. This should be instituted right after the surgery. If the owners wish it, a percentage (maximum 10%) of the daily calories can be used to feed treats or unbalanced food items. A high amount of

47 treats/table scraps/extras can result in excess energy intake and nutrient dilution. Diet choice There are thousands of diets in the marked, made by hundreds of companies. The WSAVA has a document aimed for pet owners to help them navigate this complex market in their toolkit (http://www.wsava.org/sites/default/files/Recommendations%20on%20Selecting%20Pet%20 Foods.pdf). Price alone does not determine the quality of a diet, and some diets are very expensive based on ingredient-based marketing and little investment in science and research. There are several maintenance diets with further specialization, such as sensitive skin/stomach, breed specific, size specific, etc. There are no official recommendations on many of these items, but that does not mean that these diets only exist for marketing reasons and are without merit. These diets will differ in ingredients, fiber amount and type, macronutrient composition, digestibility, presence of omega 3 fatty acids, etc. It is important to consider all the groups of diets that make up the adult maintenance market and familiarize ourselves with their characteristics. This will allow customization when recommending a pet food for an adult dog. In short, choose a diet that is complete for adult dogs, that is from a reputable company, and that has nutritional and energy characteristics that adjust to the lifestyle and other characteristics of the dog and its owners. As circumstances change, diet changes might be necessary, which will be noted with subsequent nutritional evaluations. Feeding method The main feeding methods are ad libitum (food always available) or portion control (by time or by amount). Ad libitum feeding is easy and convenient, but is only recommended in cases where the adult dog is able to self-control their energy intake to maintain an ideal BCS. Portion control by amount is the best method to maintain a proper oversight on food intake and prevent undesired weight gain, but it is more cumbersome. Follow up Healthy adult dogs should be seen by their veterinarian at least once a year, and a nutritional evaluation performed at each visit to identify any items that can be caused by an inadequate feeding plan (such as obesity) or that can be managed by diet.

References Bermingham, E.N., Thomas, D.G., Cave, N.J., Morris, P.J., Butterwick, R.F., and German, A.J., 2014. Energy requirements of adult dogs: a meta-analysis. PLoS One 14 9:e109681. FEDIAF (Fédération européenne de l’industrie des aliments pour animaux familiers), 2017. Nutritional Guidelines for Complete and Complementary Pet Food for Cats and Dogs. www.fediaf.org/self-regulation/nutrition) Freeman, L., Becvarova, I., Cave, N., MacKay, C., Nguyen, P., Rama, B., Takashima, G., Tiffin, R., van Beukelen, P., Yathiraj, S., 2011. WSAVA Nutritional Assessment Guidelines Task Force. WSAVA Nutritional Assessment Guidelines. Compend Contin Educ Vet 33:E1-9. Gross, K.L., Yamka, R.M., Khoo, C., Friesen, K.G., Jewell, D.E., Schoenherr, W.D., Debraekeleer, J., and Zicker, S.C., 2010. Macronutrients. In: Hand, M.S., Thatcher, C.D., Remillard, R.L., Roudebush, P., and Novotny, B.J. (eds.) Small Animal Clinical Nutrition (5th ed). Mark Morris Institute, Topeka, KS, USA, pp.49-105. Jeusette, I., Detilleux, J., Cuvelier, C., Istasse, L., Diez, M., 2004. Ad libitum feeding following ovariectomy in female Beagle dogs: effect on maintenance energy requirement and on blood metabolites. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr 88:117-21. Kealy, R.D., Lawler, D.F., Ballam, J.M., Mantz, S.L., Biery, D.N., Greeley, E.H., Lust, G., Segre, M., Smith, G.K., Stowe, H.D., 2002. Effects of diet restriction on life span and age-related changes in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 220:1315-20. Larsen, J.A., Farcas, A., 2014. Nutrition of aging dogs. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 44:741- 59. Larsen, J.A., Villaverde, C., 2016. Scope of the Problem and Perception by Owners and Veterinarians. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract.46:761-72. NRC (National Research Council), 2006. Nutrient Requirements of Dogs and Cats. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, USA. Raffan, E., Dennis, R.J., O'Donovan, C.J., Becker, J.M., Scott, R.A., Smith, S.P., Withers, D.J., Wood, C.J., Conci, E., Clements, D.N., Summers, K.M., German, A.J., Mellersh, C.S., Arendt, M.L., Iyemere, V.P., Withers, E., Söder, J., Wernersson, S., Andersson, G., Lindblad-Toh, K., Yeo, G.S., O'Rahilly, S., 2016. A Deletion in the Canine POMC Gene Is Associated with Weight and Appetite in Obesity-Prone Labrador Retriever Dogs. Cell Metab. 23:893-900. Schauf, S., Salas-Mani, A., Torre, C., Bosch, G., Swarts, H., Castrillo, C., 2016. Effect of sterilization and of dietary fat and carbohydrate content on food intake, activity level, and blood satiety- related hormones in female dogs. J Anim Sci. 94:4239-4250. Thes, M., Koeber, N., Fritz, J., Wendel, F., Dillitzer, N., Dobenecker, B., Kienzle, E., 2016. Metabolizable energy intake of client-owned adult dogs. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr 100:813- 9.

Feeding and nutrition of the cat: from young adult to geriatric

Ana Luísa Lourenço Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD), Vila Real, Portugal Email: [email protected]

Introduction

In feeding adult cats, nutritional goals are to maintain optimal physiological functions, thus, slow or prevent the progression of metabolic changes associated with aging, to enhance quality of life, to prevent disease and, if possible, to increase life expectancy. Although the “ideal” diet cannot be identified and probably differs from cat to cat, much is already researched and known as to what an adult cat’s diet concerns. It is thus essential to base nutritional decisions on the most solid scientific knowledge to be able to achieve these nutritional goals. In general, it is consensual to state that a suitable diet for a cat should be complete and balanced for this species, free from any chemical, biological or physical threat and palatable. Because if the cat does not eat the diet in adequate amounts, it does not matter how well formulated or safe it is, because then it is, by definition, not suitable.

Energy requirements

The cats ME requirements are often expressed per kg0.67 body weight (BW) because this seems to be the unit that better scales the metabolic rate in intraspecies comparison (NRC, 2006). Sometimes kg0.75 BW is used because it better scales the metabolic rate in interspecies comparison (Brody et al., 1934), and finally, for simplification purposes, and since there is not much variation in body size among cats, the energy requirements are often expressed by kg1 BW. In practice, any of these methods are valid, as long as the proper equation is used. The daily energy requirements expressed in metabolizable energy (ME) of an adult cat can be estimated based on different equations. Reliable estimation equations can be found in NRC (2006a) or in FEDIAF (2017a). More practical and easy to use equations can also be found in Gross et al. (2010). Reliable does not mean that they are exact when applied to a specific cat, since a quite different energy requirement can be observed in individual cats with similar characteristics and in similar conditions Gross et al. (2010), hence the individual variation can be quite high. Fitting the energy intake to the cat requirements might be a challenge, especially following neutering. Neutering is suggested to affect the energy balance of cats through 3 possible main effects (see German et al., 2006 and NRC, 2006 for references): lower the metabolic rate between neutered and entire individuals, disturbance of feeding behaviour leading to increased food intake, and decreased activity without a corresponding decrease in energy intake. Mitsuhashi et al. (2011) showed that neutering or spaying can reduce the energy requirement estimated by NRC (2006) by 25%. Wei et al. (2014) showed lower energy requirements and

changes in the concentration of hormones related to the energy metabolism (e.g, Ghrelin and leptin) as soon as 9 days after the neutering of male cats. Activity level and thermal adjustment also have an impact on energy expenditure and, as a result, seasonal variability can be high in cats, in particular in cats with outdoor access (Serisier et al. 2004). In older cats, overweight and obesity tend to be less prevalent and underweight more prevalent in comparison to younger cats (Scarlett and Donoghue, 1994). This observation seems to be in disagreement with the evidence that older cats have lower energy requirements due to lower activity and/or lower proportion of lean body mass i.e. less metabolic active tissue. The lower digestive capacity found in older cats might be one explanation for the observed body composition pattern in the cat population (Laflamme, 2005). The most practical way to assess the suitability of the energy intake of the cat is to evaluate its body condition with a validated scoring system. The body condition can be assessed using the scientifically validated 9-point scale body condition system (BCS) by Laflamme (1997), which is described in an accurate and easy way in FEDIAF (2017) and illustrated in the WSAVA chart. In cats, there is no well-determined specific breed effect on energy requirement, although domestic short hair cats frequently pop-up in literature as being obese prone (e.g. German et al. 2006). In accordance, the results of a study by Bjornvad et al. (2011) suggest that a BCS of 4/9 (instead of 5/9) should be used as ideal body posture for domestic short hair cats.

In conclusion, after an educated energy requirement is assessed, the daily allowance should then be adapted to maintain a steady and ideal body weight and body condition for each cat. This means that frequent follow up on body condition and body weight is needed to adjust the daily allowance to the specific needs of the individual cat.

Nutrient requirements

A diet for adult cats is considered to be complete when it includes all the nutrients known to be essential for an adult cats and balanced when those nutrients concentration per ME unit (usually expressed 100 or 1000 kcal) are equal or above the minimum required and lower that toxic levels for this species and this life stage. Guidelines for requirements in cats can be found in NRC (2006) or FEDIAF (2017).

Although not essential, carbohydrates (as source of energy and specifically glucose) and functional ingredients, e.g. fiber, are usually included in the cat’s diets. The first to provide energy the later for gut health purposes.

Aging is deﬁned as the progressive changes that occur after maturity in various organs, leading to a decrease in their functional ability (Armstrong & Lund, 1996). Although the aging process is considered to influence the nutritional requirement of the animal, specific nutritional guidelines for senior animals are not (yet) available. There are, at least, two main reasons why there are no specific nutritional guidelines for older cats: 1) genetic and environmental background of each animal has a major impact in aging, thus, chronological and physiological

51 ages do not always match; 2) there is quite some controversy on where and if nutritional guidelines should differ between older and younger adult healthy cats (see review Laflamme &. Gunn-Moore, 2014).

Probably due to their strict carnivore evolutionary nature cats developed an idiosyncratic metabolism and, with it, a peculiar dietary requirements when compared to many other species. This include specific amino acids (carnitine, arginine, taurine) and some vitamins (niacin, A, and D) (read for details Morris, 2002).

Protein Protein provides energy and is a source of nitrogen and essential amino acids. Signs of protein and amino acid deficiencies include lack of growth (in animals that are still growing), decrease in food intake, muscle wasting, hypoalbuminemia, skin and fur alterations, a decrease in essential plasma amino acid concentrations, among other signs. There are no known excess amount of protein that would cause an adverse effect when fed to adult healthy cats. Thus, there is no upper limit recommendation in the guidelines of NRC (2006) or FEDIAF (2017) for protein. Minimum protein and amino acid requirements in adult cats were established using mainly nitrogen balance studies and these were used by NRC (2006) and FEDIAF (2017) to establish protein and amino acids recommendations. Laflamme & Hanna (2013) fed adult cats 3 different dietary protein concentrations for 2 months. Their results showed that minimum protein intake to maintain a zero nitrogen balance was 2.1 g/kg 0.75, whereas the amount of protein to maintain lean body mass (LBM) was estimated to be 7.8 g/kg0.75. These researchers suggested that to maintain adequate muscle mass higher amount of protein than the recommended by NRC would be needed. Arginine is needed in sufficient amounts for the urea cycle. Cats are unable to synthesize significant quantities of ornithine or citrulline within the intestine and both are precursors to arginine synthesis (Armstrong et al., 2010). Although only reported with experimental diets, arginine deficiency can have dramatic effects in cats. High protein diets without arginine were reported to cause hyperammonemia in less than one hour, with severe signs of toxicity (i.e., vocalization, emesis, ptyalism, hyper activity, hyperesthesia, ataxia, tetanic spasms, extended limbs with exposed claws, apnea and cyanosis) and to cause death within two to five hours of intake (MacDonald et al., 1984). Taurine is a β-amino sulfonic acid, abundant as a free amino acid in the natural food of cats, such as small rodents, birds and fish. .Many species can use either glycine or taurine to conjugate bile acids into bile salts before they are secreted into bile. Cats can only conjugate bile acids with taurine. Three syndromes of taurine deficiency in cats have been well established: 1) feline central retinal degeneration, 2) reproductive failure and impaired fetal development and 3) feline dilated cardiomyopathy (Armstrong et al., 2010). Hearing loss, platelet hyperaggregation and impaired immune function have also been demonstrated.

