David J. Shayler Walking in Space

Published in association with Springer Praxis Publishing Chichester, UK Table of contents

Foreword xiii Author's preface xvii Acknowledgements xxi List of illustrations xxiii Prologue xxix

THEORY PUT TO THE TEST Dreams and desires 1 Dreams of discovery 2 Science enters science fiction 3 The theorists take over 4 Tsiolkovsky's 'games on a tether' 4 Outside in empty space 6 The 1950s: men from Mars and the influence of science fiction 8 Destination Moon and Collier's 8 The work of the British Interplanetary Society 9 The work of H.E. Ross and R.A. Smith 9 Suited for space 14 First spacesuits 14 Science fiction in the Space Age 14 References 15

PIONEERING THE TECHNIQUES Stepping stones 18 Cosmonauts on Mars 18 After Vostok 19 NASA's advanced manned space programme 19 Mercury Mark II becomes Gemini 19 Soviet Vykhod (Exit) plans 20 viii Table of contents

Early hardware 22 Methods of exit: air-lock or hatch 23 The Volga air-lock 24 The Gemini EVA hatch 24 The first EVA suits 25 Berkut 25 G4C 26 First steps into the void 27 Vykhod: the first exit 27 Hurdles to overcome? 29 Zip guns 32 Gemini EVA planning 32 Go for EVA 33 A learning curve 33 Results of Gemini EVAs 35 Conclusions from the pioneers 37 References 38

TOOLS OF THE TRADE Expanding the capabilities 42 Methods of exit 42 Hatches 43 Air-locks 44 Spacesuits and life support 44 Spacesuits 44 Umbilicals 53 Back-packs 53 Manoeuvring devices 54 Gemini 54 Soviet AMU (Voskhod/Almaz) 60 Manoeuvring Unit M509 (Skylab) 62 Foot Controlled Manoeuvring Unit (Skylab) 64 MMU (STS-41B, 41C and 51A) 66 Soviet MMU (Mir and Soyuz TM-8) 72 SAFER (Space Shuttle and ISS) 74 Restraints and support 76 Gemini 76 Space Shuttle restraints and harnesses 76 Manipulators and booms 77 Tool-kits 82 Tool carriers 82 Surface tools 83 Sample return containers 88 Photographic equipment 92 In-flight service tools 92 Table of contents ix

Space station EVA tool-kits 95 Transportation 97 Apollo surface mobility aids 97 References 103

PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT Where there's a need 106 Voskhod and Soyuz: a new skill 106 Gemini: a learning curve 106 To go to the Moon 107 Skylab: training for a rescue 107 Salyut and Mir: routine operations 107 The Space Shuttle: stretching the envelope 108 The International Space Station: a new challenge 108 Training for the future 108 Types of training 109 Planning 109 EVA integration 112 1-g simulations 113 Bench reviews 113 1-g walk-through 113 Altitude chamber tests 117 Air-bearing platforms 118 Body harnesses 119 Geological training 121 Zero-g aircraft training 124 NASA's KC-135 aircraft 125 Russia's Flying Laboratory 128 Europe's A-300 Airbus programme 129 Underwater training facilities 130 Early studies 131 Simulations at Langley 131 The Neutral Buoyancy Simulator, MSFC 132 The Water Emersion Training Facility, Houston 133 Sonny Carter Water Emersion Training Facility, Houston 136 The Hydro Laboratory, Moscow 138 The Japanese water tank 140 Special training facilities 141 RMS EVA training 141 MMU simulators 143 SAFER facilities 145 On-orbit traning 145 Virtual EVA 145 Conclusion 146 References 147 x Table of contents

SURFACE EXPLORATION '... of landing a man on the Moon' 150 Early studies 151 Introducing EVA to Apollo 153 Factors affecting Apollo EVAs 154 Competition: the Soviet manned lunar programme 160 Soyuz EVA transfer, January 1969 160 A successful L3 demonstration? 162 Lunar cosmonauts , 164 Magnificent desolation 164 Red Rover's Golden Slippers 165 The Moon landings, July 1969-December 1972 167 The lost Apollos 168 Learning from the Moon: the Apollo experience, 1969-72 168 Deep-space EVA 189 Back to the Moon? 192 References 193

STATION SUPPORT Spacewalks from a space station 195 Working outside the vehicle 196 EVA from the Manned Orbiting Laboratory? 197 MOL experiment P6: EVA 197 MOL experiment P7 198 MOL EVA training 199 Applications from Apollo 199 EVA planning for the Orbital Workshop 201 Early Apollo Applications Program EVA planning 202 Apollo Telescope Mount EVA concept studies 203 Development of the EVA system 205 Evaluation of transfer modes 206 Development of the final Skylab ATM EVA system 208 EVA from Skylab, 1973-74 209 Skylab's planned EVA programme 210 Rescuing Skylab: the first EVAs 211 Skylab EVA tasks 213 The Apollo Telescope Mount 213 Experiments 215 The twin pole assembly. 216 Visual observations 216 Photography of comet Kohoutek 217 Skylab's last EVA: close-out activities 217 Summary 218 Salyut takes over, 1977-86 221 The early Salyuts 222 Table of contents xi

Evolution of Soviet space station EVA hardware 224 EVA from Salyut 226 Planning the first Orlan/DOS EVA 227 Salyut EVA operations, 1977-86 228 The first Salyut EVA 228 Salyut EVA operations 229 Experiments 229 Evaluation, inspection and observations 231 Contingencies 234 Construction 236 A major repair 238 Summary 239 Early space station EVAs: conclusion 240 References 241

SERVICE CALLS The Space Shuttle era, 1981-2012 244 Shuttle EVA opportunities 245 Orbiter provisions for EVA 246 Shuttle EVA capabilities 248 Typical Shuttle EVA timeline 249 Orbital flight-test EVA plans 250 Early contingency EVAs 251 EVA crew roles and responsibilities 252 Developing the skill 253 STS-5: a frustrating start 254 Success with STS-6 254 Shuttle EVA satellite servicing operations, 1984-97 255 Multimission Modular Spacecraft 256 Paving the way 258 A job well done 259 An orbital service station? 263 Rescue and repair 264 Summary 275 The Hubble Space Telescope servicing capability 278 EVA planning 278 The HST Shuttle missions 282 HST EVA experiences and observations 286 Summary 288 Shuttle EVAs: an appraisal 288 References ' 289

SPACE COMPLEXES The Mir programme, 1986-2001 292 EVA from Mir, 1987-2000 292 xii Table of contents

Exiting Mir 292 The Mir experience 295 Summary 305 EVA at the ISS: construction on a grand scale 309 Early studies and simulations 310 EVA and Space Station Freedom 316 Developing the technique 320 ISS EVA operations, 1998-2002 324 Quest or Pirs? 324 The wall of EVA 325 Summary 330

NEXT STEPS The future of EVA 333 The ISS: outpost in orbit 334 The Shuttle: return to flight 334 KERMIt: repairing the ISS 336 Space rescue by EVA? 337 The HST: rescue or re-entry? 339 Robots and EVA 339 A Chinese EVA? 341 Back to the Moon? 341 And so to Mars 341 And after that ...? 342 The lessons learned from EVA 344 References 345

Appendix 1 The spacewalkers 347 Appendix 2 World EVA log, 1965-2003 351 Bibliography 371 Index 375