Fat Fat, in addition to providing energy and fat soluble vitamins, also provides essential fatty acids. Typical signs of essential fatty acids deficiency in adult cats are dry coat and dandruff, mainly due to the linoleic acid role in the skin functional structure. Essential are polyunsaturated fatty acids, namely alpha-linolenic (C18:3 3), linoleic acid (C18:2 6), arachidonic (C20:4 6), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5 3), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6 3), that cannot be synthesized by the cat’s metabolism in enough quantities. Arachidonic acid. Arachidonic acid is considered essential for adult cats, but not for adult dogs, this is due to the fact that delta6 desaturase (Sinclair et al, 1979), the enzyme that converts alpha-linolenic into arachidonic acid, has low activity in cats (Morris, 2002). Both NRC and FEDIAF define minimum recommendations for adult cats but only NRC defines safe upper limits for total fat, linoleic acid, and arachidonic acid. The NRC upper limits were established as a precaution because no adverse effects of their excess have been described in cats.

Carbohydrates Although carbohydrates are not considered essential nutrients for adult cat’s (NRC, 2006), Like in other species, cat cells also metabolize glucose, which is metabolically essential, and when not obtained from the diet is synthesized from glucogenic amino acids (ketoacids), lactic acid or glycerol (Verbrugghe et al., 2012). If no carbohydrates are included in the diet, the energy requirements of the cat has to be provided solely by the protein and fat. The effect of such a diet in the long run is actually unknown, and although it would mimic the natural diet of the cat, one should keep in mind that nature’s goal is not a long and healthy life for the individual, but procreation and survival of the species. Thus, carbohydrates are frequently included in the diet of this species. This fact together with the low carbohydrates content found in the natural diet of the cat (Plantinga et al. 2011) generates a lot of controversy and gives a fertile ground for growth of misconceptions side by side with true facts. Cats have lower ability then other species to digest dietary starch. They lack salivary amylase (Morris et al. 1977; McGeachin & Akin 1979,), pancreatic amylase production is 5% of that in dogs and its production is relatively nonadaptive (Kienzle 1993a). Intestinal transport of sugar to the enterocyte seems to poorly adapt to the dietary carbohydrate content (Buddington et al. 1991). Nevertheless, cats can digest and absorb considerable amounts of well-cooked carbohydrates in their diet (Kienzle 1993b), this means cats can digest, absorb, and use carbohydrates obtained from the diet, in the amounts commonly used in commercial feline foods (20%–40% ME).

Vitamins Vitamin A or retinol occurs naturally only in animal tissue. Plants synthesize carotenoid substances that may hold some retinol activity (e.g., β-carotene). Omnivorous and herbivorous

53 animals can convert β-carotene to vitamin A; cats lack intestinal dioxygenase that cleaves β- carotene (vitamin A precursor to retinol, Armstrong et al. 2010). Two recent reports suggest that NRC (2006) safe upper limit for vitamin A might be too high due to skeletal, liver (Corbee et al., 2014) and renal (Corbee et al., 2017) pathogical changes that were observed in adult cats fed Vitamin A levels close to the safe upper limit. Vitamin D is not produced efficiently, under the influence of UV light, in the skin of cats, as in many other carnivores, due to an alternate pathway that rapidly metabolizes 7-dehydrocholesterol (Morris, 2002). Vitamin D is fairly ubiquitous in animal fats and primary vitamin D deficiency has been identified only in cats fed experimental diets (Armstrong et al. 2010). Niacin is not efficiently produced from tryptophan in cats (DaSilva et al. 1952) due to the activity of picolinic carboxylase, an enzyme in the catabolic pathway, that far exceeds the rate of niacin synthesis (Morris, 2002). Pyridoxine (vitamin B6) is part of all transaminases (Stryer, 1975) in the body, which are enzymes that are important in the catabolism of protein. Since cats obtain considerable amounts of energy from dietary protein, pyridoxine requirement of cats are relatively high.

Palatability and Digestibility

The most precisely formulated diet will only provide the required energy and nutrients if the cat is willing to eat it in the proper amounts and if the digestibility allows adequate absorption of those nutrients. Cats are very sensible to the aroma, size and texture of the diet. The preferences of a cat seem to be early shaped in life, thus a special attention should be given to the shaping of preferences by kittens, thus providing different food characteristics early in life (Bradshaw 2006). It is also known that aging in cats has a detrimental effect on digestibility (Laflamme 2005), thus, it is highly important to offer highly digestible diets to older cats. Careful observation is required to establish individual preferences.

Feeding management The eating behavior of cats favors small frequent feedings (Kane et al. 1981). Food always available (ad libitum) allows the mimic of this pattern. This it is not advisable when the cat cannot adjust the amount of food (energy) intake to its needs, leading to increases in its body condition. Also feeding wet food is not suitable for an ad libitum feeding strategy, due to bacterial overgrowth in the food when left at room temperature for longer periods. Thus, wet food will require quick and discrete meals. Portion control by amount is the best method to prevent overconsumption. In cats, any method or device that would allow several meals of a defined daily meal is welcome. Whether ad libitum or portion controlled it is advisable to keep track of the daily amount ingested to be able to relate the actual diet with the BCS or any health issue that the cat might develop.

References

Bradshaw JW, 2006. The evolutionary basis for the feeding behavior of domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) and cats (Felis catus). Journal of Nutrition, 136:1927S – 1931S. Gross KL, Yamka RM, Khoo C, Freisen KG, Jewell DE, Schoener WD, Debraekeleer J, Zicker SC. 2010a. Macronutrients, micronutrients: minerals and vitamins. In: Hand MS, ed. Small Animal Clinical Nutrition, 5th Ed. Topeka, Kan: Mark Morris Institute, pp 49 – 148. FEDIAF (Fédération européenne de l’industrie des aliments pour animaux familiers), 2017. Nutritional Guidelines for Complete and Complementary Pet Food for Cats and Dogs. www.fediaf.org/self- regulation/nutrition) NRC 2006. Chapter 15: Nutrient requirements and dietary nutrient concentrations. In: Nutrient Requirements of dogs and cats. National Academies Press, Washington, DC, USA, 2006c: 354 – 370. German AJ, 2006. The growing problem of obesity in dogs and cats. J Nutr; 1940S–6S. Journal of Nutrition 136:1940S – 1946S. Mitsuhashi Y, Chamberlin AJ, Bigley KE, Bauer JE, 2011. Maintenance energy requirement determination of cats after spaying. British Journal of Nutrition 106:S135–138. Wei A, Fascetti AJ, Kim K, Lee A, Graham JL, Peter J. Havel PJ, Ramsey JJ, 2014. Early Effects of Neutering on Energy Expenditure in Adult Male Cats. PLoS ONE 9: e89557. Serisier S, Feugier A, Delmotte S, Biourge V, German AJ, 2014. Seasonal Variation in the Voluntary Food Intake of Domesticated Cats (Felis Catus). PLoS ONE 9: e96071. Scarlett JM, Donoghue S, Saidla J, Wills J, 1994. Overweight cats: prevalence and risk factors. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 18:S22–S28. Laflamme DP, 2005. Nutrition for aging cats and dogs and the importance of body condition. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 35:713–742. Laflamme DP, 1997. Development and validation of a body condition score system for cats: a clinical tool. Feline Practice 25:13–18. Bjornvad CR, Nielsen DH, Armstrong PJ, McEvoy F, Hoelmkjaer KM, Jensen KS, Pedersen GF, Kristensen AT, 2011. Evaluation of a nine-point body condition scoring system in physically inactive pet cats. American Journal of Veterinary Research 72:433–437. Laflamme D, Gunn-Moore D, 2014. Nutrition of aging cats. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 44:761–774. Armstrong, PJ, Lund EM, 1996. Changes in body composition and energy balance with aging. Veterinary Clinical Nutrition. 3: 83–87. Armstrong PJ, Gross KL, Becvarova I, Debraekeleer J, 2010. Introduction to Feeding Normal Cats. In: Hand MS, ed. Small Animal Clinical Nutrition, 5th Ed. Topeka, Kan: Mark Morris Institute, pp 361 – 372. MacDonald ML, Rogers QR, Morris JG, 1994. Nutrition of the domestic cat, a mammalian carnivore. Annual Review of Nutrition 4:521-562. Morris JG, 2002. Idiosyncratic nutrient requirements of cats appear to be diet-induced evolutionary adaptations. Nutrition Research Reviews 15: 153 – 168. Sinclair AJ, McLean JG, Monger EA, 1979. Metabolism of linoleic acid in the cat. Lipids 14:932–936.

McGeachin RL, Akin J, 1979. Amylase levels in the tissues and body fluids of the domestic cat (Felis catus). Comp Biochem Physiol B 63: 437–439. Morris JG, Trudell J, Pencovic T, 1977. Carbohydrate digestion by domestic cat (Felis Catus). British Journal of Nutrition 37:365–373. Kienzle E, 1993. Carbohydrate metabolism of the cat 1. Activity af amylase in the gastrointestinal tract of the cat. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 69: 92–101. Kienzle E, 1993. Carbohydrate metabolism of the cat 2. Digestion of starch. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 69: 102–114. Buddington RK, Chen JW, Diamond JM, 1991. Dietary regulation of intestinal brushborder sugar and amino acid transport in carnivores. American Journal of Physiology 261: R793–801. Da Silva AC, Fried S, De Angelis RC, 1952. The domestic cat as a laboratory animal for experimental nutrition studies. III. Niacin requirements and tryptophan metabolism. Journal of Nutrition 46:399-409. Corbee RJ, Tryfonidou MA, Grinwis GCM, Schotanus B, Molenaar MR, Voorhout G, Vaandrager AB, Heuven HCM, Hazewinkel HAW, 2014. Skeletal and hepatic changes induced by chronic vitamin A supplementation in cats. The Veterinary Journal 202:503–509. Corbee RJ, 2017: Proceedings of the 20th International Conference of ESVCN. Conference held in Cirencester, 21-23 September 2017. Kane E, Rogers QR, Morris JG, Leung PMB, 1981. Feeding behavior of the cat fed laboratory and commercial diets. Nutrition Research 1: 499–507. Verbrugghe A, Hesta M, Daminet S, Janssens GP, 2012. Nutritional modulation of insulin resistance in the true carnivorous cat: a review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 52:172–182. Laflamme DP, Hannah SS, 2013. Discrepancy between use of lean body mass or nitrogen balance to determine protein requirements for adult cats. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery 15: 691– 697.

Further reading In addition, the World Small Animal Veterinary Association has developed several tools that can aid in nutritional assessment of the cat and can be downloaded from the Web site: http://www.wsava.org/nutrition-toolkit.

Name: Ronald Jan Corbee

Short CV

Ronald Jan Corbee graduated from vet school in Utrecht in December 2003. After several temporal positions in first line companion animal practice he was employed by Dierenkliniek ‘t Ossehoofd in Heerhugowaard, where he worked for 2 years as a veterinarian for companion animals. In December 2006 he opened his private practice; Dierenartsenpraktijk Schonauwen in Houten, which he sold in 2016. He passed the board certifying exam ECVCN in Zaragoza in September 2011. In March 2013 he was awarded the University Teaching Qualification. He successfully defended his PhD (Nutrition and the skeletal health of dogs and cats) in August 2014. At the moment he is employed as assistant-professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University.

Nutrition and dietetics of reproducing dogs and cats Ronald Jan Corbee Utrecht University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences of Companion Animals, Yalelaan 108, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands. Email:[email protected]

Prior to mating It is important for reproducing dogs and cats to be in ideal body condition. Unfortunately, almost 20% of show dogs and more than 45% of show cats are overweight (Corbee 2013, Corbee 2014). Suboptimal body condition results in decreased fertility, increased risks for complications during gestation, and reduces health and life expectancy of the offspring (Bilkei 1990, Lawler et al. 1999).

Gestation During gestation there are differences between dogs and cats, as neonatal growth of dogs occurs mostly during the 2nd phase of gestation, whereas in cats this already occurs in the 1st phase.

Dogs phase 1 During the first 4-5 weeks of gestation, bitches should maintain their body weight and ideal body condition score. An energy dense (>4 kcal Metabolizable Energy (ME) per g) food should be given that meets the nutrient requirements for early growth and reproduction (FEDIAF 2017), or is labelled as suitable for all life stages (EU legislation 767/2009/EC). Addition of docosahexaenoic acid (>0.19 g per 100 g) to the diet might improve learning ability, memory, and vision of the puppies (Heinemann et al. 2005, Heinemann and Bauer 2006). The energy requirements will be similar to the maintenance energy requirements (MER).

Dogs phase 2 From the 5th week of gestation, energy requirements of the bitch increase up to 150% of the MER, because of the rapid growth of the embryos. At the end of gestation, the bitch will have gained about 25% of body weight. Because of the increased abdominal fill, feeding multiple small meals of the energy dense diet mentioned earlier is recommended (Greco 2009).

Cats In cats, the growth of the embryos starts already in the first week of gestation. Energy requirements during gestation vary greatly among individual cats and gradually increase up to 200% of the MER (Wichert et al. 2009). An energy dense (>4 g kcal ME per g) food should be given that meets the nutrient requirements for early growth and reproduction (FEDIAF

2017), or is labelled as suitable for all life stages (EU legislation 767/2009/EC). Lactation Lactation is extremely demanding, and energy requirements go up to 4 times the MER (Greco 2014). Lactation peaks at 3-4 weeks in dogs and 3-7 weeks in cats, after which the milk production declines as the puppies and kittens are gradually weaned. Most bitches and queens will be in a negative energy balance despite ad libitum feeding of the energy dense diet as described above.

Weaning When puppies and kittens are weaned, the energy requirements of the bitch/queen gradually decrease. To prevent overweight conditions and to stop milk production, it is suggested to recommend the following schedule. On the day of total weaning make sure that the bitch/queen is away from the puppies/kittens without getting any food. On the second day, give one quarter of the MER, the next day half of the MER, the day thereafter three quarters of the MER and finally back to MER.

Further reading Bilkei, G., 1990. Effect of the nutrition status on parturition in the cat. Berliner und Munchener tierarztliche Wochenschrift 103(2): 49-51. Corbee, R.J., 2013. Obesity in show dogs. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 97(5): 904-910. Corbee, R.J., 2014. Obesity in show cats. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 98(6): 1075-1080. Greco, D.S., 2009. Nutritional Supplements for Pregnant and Lactating Bitches. Topics in Companion Animal Medicine 24(2): 46-48. Greco, D.S., 2014. Pediatric nutrition. Veterinary Clinics of North America - Small Animal Practice 44(2): 265-273. Heinemann, K.M., Waldron, M.K., Bigley, K.E., Lees, G.E., Bauer, J.E., 2005. Long-chain (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids are more efficient than alpha-linolenic acid in improving electroretinogram responses of puppies exposed during gestation, lactation, and weaning. Journal of Nutrition 135: 1960–1966. Heinemann, K.M., Bauer, J.E., 2006. Docosahexaenoic acid and neurologic development in animals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 228: 700–705. Lawler, D.F., Johnston, S.D., Keltner, D.G., Ballam, J.M., Kealy, R.D., Bunte, T., et al., 199. Influence of restricted food intake on estrous cyclesand pseudopregnancies in dogs. Am J Vet Res 60: 820– 825. Wichert, B., Schade, L., Gebert, S., Bucher, B., Zottmaier, B., Wenk, C., Wanner, M., 2009. Energy and protein needs of cats for maintenance, gestation and lactation. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery 11(10): 808-815.

Name: Géraldine Blanchard

Short CV

Géraldine BLANCHARD graduated from the Veterinary School of Alfort (ENVA, France) in 1994, interested in Equine Medicine, but even more in Nutrition.

First oriented to an Academic carrier, she passed the French board certification in nutrition in 1999, her PhD on Lipoprotein metabolism and Hepatic Lipidosis in Cats, and became Diplomate of the European College of Veterinary and Comparative Nutrition (ECVCN) in 2002.

From 1996, she developed Clinical Nutrition at ENVA, as an Assistant Professor, until 2006. After a semester as a Senior Lecturer in Australia (University of Queensland, Brisbane), she came back to France and launched a private consulting company, Animal Nutrition Expertise, a website to provide online nutrition service www.cuisine-a-crocs.com and a specialist consultation.

She was president of ECVCN (2010-2013), and is the current president of the Nutrition group of the French Association of Small Animal Vets (AFVAC). She also keeps running research in clinical nutrition in carnivores, with a special interest in homemade diets.

Feeding hunting dogs to facilitate maintenance and recovery

Géraldine Blanchard

Animal Nutrition Expertise sarl, Antony, France Email: [email protected]

Introduction Hunting a highly requesting for the dog’s body, as shown now by inflammation markers (Casella, 2011 ; Lucas, 2015). Hunting dogs, along with shepherd dogs, are probably the first dogs used and fed by humans, either with leftovers or with game. Historically sports dogs, understand hunting dogs, were probably the first dogs fed with petfood in Europe, in UK in the 19th century. By then, science has improved efficiency and adequacy of the food and nutrition skills of dogs, including hunting dogs, even if there is still a lot to be studied. But in practice, veterinarians are facing in everyday practice situations where hunting dogs suffer from unbalanced nutrition.

What specific nutrition requirements? Hunting dogs may use the highest capacity of dogs’ senses: strength, stamina, responsiveness, endurance, an amazing senses, especially hearing, vision and smell. All are related to the functionality of neurologic and muscular systems, both highly dependent of about 40 macro- and micronutrients: energy, protein and amino acids, fat and essential fatty acids, minerals and vitamins. * The maintenance of the body weight is linked to energy. Energy comes from lipids (3.5kcal/g), protein (3.5kcal/g) and carbohydrates (3.5kcal/g). But when a dog needs much more energy due to a physical effort, the best efficiently used source of energy if fat, and specifically saturated fat. Dogs have a fat metabolism really different from humans’ one, and can easily use a food where fat brings the major part of energy, the ultimate being high activity sled dogs, in the regimen of which fat may represent up to 80 % of energy! *Body condition and health, and muscle mass are influenced by energy intake, but also by the coverage of the protein requirement to maintain muscle. But protein and amino acids are also required for almost all biological functions: hair coat and skin, healing, immunity, digestion (thru secretions, digestive muscles and epithelium), and all senses including smell. A high protein diet (>25%energy from protein) have also been shown to be more effective in maintaining hematocrit and plasma volume and lowering injuries (Kronfeld 1989, Reynolds 1999). Micro-nutrients such as vitamins and trace elements are involved in most metabolisms, oxygen consumption and oxidation (and anti-oxydation) processes, and including neurology, which is specifically linked to reactivity but also to all senses, including vision, hearing and smell.

Minerals (calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, chloride, magnesium) are involved in growth, but also homeostasis and recovery and kidney balance, all requiring a minimal amount, but also with maximal limits for calcium and phosphorus (brought by bones), and balance between Ca and P (1< Ca:P ratio < 2 in the overall diet at all time of life).

High risk practices When fed only meat, or mainly carbs, the Ca:P ratio of the diet is between 0 and 1, and this induces secondary hyperparathyroidism, and may induce kidney failure. Jointly with dehydration encountered in dongs hunting a full day with no drinking water available, this situation explains the severe and acute renal failure encountered in young adults dogs… The coverage of all nutrient requirements should not be minimal in hunting dogs if one wants to preserve their health and make them express the best their hunting potential.

Are carbohydrates interesting between phases of intense exercise? This is controversial depending of the studies (Reynolds 1997 ; Huntingford 2014).

How to feed hunting dogs? To prevent nutrition-related disease due to unbalanced diets, dogs should first have their basic nutrition requirements covered, even during off season. In hunting season, the diet must be adapted to provide at least the minimal requirements for each and every nutrient, and the additional energy required by additional saturated fat rather than only unsaturated but more information is still required about the best amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids (Davenport 2001 ; Angle, 2014; Altom, 2003). So far, to prolonged and maximize the hunting efficiency, a diet providing more than the minimal amount of protein, essential fatty acids, vitamins and minerals should be recommended.

Various options may be used, here are 2 examples: - Change the diet for a high digestibility (digestibility of protein >85%) diet, with higher concentration of fat (>50% energy from fat), protein (>25% of energy from protein, >30% protein/dry matter), minerals, vitamins and trace elements, and lower % of carbohydrates, and a minimal amount of fiber to maintain digestive health. - An alternative is to add the regular maintenance diet a mix of (saturated fat + muscle meat + a mineral vitamin supplement with calcium, but no phosphorus, vitamins and trace elements +/- rapeseed oil depending of the basal diet).

Any change of diet must be progressive, and the amount of energy adapted to the activity to maintain a body condition score thin (4/9) but not skinny in season, and normal (5/9) off season.

Do not forget water! Activity increase water loss, but also metabolism turn over, which itself requires more water to drain wastes produced by the increased metabolism.

Conclusion Hunting dogs are fed variously, from the poorest possible diet to the best one. It may take a hunting dog several years of training to be efficient; And as an adapted nutrition has a long- term impact on health and capacities, nutrition shall be considered as a long term investment rather than a daily burden.

Further reading Ahlstrom O, Redman P, Speakman J. Energy expenditure and water turnover in hunting dogs in winter conditions. Br. J. Nutr. 2011 Br J Nutr. 2011; 106 Suppl 1:S158-61. Altom EK, Davenport GM, Myers LJ, Cummins KA. Effect of dietary fat source and exercise on odorant-detecting ability of canine athletes. Res Vet Sci. 2003; 75 (2):149-55. Casella S, Fazio F, Russo C, Giudice E, Piccione G. Acute phase proteins response in hunting dogs. J Vet Diagn Invest. 2013; 25 (5):577-80. Huntingford JL, Kirn BN, Cramer K, Mann S, Wakshlag JJ. Evaluation of a performance enhancing supplement in American Foxhounds during eventing. J Nutr Sci. 2014; 25; 3: e 24 Angle CT, Wakshlag JJ, Gillette RL, Steury T, Haney P, Barrett J, Fisher T. The effects of exercise and diet on olfactory capability in detection dogs. J Nutr Sci. 2014 13;3: e 44; Hill R. et al., Effect of mild restriction of food intake on the speed of racing Greyhounds. Am J Vet Res. 2005; 66 (6):1065-70. Kronfeld DS, Adkins TO & Downey RL (1989) Nutrition, anaerobic and aerobic exercise and stress. In Nutrition of Dog and Cat: Waltham Symposium, 1989, pp. 133-145 [IH Burger and JPW Rivers, editors]. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Reynolds AJ, Reinhart GA, Carey DP, Simmerman DA, Frank DA, Kallfelz FA. Effect of protein intake during training on biochemical and performance variables in sled dogs. Am J Vet Res. 1999; 60 (7):789-95. Lucas V, Barrera R, Duque FJ, Ruiz P, Zaragoza C. Effect of exercise on serum markers of muscle inflammation in Spanish Greyhounds. Am J Vet Res. 2015; 76 (7):637-43. Reynolds AJ, Carey DP, Reinhart GA, Swenson RA, Kallfelz FA. Effect of post-exercise carbohydrate supplementation on muscle glycogen repletion in trained sled dogs. Am J Vet Res. 1997;58(11):1252-6.

Tips and tricks for feeding enrichment in dogs and cats

Galena Quist Rybachuk

The goal of feeding enrichment is to strive for richer feeding as activity, not excess energy or unbalanced nutrition. Feeding is the moment of interaction with a human. If we are to modify this activity in any way, we first must consider the nutritional and emotional needs fulfilled by it. There has been a wealth of articles published on the topic of owner behaviour around feeding of pet dogs and cats. The most common interpretation is that owner’s affection and love is often pronounced through feeding. The relationship between the pet and the owner is complex, especially so around the feeding behavior. Food plays major role in the process of development of a close, interpersonal relationship, bonding. One of the strongest bonds in the animal kingdom is a feeding bond. Oxytocin release in the brain in response to sensory stimulation such as food intake and low intensity stimulation of the skin, e.g., touch, stroking, warm temperature, etc. contributes to every day wellbeing and our ability to handle stress (Uvnäs-Moberg, 2014). Vasopressin is another hormone involved in the bonding process. Owners’ feelings of “happiness” is based on the perception that the pet is enjoying the experience. The owners have certain criteria to evaluate the feeding enjoyment, consequently, their perception of a diet’s palatability, the amount of food consumed during a definitive period (Tobie et al 2015). These are the time it takes before pet is approaching the food – immediate attractiveness; the strength of animal’s motivation to eat – begging, bringing the food bowl; which food is preferred when several are offered; how much and how fast the pet eats; and for how long the food is left in the bowl. Treats are also used to show owners affection, to respond to begging and as a positive reinforcement to influence pet behavior. In one study (White at al 2016) of 280 pet owners in UK, 96% fed treats and almost 70% fed them daily, and correctly perceived treats as nutrition rather than a toy. What and how the pet is fed is influenced by owner’s beliefs about specific pet needs, pet food and pet health. Veterinarians and specialists in nutrition face challenges to promote science- based knowledge about pet needs, pet food and pet health. In the study by Downes at al (2017) owners reported that they have little control over feeding process as a result of multiple people feeding the pet, pet begging or stealing, and the pets attitude towards food. Overall, combination of owner’s belief about feeing and perceived control over the process influences the feeding behavior and thus, health outcomes for pet dogs and cats. The goal of food based enrichment is to prolong feeding times, challenge the mind and stimulate the senses through opportunity to explore novel items, taste and textures, and environments, reduce boredom, and give a level of control to both the owner and the pet. It can be used to promote healthy weight, transitioning to a new diet, rehabilitation following illness (weaning from tube feeding), forming better habits and behaviors (stop begging or finicky eating), etc.

There are many ways to make the feeding activity more enriching. For example, changes in feeding regime such as more frequent meals and varied feed offerings. Introducing the challenges to obtain the food, varied food dispensing – feeding toys, mats will shift owners joy of seeing the pet eating, to the joy of seeing him playing, learning and exploring. However, most enrichment tricks require transition from “human animal bonding moment” to “challenge of obtaining food”. So, as in the case of weight loss programs, owner must recognize the need for the major lifestyle change and be willing to make a commitment to change.

References

Downes, M. J., Devitt, C., Downes, M. T., & More, S. J. (2017). Understanding the context for pet cat and dog feeding and exercising behaviour among pet owners in Ireland: a qualitative study. Irish Veterinary Journal, 70, 29. http://doi.org/10.1186/s13620-017-0107-8

O’Haire, M. E., McKenzie, S. J., Beck, A. M., & Slaughter, V. (2013). Social Behaviors Increase in Children with Autism in the Presence of Animals Compared to Toys. PLoS ONE, 8(2), e57010. http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0057010

Uvnäs-Moberg, K., Handlin, L., & Petersson, M. (2014). Self-soothing behaviors with particular reference to oxytocin release induced by non-noxious sensory stimulation. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1529. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01529

Wichert, B., Trossen, J., Uebelhart, D., Wanner, M., & Hartnack, S. (2012). Energy Requirement and Food Intake Behaviour in Young Adult Intact Male Cats with and without Predisposition to Overweight. The Scientific World Journal, 2012, 509854. http://doi.org/10.1100/2012/509854

Tobie, C., Péron, F., & Larose, C. (2015). Assessing Food Preferences in Dogs and Cats: A Review of the Current Methods. Animals : An Open Access Journal from MDPI, 5(1), 126–137. http://doi.org/10.3390/ani5010126

White GA, Ward L, Pink C, Craigon J, Millar KM. (2016). "Who's been a good dog?" - Owner perceptions and motivations for treat giving. Prev Vet Med. Sep 15;132:14-19. doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2016.08.002

Name: Guido Bosch

Short CV

Guido Bosch is a researcher in the Animal Nutrition Group of Wageningen University, the Netherlands.

He obtained his PhD degree for his work on the influence of nutrition on behaviour in dogs. Currently, his main area of expertise is food evaluation research in pet, zoo and production animals.

His research is mainly focused on understanding the food properties that drive appetite and food intake behaviour and on the evaluation of nutritional and (dys)functional characteristics of (novel) foods and ingredients.

Furthermore, he has a strong interest in the evolutionary history and feeding ecology of animals, which may help to further understand the origin of their digestive physiological and metabolic idiosyncrasies and to improve their foods for health and longevity.

Natural feeding of the cat and dog and the idiosyncrasies of these carnivores

Guido Bosch1, Esther Hagen-Plantinga2, Wouter Hendriks1,2

1Wageningen University, Department of Animal Science,Wageningen, the Netherlands. 2Utrecht University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chair of Nutrition, Utrecht, the Netherlands. Email: [email protected], [email protected]

Introduction The domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris) and cat (Felis silvestris catus) share a long history of co-existence with humans that intensified over time. Many households consider their pet dogs and cats as family members and feed their pets commercially prepared foods that are, in general, nutritionally balanced and safe. The fundamental basis of formulating nutritionally complete foods lays in important studies that determined the minimal requirements of essential nutrients and maximal levels to prevent nutrient toxicity. These studies have also contributed to our current understanding of the digestive physiology and metabolism of both dogs and cats. A range of similarities but also differences between these species were revealed. Cats show various so-called “metabolic idiosyncrasies” that were suggested to reflect the carnivorous nature of cats (Morris, 2002). Dogs, however, do not or to a lesser extent show the idiosyncrasies and appear to be more similar with omnivores (e.g. man, pigs, rats) and have, therefore, been labelled as omnivorous in nature (Hand et al., 2010; NRC, 2006). However, the ‘omnivorous’ physiological and metabolic traits do not match with the carnivorous foraging ecology of the dog’s ancestor, i.e. the grey wolf (C. lupus). Here we consider the nutritional conditions of dog and cat evolution and domestication to understand these differences between dogs and cats. For further reading we refer to Bosch et al. (2015) and Plantinga et al. (2011).

Evolutionary and domestication history Although most modern-day dogs no longer look like wolves, the dog is a direct descendent of the grey wolf (Leonard et al., 2002; Vilà et al., 1997). Actually, dogs are a subspecies of wolves as they can still interbreed and produce fertile offspring. The process of wolf domestication started about 18,000 to 32,000 years ago (Thalmann et al., 2013). In this period, the first so- called ‘proto-dogs’ proved useful as guards and as hunters for the hunting-gatherers (Driscoll et al., 2009). Their diet switched from a wolf-diet, to one that was related to the diet of the hunting-gatherers. Between 13,000 and 17,000 it further changed to one related to the early agriculturists in the Fertile Crescent. For example, it was estimated that 65 to 90% of the diets of northern Chinese dogs living 9000 years ago were comprised of millet alone (Pechenkina et al., 2005). In another study focusing on in Siberia 7000 to 6000 years ago, similarities were found between the diets of dogs and humans, which were different from a wolf’s diet (Losey et al., 2011).

The domestication of cats starter later than for dogs (~10,000 years ago) (Driscoll et al., 2007). Furthermore, our modern cats originate from at least five distinctive subspecies of the wildcat (F. silvestris). It is believed that vermin like rodents and birds in houses, farms, and settlements attracted cats and humans valued them for their hunting capabilities. In contrast to dogs, modern-day cats still show remarkable resemblance, both in physique and behaviour, with their wild ancestors. Some researchers even state that cats are considered only a semi-domesticated species, because many populations are not isolated from wildcats and humans often do not control their food supply or breeding (Driscoll et al., 2009).

Natural feeding ecology Wildcats (F. silvestris) and feral/stray domestic cats are predominantly solitary and hunt individually catching a variety of mainly rodents (e.g. mice, voles) but also lagomorphs, birds reptiles and insects can be part of their diet. The small vertebrate preys are about 1% of the cat’s body mass. Larger prey and opportunistic feeding have been reported like for feral cats on Macquarie Island (Australia) where cats preyed on rabbits over 1300 g and scavenged on dead elephant seals (Mirounga leonina) and penguins particularly during Winter time (Jones, 1977). When preying on mice or voles, an adult cat would require about 18 mice or 8 voles every day (Bosch and Hendriks, 2014). These small prey species reach high population densities and remain fairly common and can support small carnivores like cats. The cat’s average dietary nutrient profile (protein-fat-carbohydrate) was estimated to be 52-46-2% by energy (Plantinga et al., 2011). In contrast to the sometimes assumed ‘omnivorous’ nature of dogs, modern-day wolves are carnivores with a varied but essentially animal-based diet and vegetal matter (nutritionally) being a minor to negligible component. Wolves predominantly live and hunt in packs on large ungulates but also opportunistically feed on smaller mammals (e.g. beavers, lagomorphs, rodents), birds, reptiles, fish, and insects. The amount of vegetal matter is low and composed out of grasses and various species of berries and nuts with a contribution to the total biomass consumed varying from 0.1% to 3% (Bosch et al., 2015). When large ungulates are killed, wolves in general first consume internal organs such as the liver and heart. The first feeding episodes can result in intakes of up to 22% of their body mass. Wolves do not consume the rumen contents but consume the rumen and intestinal walls. Wolves have a far lower kill rate than cats with estimates of 1 prey per 4 to 6 days depending on the type of prey (Bosch and Hendriks, 2014). Due to seasonal fluctuations, the interval between consecutive ungulate kills can be up to weeks. Given the large fluctuations in food availability, the lifestyle of wolves has been typified as ‘feast-or-famine’. The wolf’s average dietary nutrient profile (protein-fat- carbohydrate) was estimated to be 54-45-1% by energy (Bosch et al., 2015).

Carnivore idiosyncrasies For both dogs and cats an array of behavioural, digestive, physiological and metabolic traits has been shaped during their evolution as carnivores with their distinct feeding ecologies. Dogs

73 and cats possess centred eye vision to be able to accurately estimate the distance to prey items. Their dentition is typically carnivorous in nature, with well-developed carnassials for shearing, and canines and incisors for holding. Dogs also possess molars, which can be used to crush large bones (Biknevicius and Van Valkenburg, 1996) and provide access to the lipid-rich marrow. Their digestive tract is relatively short with a small or rudimentary caecum, showing adaptation to a highly digestible diet. The large intestine harbours an active microbial ecosystem, which is different in composition from omnivorous and herbivorous animals (Ley et al., 2008). On a diet consisting of animal tissue, the microbiota in their large intestine is typically adapted to fermentation of non-digestible (glyco)protein rich matter, such as cartilage, tendons, skin, hairs and feathers, with a relative overrepresentation of protein degrading bacteria like Clostridia, (e.g. Peptococci; Lachnospira) Fusobacteria and Proteobacteria (Beloshapka et al., 2013; Kerr et al., 2014). Especially in cats, consumption of a diet predominantly composed of animal tissue has led to several unique digestive and metabolic adaptations. These adaptations mostly consist of reduction of redundant enzymes and modification of enzyme activities. Cats have evolved around eating multiple small meals per day. This regular meal pattern assures a regular intake of nutrients typically present in animal material, leaving enzymes capable of producing these nutrients out of plant material useless. It is believed that because of differences in meal pattern and regular feed intake, cats were indeed capable of downregulating redundant enzymes. It is believed that the adaptations to the carnivorous lifestyle might have had specific advantages for the strict carnivorous cat in terms of energy expenditure (Morris, 2002). Several of the metabolic and digestive adaptations in cats evolved around carbohydrate metabolism. For instance, cats lack a functional Tas1R2 receptor, and are, as a result, unable to taste sugar (Li et al., 2005). Cats also lack salivary amylase activity, and show relatively low activities of pancreatic and intestinal amylases (Kienzle, 1993a, b). Other metabolic adaptations that can be found in cats evolved around protein and amino acid metabolism. For example, cats have limited ability to decrease the activity of amino-acid degrading enzymes. This limited ability also becomes apparent when fed a diet without protein; adult cats produce twice as much urinary urea as dogs (243 vs. 116 mg kg-0.75 d-1) (Hendriks et al., 1997). This underlies the higher dietary requirement for protein in cats compared to dogs (Morris, 2002). Cats also show inability to synthesize adequate amounts of the essential amino acid arginine and taurine (Morris, 2002). Last but not least, cats are unable to synthesize retinol (Vitamin A) from beta- carotene, are unable to produce niacin (Vitamin B3) from the amino acid tryptophan (Morris, 2002), have fairly limited ability to synthesize arachidonic acid from linoleic acid (MacDonald et al., 1984), and are unable to synthesize Vitamin D3 in their skin (Morris, 1999). The latter metabolic trait is seen in dogs as well (How et al., 1994). Both species thus need a dietary source of Vitamin D3 to meet their requirement. As mentioned above, wolves require to withstand periods of food shortages and adaptations have evolved that are still present in dogs. For instance, when wolves prepare for periods with low food availability, they cache prey parts for later consumption, a behaviour that dogs may also show in the backyard. Ability to efficient use energy stores, decrease metabolic losses and to endogenously synthesize essential nutrients for on-going metabolic processes would be vital for survival prolonged periods of food shortage. During prolonged fasting where glycogen

stores may become exhausted, the available lipid stores need to be effectively used for energy purposes and body proteins preserved. Dogs prevent the loss of body proteins by decreasing the activity of amino-acid degrading enzymes, as indicated above. Furthermore, dogs efficiently switch to peripheral use of ketone bodies during fasting making them less dependent on amino acid catabolism for glucose. Resistance to prolonged periods of famine is also shown by dogs. The longest fast of a dog on record is 117 days (Howe et al., 1912). The dog survived but weighed only 37% of its initial body weight when the fast was stopped. Next to times of famine, wolves also experience times of feasting with large meals. When a large ungulate is killed, wolves in generally start with consuming the internal organs such as the liver and heart (Stahler et al., 2006). The liver of an ungulate would provide stored vitamin A and potentially glycogen. Like most carnivores, dogs transport vitamin A mainly as retinyl esters bound to lipoproteins in the blood. Dogs are also able excrete vitamin A and retinyl esters via the urine, which makes them more resistant to hypervitaminosis A and can be considered as functional for wolves and other carnivores consuming large quantities of vitamin A.

Impact of domestication Where cats largely maintained their carnivorous diet during the process of domestication, dogs moved away from their carnivorous ancestors and started to thrive on a more omnivorous diet. Although a more profound omnivorous feeding ecology started only 13,000 and 17,000 years ago, changes are found in the genomes of dogs and relate increased amounts of starch in their diets. Three genes (AMY2B, MGAM and SGLT1) involved in starch digestion and glucose uptake were the target of selection (Axelsson et al., 2013). Furthermore, differences between dog breeds were found that relate to the nutritional conditions of their site of origin. The Saluki, an ancient breed originating from the Fertile Crescent, showed twenty-nine copies of pancreatic amylase gene (AMY2B) whereas the Dingo and Siberian Husky show no or limited expansion (three to four copies) (Freedman et al., 2014). Variation in AMY2B copy number in six dog breeds (Pekingese, Shar Pei, Shiba Inu, Akita, Siberian Husky, and Alaskan Malamute) was also found to relate to the amount of dietary starch in time periods after domestication for these breeds (Reiter et al., 2016). These recent studies also show that other metabolic traits observed in dogs, like capacity to synthesise sufficient amounts of essential nutrients such as niacin, taurine and arginine, were unaffected by domestication. Only decades ago, humans started to breed cats for their exterior, which quickly led to distinguishable breeds with specific exterior traits, like for instance Persians with their flat muzzle, Cornish rex with their unique coat structure, or the lop-eared Scottish folds. However, the authors of a recent comparative analysis of the domestic cat genome concluded that, compared to dogs, the number of genomic regions with strong signals of selection since cat domestication appears modest (Montague et al., 2014). Their results suggest that selection for docility, as a result of becoming accustomed to humans for food rewards, was most likely the major force that altered the first domesticated cat genomes. Based on the above it may thus be concluded that cat domestication has not yet led to major shifts in metabolic traits, and cats can still considered to be strictly carnivorous in nature.

Conclusions For both dogs and cats, the array of behavioural, digestive physiological and metabolic traits is shaped during their evolution as carnivores. The distinct feast-or-famine lifestyle of the dog’s ancestor is hypothesised to underlie the, relative to cats, more adaptive and extensive metabolic capacities of dogs. Interestingly, domestication of dogs has led to some significant changes in the genome of dogs related to starch digestion and absorption, while in cats major changes in the genomic structure have not yet been found.

Further reading Axelsson, E., A. Ratnakumar, M. L. Arendt, K. Maqbool, M. T. Webster, M. Perloski, O. Liberg, J. M. Arnemo, A. Hedhammar, and K. Lindblad-Toh. 2013. The genomic signature of dog domestication reveals adaptation to a starch-rich diet. Nature 495: 360-364. Beloshapka, A. N., S. E. Dowd, J. S. Suchodolski, J. M. Steiner, L. Duclos, and K. S. Swanson. 2013. Fecal microbial communities of healthy adult dogs fed raw meat-based diets with or without inulin or yeast cell wall extracts as assessed by 454 pyrosequencing. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 84: 532-541. Biknevicius, A. R., and B. Van Valkenburg. 1996. Design for killing: craniodental adaptations of predators. In: J. L. Gittleman (ed.) Carnivore behavior, ecology, and evolution No. 2. p 393- 428. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, U.S. Bosch, G., and W. H. Hendriks. 2014. Aspects of foraging ecology of carnivores that impact digestive physiology and metabolism. In: Comparative Nutrition Society, Flatrock, NC, US. p 13-18. Bosch, G., E. A. Hagen-Plantinga, and W. H. Hendriks. 2015. Dietary nutrient profiles of wild wolves: insights for optimal dog nutrition? British Journal of Nutrition 113: S40-S54. Driscoll, C. A., M. Menotti-Raymond, A. L. Roca, K. Hupe, W. E. Johnson, E. Geffen, E. H. Harley, M. Delibes, D. Pontier, A. C. Kitchener, N. Yamaguchi, S. J. O'Brien, and D. W. Macdonald. 2007. The Near Eastern origin of cat domestication. Science 317: 519-523. Driscoll, C. A., D. W. Macdonald, and S. J. O'Brien. 2009. From wild animals to domestic pets, an evolutionary view of domestication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106: 9971-9978. Hand, M. S., C. D. Thatcher, R. L. Remillard, P. Roudebush, and B. J. Novotny (Editors). 2010. Small animal clinical nutrition. Mark Morris Institute, Topeka, KS, U.S., 1313 pp. Hendriks, W. H., P. J. Moughan, and M. F. Tarttelin. 1997. Urinary excretion of endogenous nitrogen metabolites in adult domestic cats using a protein-free diet and the regression technique. Journal of Nutrition 127: 623-629. How, K. L., H. A. W. Hazewinkel, and J. A. Mol. 1994. Dietary vitamin D dependence of cat and dog due to inadequate cutaneous synthesis of vitamin D. General and Comparative Endocrinology 96: 12-18. Howe, P. E., H. A. Mattill, and P. B. Hawk. 1912. Distribution of nitrogen during a fast of one hundred and seventeen days. Journal of Biological Chemistry 11: 103-127. Jones, E. 1977. Ecology of the feral cat, Felis catus (L.), (Carnivora: Felidae) on Macquarie Island. Australian Wildlife Research 4: 249-262. Kerr, K., S. Dowd, and K. Swanson. 2014. Faecal microbiota of domestic cats fed raw whole chicks v. an extruded chicken-based diet. Journal of Nutritional Science 3: e22. Kienzle, E. 1993a. Carbohydrate metabolism of the cat. 1. Activity of amylase in the gastrointestinal tract of the cat. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 69: 92-101. Kienzle, E. 1993b. Carbohydrate metabolism of the cat. 2. Digestion of starch. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 69: 102-114.

Leonard, J. A., R. K. Wayne, J. Wheeler, R. Valadez, S. Guillén, and C. Vilà. 2002. Ancient DNA evidence for old world origin of New World dogs. Science 298: 1613-1616. Ley, R. E., M. Hamady, C. Lozupone, P. J. Turnbaugh, R. R. Ramey, J. S. Bircher, M. L. Schlegel, T. A. Tucker, M. D. Schrenzel, R. Knight, and J. I. Gordon. 2008. Evolution of mammals and their gut microbes. Science 320: 1647-1651. Li, X., W. Li, H. Wang, J. Cao, K. Maehashi, L. Huang, A. A. Bachmanov, D. R. Reed, V. Legrand- Defretin, G. K. Beauchamp, and J. G. Brand. 2005. Pseudogenization of a sweet-receptor gene accounts for cats' indifference toward sugar. PLoS Genetics 1: 0027-0035. Losey, R. J., V. I. Bazaliiskii, S. Garvie-Lok, M. Germonpré, J. A. Leonard, A. L. Allen, M. Anne Katzenberg, and M. V. Sablin. 2011. Canids as persons: Early Neolithic dog and wolf burials, Cis-Baikal, Siberia. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30: 174-189. MacDonald, M. L., B. C. Anderson, Q. R. Rogers, C. A. Buffington, and J. G. Morris. 1984. Essential fatty acid requirements of cats: pathology of essential fatty acid deficiency. American Journal of Veterinary Research 45: 1310-1317. Montague, M. J., G. Li, B. Golfi, R. Khan, B. L. Aken, S. M. J. Searle, P. Minx, L. W. Hillier, D. C. Koboldt, B. W. Davis, C. A. Driscoll, C. S. Barr, K. Blackistone, J. Quilez, B. Lorente-Galdos, T. Marques-Bonet, C. Alkan, G. W. C. Thomas, M. W. Hahn, M. Menotti-Raymond, S. J. O'Brien, R. K. Wilson, L. A. Lyons, W. J. Murphy, and W. C. Warren. 2014. Comparative analysis of the domestic cat genome reveals genetic signatures underlying feline biology and domestication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 111: 17230-17235. Morris, J. G. 1999. Ineffective Vitamin D Synthesis in Cats Is Reversed by an Inhibitor of 7- Dehydrocholestrol-Δ7-Reductase. The Journal of Nutrition 129: 903-908. Morris, J. G. 2002. Idiosyncratic nutrient requirements of cats appear to be diet-induced evolutionary adaptations. Nutrition Research Reviews 15: 153-168. NRC. 2006. Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., U.S. Pechenkina, E. A., S. H. Ambrose, M. Xiaolin, and R. A. Benfer Jr. 2005. Reconstructing northern Chinese Neolithic subsistence practices by isotopic analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 32: 1176-1189. Plantinga, E. A., G. Bosch, and W. H. Hendriks. 2011. Estimation of the dietary nutrient profile of free- roaming feral cats: possible implications for nutrition of domestic cats. British Journal of Nutrition 106: S35-S48. Reiter, T., E. Jagoda, and T. D. Capellini. 2016. Dietary variation and evolution of gene copy number among dog breeds. PLoS ONE 11. Stahler, D. R., D. W. Smith, and D. S. Guernsey. 2006. Foraging and feeding ecology of the gray wolf (Canis lupus): lessons from Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, USA. Journal of Nutrition 136: S1923-S1926. Thalmann, O., B. Shapiro, P. Cui, V. J. Schuenemann, S. K. Sawyer, D. L. Greenfield, M. B. Germonpré, M. V. Sablin, F. López-Giráldez, X. Domingo-Roura, H. Napierala, H. P. Uerpmann, D. M. Loponte, A. A. Acosta, L. Giemsch, R. W. Schmitz, B. Worthington, J. E. Buikstra, A. Druzhkova, A. S. Graphodatsky, N. D. Ovodov, N. Wahlberg, A. H. Freedman, R. M. Schweizer, K. P. Koepfli, J. A. Leonard, M. Meyer, J. Krause, S. Pääbo, R. E. Green, and R. K. Wayne. 2013. Complete mitochondrial genomes of ancient canids suggest a European origin of domestic dogs. Science 342: 871-874. Vilà, C., P. Savoleinen, J. E. Maldonado, I. R. Amorim, J. E. Rice, R. L. Honeycutt, K. A. Crandall, J. Lundeberg, and R. K. Wayne. 1997. Multiple and ancient origins of the domestic dog. Science 276: 1687-1689.

Name: Aulus Cavalieri Carciofi Short CV

Veterinarian, Professor at the FCAV / UNESP, Jaboticabal - SP - Brazil, where he teaches the following disciplines at graduation level: Clinic of nutritional deficiency diseases, Endocrine and metabolic diseases and Nutrition and feeding of dogs and cats; and at post-graduation level: Clinical nutrition of dogs and cats; Thermomechanical processing and formulation of foods for dogs, cats and aquatic organisms. Founded and is responsible for the Residency Program in Nutrition and Clinical Nutrition of Dogs and Cats. He founded and coordinates the Laboratory of Research on Nutrition and Nutritional Diseases of Dogs and Cats where more than 50 master and doctoral studies have already been concluded. He is a permanent member of the coordination of the University and part of the board of directors of the Brazilian College of Animal Nutrition. He has published 96 scientific articles, and authored or co-authored 11 book chapters in the area. Received 33 awards or honours in research and teaching activities.

Dry and wet commercial food: characteristics and manufacture Aulus Carciofi – University of S. Paulo, Brasil

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Name: Víctor Romano

Short CV

Obtained the Degree in Veterinary Medicine from Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB) in 1992.

After a few years of small animal and horse medicine clinical experience, moved to the petfood industry in 2000. Currently Regulatory Manager of the Affinity Petcare S.A.

Since then working in new product development and regulatory areas.

Since 2002 member of Fediaf (European Federation of Petfood Manufacturers), focussing on the Product Communication and Additives working groups.

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Petfood Labels: How to make them and how to read them

Víctor Romano

Affinity Petcare S.A.; R&D Pça Xavier Cugat 54-56; 08902 L’Hospitalet de Llobregat. Spain. Email: [email protected] Member of the FEDIAF Product Communication Group

Introduction Pet food as any other animal feed needs to be labelled. The information which comes with the product has different purposes: a) nutritional, technical and usage information for consumers b) information for control and enforcement authorities and c) commercial information for the consumers.

Labelling rules are based on Regulation 767/2009/EC and FEDIAF’s Code of Good Labelling Practice for Pet Food, which helps interpret current regulations and adds some self-regulated topics.

Compulsory Declaration In order to help the consumer in quickly identifying the suitability of the product, the label has to be written in at least one official language of the country where the product is being sold; destination animal species and life stage has to be clearly labelled. Daily recommended amount (grams per day), usage of the pet food (how many intakes per day), special requirements (if water is needed, for example) and storage conditions (fridge needed, for example) are also compulsory In addition to this, labels must contain: - Composition (ingredients used in the product, in descending order by weight). This composition may appear as individual ingredients or under categories (grouping of ingredients with similar origin, like cereals) - Analytical constituents (nutritional information). This information includes protein, fat, fibre, inorganic matter and sometimes moisture - Additives: added quantity needs to be declare. In some cases, additives may be reduced during process and storage of the product (vitamins, for example), so the finished product may contain less than added; in other cases, some ingredients contain a native additive content (for example selenium in fish), so the finished product may contain more than added. All labels also contain traceability tools like best before date, manufacturing unit approval number or batch number to help control authorities in their tasks.

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Voluntary information - Claims Complementing the compulsory declaration and in order to help the consumer in buying a pet food, products may contain voluntary information. This information has to be clear (not mislead the consumer) and should not suggest that the product has special characteristics if all similar products have also these characteristics. Content claim give information to the consumer about the product variety and its content:

Major ingredient: Chicken varieties Flavoured with chicken 0 - 4% chicken With chicken min 4% chicken Rich in chicken min 14% chicken Chicken recipe min 26% chicken Chicken only only chicken + additives

This rule is not valid for minor ingredients, where such levels might not be healthy.

Other possible claims include descriptors like “Fresh chicken” (chicken has not been frozen), “Natural plant extracts” (nothing has been added to the plant), “Free from cereals” (no traces of cereals present), “Reduced in fat” (15% less fat than standard product of same range) or “Low sodium” (low levels of sodium). Functional claims describe the effect of a pet food which goes beyond the basic nutrition needs. For example a claim like “with calcium for strong and healthy bones”. These kind of claims need to be scientifically substantiated.

Particular Nutritional Purposes (Veterinary Diets) Products which by their composition can help in specific situations where the animal has a deficit of assimilation, a metabolic problem, etc. are clearly separated from the so called “physiologic products”. These products, commonly known as Veterinary Diets, need to be always under veterinary control, as a misuse of such a product may be unhealthy for a health animal or may exacerbate a disease. Examples of these products are products for renal disease, for struvite stone dissolution or for digestion problems.

Further reading Directive 2008/38/EC: Feed for particular nutritional purposes http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32008L0038 Fediaf Code of Good Labelling Practice for Pet Food http://www.fediaf.org/component/attachments/attachments.html?task=attachment&id=79 Regulation 767/2009/EU: regulates all labelling http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A32009R0767

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Name: Wendy Wambacq

Short CV

Wendy Wambacq graduated at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Belgium in 2011. Afterwards, she worked in private practice for almost 2 years. In 2013, she started a residency in veterinary nutrition (European College of Veterinary and Comparative Nutrition). She successfully passed the board certifying exam in Berlin in September 2016. At this moment, she is making a doctoral thesis at the Animal Nutrition Laboratory at Ghent University about the influence of nutrition on immune status.

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Alternatives and New Trends in Pet Food

Wendy Wambacq

Ghent University, Department of Nutrition, Genetics and Ethology, Laboratory of Animal Nutrition

Heidestraat 19, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium. Email: [email protected]

Introduction In the last decennium, about 10% of pet owners have abandoned traditional commercial diets with increasing interest for alternative choices (Diez et al., 2015, Vandendriessche et al., 2017). Feeding of home-made diets, vegetarian/vegan diets and raw meat based diets have become an increasingly popular trend (Michel et al., 2006). This change has been partially driven by an increasing pet owner distrust of conventional pet food manufacturers (Schlesinger and Joffe, 2001). Whereas food additives such as antimicrobial preservatives and antioxidants are added to increase shelf life, their addition nowadays provokes anxiety in some pet owners about their impact on long-term pet wellbeing (Laflamme et al., 2014). Furthermore, animal byproducts often incorporated in conventional pet foods, such as liver and meat trimmings, are often wrongly perceived as poor-quality ingredients. For these reasons, natural, organic or human grade foods free of artificial additives and/or animal byproducts are preferred by certain pet owners.

Some Particular Alternatives out there Some of the most passionate and sometimes almost evangelical arguments surrounding pet nutrition concern the feeding of raw meat-based diets, as these are often considered diets wild ancestors ate during their evolution into pets. Many different forms exist: homemade/commercial fresh, frozen or freeze-dried diets and treats, grain and supplement mixes which can be combined with raw meat, BARF (Bones and Raw Food), the Ultimate and Volhard diet and even whole carcass feeding. Whereas commercial nutritionally complete and balanced diets are intended to provide sole-source nutrition for a pet, homemade raw-meat based diets are often based on rotation of ingredients to expectantly meet essential nutrient requirements (Freeman, 2013). Apart from its obvious nutritive value, food also has a social aspect. Pet owners are inclined to show affection for their pets through food, and have an increasing desire to cook and therefore invest time in their pets health. Unfortunately, many owners are known to make wrong substitutions and forget essential fatty acid and vitamin and mineral supplementation when preparing homemade diets, thereby unwillingly impairing their pets health. Formulating balanced homemade diets for pets is rather difficult and does require specialized knowledge (Michel, 2006).

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Additionally, questions about sustainable agriculture and slaughter of animals in order to feed pets are currently raised. A vegetarian ideology is on the rise, where people do not only question their own dietary habits, but also those of their pets. Owners might prefer fish/egg-based diets for their pets, or choose vegan diets supplemented with synthetic compounds in order to meet dietary requirements.

Discussion-Conclusion Health care professionals are often bombarded with pet owner opinions regarding unconventional diets, and have a need to stay current with research on popular trends. The pet food market has many opposing viewpoints and may cause confusion in well-intending pet owners. Dialogue must begin with an effort to understand reasoning for choosing an unconventional diet. Many claims of nutritional superiority and health benefits of unconventional diets remain in fact unproven and are based on personal experiences and plausible, but not scientifically proven, hypotheses. Admittedly, recalls of pet foods for bacterial/mycotoxin contamination, thiamine deficiency, etc… indicate that feeding of commercial traditional pet foods is not 100% risk-free either (Steel, 1997; FDA, 2017). Although it is the pet owner that ultimately decides what their pet will eat, efforts must be made to inform owners about potential risks and benefits of both commercial and alternative diets.

Further reading Cappelli, S., Manica, E. and Hashimoto, J. H., 2016. Importance of additives in feeding dogs and cats. Pubvet 10(3): 212-223. Carter, R.A., Bauer, J.E., Kersey, J.H. and Buff, P. R., 2014. Awareness and evaluation of natural pet food products in the United States. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 245(11): 1241-1248. Chandler, M.L. and Takashima, G., 2014. Nutritional concepts for the veterinary practitioner. Veterinary Clinics: Small Animal Practice 44(4): 645-666. Diez, M., Picavet, P., Ricci, R., Dequenne, M., Renard, M., Bongartz, A., Farnir, F., 2015. Health screening to identify opportunities to improve preventive medicine in cats and dogs. Journal of Small Animal Practice 56: 463–469. Dobson, R.L., Motlagh, S., Quijano, M., Cambron, R.T., Baker, T.R., Pullen, A.M., ... and Reimschuessel, R., 2008. Identification and characterization of toxicity of contaminants in pet food leading to an outbreak of renal toxicity in cats and dogs. Toxicological Sciences 106(1): 251-262. FDA website, 2017. Pet food recall products list. Available at: www.fda. gov/AnimalVeterinary/SafetyHealth/RecallsWithdrawals/default. htm. Freeman, L.M., Chandler, M.L., Hamper, B.A. and Weeth, L.P., 2013. Current knowledge about the risks and benefits of raw meat–based diets for dogs and cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 243(11): 1549-1558.

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Hand, M.S., Thatcher, C.D., Remillard, R.L., Roudebush, P. and Novotny, B.J. (eds.), 2000. Small Animal Clinical Nutrition. Mark Morris Institute, Topeka, Kansas, 1314 pp. Knight, A. and Leitsberger, M., 2016. Vegetarian versus Meat-Based Diets for Companion Animals. Animals 6(9): 57. Laflamme, D., Izquierdo, O., Eirmann, L. and Binder, S., 2014. Myths and misperceptions about ingredients used in commercial pet foods. Veterinary Clinics: Small Animal Practice 44(4): 689-698. LeJeune, J.T. and Hancock, D.D., 2001. Public health concerns associated with feeding raw meat diets to dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 219(9): 1222-1225. Michel, K.E., 2006. Unconventional diets for dogs and cats. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 36(6): 1269-1281. Morgan, S.K., Willis, S. and Shepherd, M.L., 2017. Survey of owner motivations and veterinary input of owners feeding diets containing raw animal products. PeerJ 5: e3031. Morita, T., Awakura, T., Shimada, A., Umemura, T., Nagai, T. and Haruna, A., 1995. Vitamin D toxicosis in cats: natural outbreak and experimental study. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 57(5): 831-837. Munoz, S.S., 2007. Amid the recall of dozens of brands of pet foods, many dog and cat owners are grappling with a tough question: “What can they safely feed their pets?” New York: Wall Street Journal: D7. Murray, S.M., Patil, A.R., Fahey, G.C., Merchen, N.R. and Hughes, D.M., 1997. Raw and rendered animal by-products as ingredients in dog diets. Journal of Animal Science 75(9): 2497-2505. National Research Council (NRC), 2006. Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 398pp. Parr, J.M. and Remillard, R.L., 2014. Handling alternative dietary requests from pet owners. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 44(4): 667-688. Schlesinger, D.P. and Joffe, D.J., 2011. Raw food diets in companion animals: a critical review. The Canadian Veterinary Journal 52(1): 50. Steel R.J.S, 1997. Thiamine deﬁciency in a cat associated with the preservation of “pet meat” with sulphur dioxide. Australian Veterinary Journal 75: 719–721. Vandendriessche, V.L., Picavet, P. and Hesta, M., 2017. First detailed nutritional survey in a referral companion animal population. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 101(S1): 4-14.

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Threats and Opportunities in the Future of Pet Foods

Wendy Wambacq

Ghent University, Department of Nutrition, Genetics and Ethology, Laboratory of Animal Nutrition Heidestraat 19, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium. Email: [email protected]

Introduction To ensure sustainability of pet food and therefore pet ownership in the future, questions have to be raised regarding current trends of providing pet foods that contain nutrients in excess of minimum recommendations (Swanson et al., 2013). Currently, there is economic opportunity for pet food manufacturers in the production of raw-meat based diets, but also commercial high- protein dry or wet foods are on the rise in an attempt to mimic the ancestral diet considered superior by certain pet owners (Freeman et al., 2013). Whereas research on the usage of insects as an alternative protein source in human nutrition is on the rise (Rumpold and Schlüter, 2013), it seems there is an attitude-behavior gap regarding the concurrent trend to increase protein intake above current minimum requirements in our pets. Furthermore, risks associated with the usage of alternative raw meat-based diets by well-intending pet owners are hot topic regarding pet health.

Sustainability of Pet Foods Sustainability can be described as ‘meeting present needs without compromising future generation’s needs’ (WBCSD, 2017). Protein is requiring the most attention in the context of food sustainability, as it is the most expensive macronutrient in economic and environmental terms (Swanson et al., 2013). Many pet owners believe that cats and dogs require diets that resemble those of wild carnivores in order to thrive (Michel, 2006). Nutritional minimum protein requirements are currently known (NRC, 2006), however questions regarding an optimal macronutrient profile have to be raised. Where typically meat-based and high protein diets eaten by wild dog and cat ancestors can be considered optimal for short-term survival, this may not be the case for domestic pets that typically are suspected to have a respectively longer life span (Freeman et al., 2013). Furthermore, pet food sustainability can become increasingly compromised by negative consumer perception on the usage of animal by products (Laflamme et al., 2014); and diet overconsumption both resulting in food wastage and pet obesity (Swanson et al, 2013).

Raw Meat-based Diets Diets containing raw meats are already fed for many years by zoos, racing and sled dog facilities (Michel et al., 2006; LeJeune and Hancock, 2001). Health benefits associated with the

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provision of these diets include better palatability, improved dental health and coat glossiness. Scientific evidence to substantiate these claims is however currently lacking (Freeman, 2013). Aside from these narrated health benefits, reservations regarding raw-meat based diets including nutritional adequacy and public health concerns have to be taken into account (Michel, 2006). Nutrient excesses and deficiencies are known risk factors (Schlesinger and Joffe, 2001), as well as contamination with pathogenic bacterial strains (Salmonella, Campylobacter, Escherichia coli, etc…), viruses (Aujeszky and rabies) and parasites (Sarcocystis spp, Neospora caninum, etc…) (LeJeune and Hancock, 2001).

Discussion - Conclusion Future opportunities and challenges that provoke discussion among the companion animal community include pet food sustainability and usage of alternative diets. Pet owner opinion has an important effect on sustainability of commercial conventional or alternative pet foods, including nutrient composition and selection of ingredients. Even though more large cohort studies are needed to objectively evaluate risks (and benefits) of raw meat-based diets, there is enough evidence to address pet owners regarding possible zoonotic health implications (Schlesinger and Joffe, 2001).

Further reading Bosch, G., 2016. Alternative protein supplies for petfood. Journal of Animal Science 94(5): 209-210. Finley, R., Reid-Smith, R., Weese, J.S. and Angulo, F.J., 2006. Human health implications of Salmonella-contaminated natural pet treats and raw pet food. Clinical Infectious Diseases 42(5): 686-691. Fredriksson-Ahomaa, M., Heikkilä, T., Pernu, N., Kovanen, S., Hielm-Björkman, A. and Kivistö, R., 2017. Raw Meat-Based Diets in Dogs and Cats. Veterinary Sciences 4(3): 33. Freeman, L.M. and Michel, K.E., 2001. Evaluation of raw food diets for dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 218(5): 705. Freeman, L.M., Chandler, M.L., Hamper, B.A. and Weeth, L.P., 2013. Current knowledge about the risks and benefits of raw meat–based diets for dogs and cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 243(11): 1549-1558. Garnett, T., 2013. Food sustainability: problems, perspectives and solutions. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 72(1), 29-39. Giacometti, F., Magarotto, J., Serraino, A. and Piva, S., 2017. Highly suspected cases of salmonellosis in two cats fed with a commercial raw meat-based diet: health risks to animals and zoonotic implications. BMC Veterinary Research 13(1): 224. Hamper, B.A., Bartges, J.W. and Kirk, C.A., 2017. Evaluation of two raw diets vs a commercial cooked diet on feline growth. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery 19(4): 424-434. Hand, M.S., Thatcher, C.D., Remillard, R.L., Roudebush, P. and Novotny, B.J. (eds.), 2000. Small Animal Clinical Nutrition. Mark Morris Institute, Topeka, Kansas, 1314 pp. Laflamme, D., Izquierdo, O., Eirmann, L. and Binder, S., 2014. Myths and misperceptions about ingredients used in commercial pet foods. Veterinary Clinics: Small Animal Practice 44(4): 689-698.

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Lambertini, E., Buchanan, R.L., Narrod, C. and Pradhan, A.K., 2016. Transmission of bacterial zoonotic pathogens between pets and humans: The role of pet food. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 56(3), 364-418. LeJeune, J.T. and Hancock, D.D., 2001. Public health concerns associated with feeding raw meat diets to dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 219(9): 1222-1225. Mack, J.K. and Kienzle, E., 2016. Inadequate nutrient supply in “BARF” feeding plans for a litter of Bernese Mountain Dog-puppies. Tierärztliche Praxis Kleintiere 44(5): 341-347. Meeker, D.L. and Meisinger, J.L., 2015. Companion animals symposium: Rendered ingredients significantly influence sustainability, quality, and safety of pet food. Journal of Animal Science 93(3): 835-847. Michel, K.E., 2006. Unconventional diets for dogs and cats. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 36(6): 1269-1281. Morgan, S.K., Willis, S. and Shepherd, M.L., 2017. Survey of owner motivations and veterinary input of owners feeding diets containing raw animal products. PeerJ 5: e3031. National Research Council (NRC), 2006. Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 398pp. Rumpold, B.A. and Schlüter, O.K., 2013. Potential and challenges of insects as an innovative source for food and feed production. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 17: 1-11. Schlesinger, D.P. and Joffe, D.J., 2011. Raw food diets in companion animals: a critical review. The Canadian Veterinary Journal 52(1): 50. Swanson, K.S., Carter, R.A., Yount, T.P., Aretz, J. and Buff, P.R., 2013. Nutritional sustainability of pet foods. Advances in Nutrition: An International Review Journal 4(2): 141-150. Weese, J.S., Rousseau, J. and Arroyo, L., 2005. Bacteriological evaluation of commercial canine and feline raw diets. The Canadian Veterinary Journal 46(6): 513. World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), 2017. The business case for sustainable development. Available at http://www.wbcsd. org/web/publications/business- case.pdf

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Name: Stefanie Handl

Short CV

Graduated from University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna; Veterinary specialist in nutrition and dietetics of the Austrian Chamber of Veterinarians (2008); Diplomate of the European College of Veterinary and Comparative Nutrition (2011). Research assistant at the Institute of Animal Nutrition of the University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, 2003-2012; Research scholar at the Gastrointestinal Laboratory, Texas A&M University 2009/2010; Research interest: intestinal microbiota. Since 2012 editor in chief of “Veterinary Medicine Austria” Since 2013 “Futterambulanz” nutritionist practice in Vienna

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How to decide what to offer – the owners perspective

Stefanie Handl

Futterambulanz nutritionist practice, Reisnerstraße 7, 1030 Vienna, Austria. Email: [email protected]

Introduction “Healthy eating”, “dieting”, “superfoods” are recent topics in human nutrition in the daily media and social networks. Since pets, especially cats and dogs, are regarded as family members, they are included in their owners’ ideology and nutritional habits, and “the right food” is one of the most emotionally discussed topics among pet owners. These trends confront veterinarians with a broad range of claims, rumours and feeding concepts.

“Alternative” commercial diets Some pet food manufacturers deliberately promote popular trends and myths and market themselves mainly by what they are not including (grains, soy, sugar, by-products, GMOs, additives) – assertions of which some are self-evident, others can be considered as deception. What is worse, some declare their products to be “complete diets” without any additives (which is very often not plausible regarding the list of ingredients), give wrong feeding instructions, or the nutrient contents do not comply with the recommendations (NRC, 2006; FEDIAF, 2017). Some do not even fulfil the principles for labelling according to regulation EC 767/2009 on the placing on the market and use of feed. The review by Laflamme et al. (2014) gives a good overview on common misperceptions about commercial pet food and how owners can be educated. The idea that gluten or grains in general are “unnatural” or even unhealthy is one of the most popular rumours with no scientific basis. Current research suggests that dogs have genetically adapted to carbohydrate foods throughout their evolution (Axelsson et al., 2013). Also cats can digest and metabolize carbohydrates, albeit in lower amounts than dogs. Diseases like “grain allergy” or “gluten intolerance” do not exits, and a “grain free” diet has no health benefits whatsoever.

“Hypoallergenic” diets While the true prevalence of diagnosed adverse food reactions (AFR) might be increasing, the problem of “intolerance” and “sensitivities” has greatly increased in the perception of pet owners – and so has the demand for “hypoallergenic” or “sensitive” foods. It must be emphasized that these are no protected terms and give no indication to certain ingredients or properties. Allergies cannot be prevented, and feeding exotic ingredients to healthy animals has no benefit, but will

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limit diet choices when an allergy is truly suspected. For the diagnosis of AFR there is still no reliable “test”; the gold standard to diagnose AFR is still the elimination dietary trial followed by provocation. Recommended commercial food options for allergic patients are hydrolyzed diets.

“Natural remedies” In fear of side effects and intoxication, owners prefer “natural remedies” like herbal preparations, coconut oil, and other feed supplements, for parasite control or to “improve the pet’s condition”. In most cases, little or no research has been done on these remedies, so neither positive nor negative effects are known. Even substances proven to be toxic, like garlic, are available.

“I want to know what my pet eats” – homemade diets Driven partly by an increasing mistrust of conventional pet food, partly by lifestyle trends in human nutrition, interest in homemade diets is increasing. Especially raw diets (“BARF”) have been very popular in the last years. Owners usually have detailed feeding plans and try to educate themselves – however, most information they find is misleading or wrong. Besides malnutrition, risks of BARF are infection with bacteria and other pathogens, injuries from bones (from tooth fractures to ileus) and diet-induced hyperthyroidism (Freeman et al. 2013; Handl 2014). Therefore, international scientific boards of veterinarians and nutritionists (e.g. WSAVA) clearly recommend raw diets not to be fed to cats and dogs. Homemade diets in general do have advantages, for the owners mainly the possibly to be involved and to assemble their pet’s food themselves. Further, the are usually highly digestible and allow individual adaption of diets in animals with multiple morbidities. To avoid the most common risks of BARF, owners should be advised to feed no raw meat and by-products, no bones, not head meat or gullet, and to have the ration calculated by a nutritionist.

Conclusion “Feeding right” is one of the most emotional topics in pet keeping. Owners are overwhelmed by misleading and contradicting information from veterinarians, pet stores, trainers, and of course the internet and social media. Many claims of health benefits of unconventional diets are unproven, and quite a few products currently on the market do not adhere to EU legislation. Homemade diets, especially BARF, are nearly always unbalanced leading to nutritional deficiencies which can cause severe harm. To improve customer bonding and compliance, owner concerns and perspectives should be taken seriously. Diet anamnesis and feeding recommendations should be part of every consultation. Background knowledge on nutrient requirements, pet food production and legal regulations will help to clear most rumours and misunderstandings and to assist the owner in deciding on a food which meets his expectations and the pet’s requirements.

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Further reading Axelsson, E., Ratnakumar, Arendt, M.L., Maqbool, K., T. Webster, M.T., Perloski, M., Liberg, O., Arnemo J.M., Hedhammar, A., and Kerstin Lindblad-Toh, K., 2013. The genomic signature of dog domestication reveals adaptation to a starch-rich diet. Nature, 11837. FEDIAF Nutritional Guidelines, 2017. http://www.fediaf.org/self-regulation/nutrition/ Fredriksson-Ahomaa, M., Heikkilä, T., Pernu, N., Kovanen, S., Hielm-Björkman, A. and Kivistö, R., 2017. Raw Meat-Based Diets in Dogs and Cats. Veterinary Sciences 4(3): 33. Freeman, L.M., Chandler, M.L., Hamper, B.A. and Weeth, L.P., 2013. Current knowledge about the risks and benefits of raw meat–based diets for dogs and cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 243(11): 1549-1558. Giacometti, F., Magarotto, J., Serraino, A., and Piva, S. 2017. Highly suspected cases of salmonellosis in two cats fed with a commercial raw meatbased diet: health risks to animals and zoonotic implications. BMC Veterinary Research (2017) 13:224. Handl, S., Zimmermann S., and Iben, C. 2012: Reasons for dog owners to choose raw diets (`barf´) and nutritional adequacy of raw diet recipes fed to dogs in Austria and Germany. In: Proceeding 16th ESVCN-congress, September 13-15, 2012, Bydgoszcz, Poland; p. 124. Handl, S., Reichert, L., and Iben, C. 2013: Survey on raw diets (‘barf’) and nutritional adequacy of raw diet recipes fed to cats in Austria and Germany. In: Proceedings 17th ESVCN congress September 19-21, 2013, Ghent, Belgium, p. 118. Handl S., 2014. The "BARF" Trend - Advantages, Drawbacks and Risks. Veterinary Focus 24(3):16- 23. Horvath-Ungerboeck C, Widmann K, and Handl S., 2017. Detection of DNA of food antigens in commercial elimination diets for dogs using PCR. Vet Dermatol DOI: 10.1111/vde.12431. Laflamme, D., Izquierdo, O., Eirmann, L. and Binder, S., 2014. Myths and misperceptions about ingredients used in commercial pet foods. Veterinary Clinics: Small Animal Practice 44(4): 689-698. LeJeune, J.T. and Hancock, D.D., 2001. Public health concerns associated with feeding raw meat diets to dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 219(9): 1222-1225. Michel, K.E., 2006. Unconventional diets for dogs and cats. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 36(6): 1269-1281. National Research Council (NRC), 2006. Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. National Academies Press, Washington,DC. Parr, J.M. and Remillard, R.L., 2014. Handling alternative dietary requests from pet owners. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 44(4): 667-688. REGULATION EC 767/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of July 19 2009 on the placing on the market and use of feed. REGULATION EC 1069/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 October 2009 laying down health rules as regards animal by-products and derived products not intended for human consumption. WSAVA Global Nutrition Committee Statement on Risks of Raw Meat-Based Diets. http://www.wsava.org/sites/default/files/WSAVA%20GNC%20raw%20diet%20statement%2 012%203%2014_0.pdf. Zeugswetter, F.K, Vogelsinger, K., and Handl, S. 2013. Hyperthyroidism in dogs caused by consumption of thyroid-containing head meat. Schweizer Archiv für Tierheilkunde 155(2):149-152.

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DGAV

José Manuel Gaspar Nunes da Costa

Direção Geral de Alimentação e Veterinária (DGAV)

A Direção Geral de Alimentação e Veterinária (DGAV) é a autoridade sanitária veterinária e fitossanitária nacional e a autoridade responsável pela gestão do sistema de segurança alimentar. A nível nacional é igualmente a autoridade competente para a área da Alimentação Animal. Para o efeito participa na definição e aplicação das políticas de segurança dos alimentos para animais, sejam os destinados a animais produtores de géneros alimentícios ou a animais de companhia, na perspetiva do garante de elevados níveis da proteção da saúde e bem-estar animal, da saúde humana e do próprio meio ambiente. Assegurando a representação junto das instâncias nacionais, comunitárias e internacionais no domínio dos alimentos para animais, com participação ativa na adoção dos processos legislativos, garante a tomada de posição adequada à realidade nacional, seja para efeitos da sua atividade enquanto organismo de controlo, bem como na proteção dos interesses nacionais e salvaguarda da própria posição interna e vantagem da indústria portuguesa do setor no mercado europeu e internacional. Responsável igualmente pela implementação nacional das políticas da União Europeia relativas ao setor dos alimentos para animais, garante a verificação do cumprimento das mesmas por parte dos operadores. Para o efeito elabora, coordena, avalia e executa o Plano Nacional de Controlo Oficial da Alimentação Animal (PNCAA), o qual visa todas as fases da cadeia, desde a produção primária, produção, transformação, colocação no mercado (incluindo a importação e exportação de e para países terceiros, bem como as trocas intracomunitárias) e a utilização de alimentos para animais. Permite-se desta forma reduzir ou eliminar os riscos decorrentes para os animais, consumidores e meio ambiente provenientes de alimentos não seguros ou de qualidade não adequada para os animais, para além de assegurar o normal funcionamento do mercado e proteger os interesses do consumidor. Pese embora o principal objetivo do PNCAA vise a alimentação de animais de criação produtores de géneros alimentícios, com registo ou aprovação dos estabelecimentos de enquadramento e posteriores ações de inspeção e de colheita de amostras de matérias -primas, aditivos e alimentos compostos para animais para análise na perspetiva da avaliação laboratorial dos seus requisitos, características e especificações na perspetiva da defesa da segurança da cadeia alimentar, a produção e colocação no mercado de alimentos para animais de companhia são igualmente monitorizados para reconhecimento das adequadas tecnologias de

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processamento e salvaguarda da saúde e bem – estar animal. É ainda atribuição da DGAV definir e coordenar as estratégias de promoção da segurança dos alimentos para animais em articulação com outras entidades e associações do setor, bem como a eventual interação e ligação à área científica e de investigação sempre que aplicável. Todas as competências e atribuições em matéria de alimentação animal são asseguradas pela Divisão de Alimentação Animal da Direção de Serviços de Nutrição e Alimentação da DGAV.

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Mesa Redonda

Moderação Ana Lourenço, PhD, Dip. ECVCN - UTAD, Portugal

Participantes: António Isidoro – Assoc. Industriais de Alimentos Compostos - IACA, Portugal Aulus Carciofi, PhD – Univ. de S. Paulo, Brasil Cecilia Villaverde, PhD, Dip. ECVCN e ACVN, Irlanda Esther Hagen-Plantinga, PhD, Dip. ECVCN – Univ. de Utrecht, Holanda Galena Quist – Rybachuk, PhD, Res. ECVCN, Holanda Geraldine Blanchard, PhD, Dip. ECVCN, França Guido Bosch, PhD – Univ. de Wageningen, Holanda José Carlos Costa - Direção Geral de Alimentação e Veterinária (DGAV), Portugal Ronald Corbee, PhD, Dip. ECVCN – Univ. de Utrecht, Holanda Víctor Romano – FEDIAF, Espanha Stefanie Handl, Dip. ECVCN, Áustria Wendy Wambacq, Dip. ECVCN – Univ. de Gante, Bélgica

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Nota Final

Ana Luísa Lourenço

Associação Portuguesa de Engenharia Zootécnica

Nos passados dias 27 e 28 de Outubro realizou-se na Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD) o PetFeeding - I Congresso Internacional de Nutrição e Alimentação de Animais de Companhia. Este Congresso, iniciativa nossa, Associação Portuguesa de Engenharia Zootécnica (APEZ), em colaboração com a UTAD, constituindo uma aposta forte na qualidade da comunição sobre o tema em Portugal. Tiveram oportunidade de assistir a este evento, aproximadamente, 150 participantes, dos quais 50 eram estudantes e, os restantes, profissionais de todas as vertentes desta área. A importância económica e social que os animais de companhia assumem actualmente associada à carga emocional associada a tudo o que lhes diz respeito e, em particular à sua nutrição e alimentação, impõem a necessidade e a urgência na comunicação baseada em conhecimento científico. É convicção da APEZ de que Portugal se encontra, neste momento, num ponto de viragem no que à alimentação dos animais de companhia diz respeito e, porque a ignorância é um caminho fértil para a criação de mitos, resolvemos tomar um papel activo na ligação entre a academia e os diversos interlocutores, para que as tomadas de decisão práticas sejam suportadas por informação baseada na evidência científica. Iniciamos o nosso Congresso com a presença do Reitor da UTAD, António Fontainhas Fernandes, o representante da Presidente da ECAV Jorge Azevedo, o Presidente da APEZ, Divanildo Outor Monteiro, e a Presidente da Comissão Científica, Ana Luísa Lourenço. O programa do congresso contou com oito sessões que contaram com o apoio de empresas com enorme relevância para o sector: Arion, Dechra - Veterinary Pharmaceutical Products, Hill’s Pet Nutrition, Novavet, Pet's Best Nutrition, Purina Pro Plan, Royal Canin e Virbac. A expectativa que antecedeu o Congresso era elevada, mas o espírito e as opiniões emitidas pelos congressistas e palestrantes no final deste evento permitem-nos, sem falsas modéstias, afirmar que as expectativas foram largamente ultrapassadas e que se tratou, de facto, de um passo que se augura marcante no futuro do setor em Portugal. Resta à organização congratular-se pelo enorme sucesso deste I Congresso e reunir esforços no sentido de preparar eventos futuros que servirão para fomentar a discussão em torno de uma área de enorme relevância económica e social em Portugal. Agradece ainda a todos os apoiantes, patrocinadores, congressistas e palestrantes pelo interesse, participação e espírito de partilha. Contamos com a sua presença na 2ª Edição do Petfeeding – II Congresso Internacional de Nutrição e Alimentação de Animais de Companhia em 2019 e no 24 ESVCN.

2019, APEZ/UTAD, Vila Real, Portugal

2020, APEZ/UTAD, Vila Real, Portugal

Obrigado! APEZ

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