Closing Comments

Home , Canadarm, Destiny in Space, Kennedy Space Center, Kristall, Mission control center, Mission to Mir

Closing Comments

The concept of a Shuttle supporting the assembly of a space station was not an entirely new idea when Space Station Freedom was authorized in 1984. Such concepts had been evaluated during the late 1960s, as the United States and the Soviet Union competed in the race to the Moon. By the early 1970s, the two nations were on more friendly terms and keen to participate in a joint project as Apollo was being phased out and a series of Salyut space stations were being introduced. The American proposal for an Apollo to dock with a Salyut was rejected, as was a proposal to have a Soyuz dock with Skylab. So Apollo docked with Soyuz in the summer of 1975. That program was so successful that talks began almost immediately to assess the pros- pects for a Shuttle-Salyut docking in the early 1980s. In parallel, NASA devised plans for the Shuttle to reactivate Skylab. Neither of these proposals bore fruit. By the early 1980s, the idea of using a Shuttle to assemble and resupply a large space station remained, and would become the lynchpin of the Space Station Freedom before plans for that, too, were revised. By the time of the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 the assembly of Mir had been underway for several years. But Russia, which inherited the station and the spacecraft which serviced it, was hard pressed to continue the requisite funding. Looking back two decades to the 1990s, the merger of the American Shuttle and the Russian space station programs seems so logical, since they complemented each other. From that cooperation emerged the Shuttle-Mir program which served as the precursor to the assembly of the International Space Station. But in the 1970s any suggestion of astronauts and cosmonauts working together in over fifty expeditions to two different space stations, Mir and the ISS, would have raised eyebrows. It was the Shuttle which served as the cornerstone, providing the capability to attain the goal of a continuously crewed international research facility in Earth orbit.

Endeavour stands on the pad ready to begin the assembly of the International Space Station, a task that would draw upon three decades of planning and development of the technologies required to assembly and supply a space station.

With hindsight it was perhaps also fortuitous that the Americans did not go straight into space station assembly for the Freedom program without the experience of flying Shuttle to Mir first. True there was little high-profile work completed with the RMS or on EVA at the Russian station, but there was a lot more which laid the groundwork for a smoother transi- tion to the ISS than would likely have been possible without the Mir docking missions. Clearly standing out above everything else was the ability of the crews to put into prac- tice actual rendezvous, docking, undocking, and proximity operations around the station. There was also the less glamorous matter of logistical transfer to and from an already overcrowded and aging station. Learning to work with the Russian (as distinct from the Soviets with ASTP and Shuttle-Salyut talks) and their very different systems and Closing Comments 211 procedures, ideology, and approach was particularly useful, and a clear insight of what could be expected during assembly of the ISS. Important data was also obtained on the mechanics of having a Shuttle remain docked to a large object for several days, well in advance of embarking on the assembly of the ISS.

Six months after the conclusion of the Shuttle-Mir program, STS-88, the first Shuttle mission to assemble the ISS was to link the first two elements of that station on-orbit (shown here in a computer graphic), marking the start of what would prove to be a thirteen year construction task.

The Shuttle mission to Mir proved the long held view that the Space Shuttle system was compatible with a station in space. By the time of the final mission in June 1998, another Shuttle was being prepared to launch to kick off a far more ambitious project. After decades of planning, testing, proposing, debating, and rehearsing, it was finally time to apply all the lessons with one of the largest international construction projects yet attempted – the International Space Station. That story is related in the companion volume Assembling and Supplying the ISS: The Space Shuttle Fulfills Its Mission. Afterword

Having learned the Russian language, trained in Star City and in Houston, and then flown on board Atlantis for the sixth Shuttle-Mir docking mission, I gained a good perspective on how two human spacefaring nations could learn from each other in a joint program. The Shuttle-Mir missions, also known as Phase-I of the ISS program, proved extremely valuable to all parties. NASA learned about long-duration missions and how to resupply a space station and contribute to its assembly. And the Russians learned how to cooperate with the Americans on the operational and human aspects. Also, when funds were missing in Moscow, the US financial contribution helped to keep Mir alive until the ISS became permanently manned. Once this Shuttle-Mir cooperation was well established, it just happened that the three types of worst life threatening, space emergencies occurred (fire, atmosphere toxicity, and air leak) within a period of a few months. The Russians demonstrated repeatedly their ability to manage successfully such situations, while the Americans showed their capability to maintain full trust in their new partners, even though US astronauts were on Mir during those emergencies. Without the vision, the leadership, and ultimately the success of this program, it is evident that the ISS would have not survived the Columbia accident in 2003, since there would have been no spaceships available to maintain its operations. This would have been catastrophic also for the programs of the other international partners. The Europeans, under their ESA umbrella, benefited well from the Shuttle-Mir program. They participated simultaneously through both the docking missions and several independent missions on board Mir, flying payloads and testing rendezvous technologies. As a result of this involvement with Mir, ESA was well prepared to exploit the Columbus laboratory of the ISS and to operate the ATV resupply vessel.

ESA astronaut Jean-François Clervoy. (Courtesy J-F. Clervoy)

Looking back at Shuttle-Mir, one can easily comprehend how the lessons learned have been applied to more than fifteen years of continuous successful exploitation of the ISS by more than fifteen partner nations. As an astronaut, like many of my space flyer colleagues, I can only hope that this success will open the door to cooperation with the Chinese, before the ISS has to be disman- tled. We would then be allowed to talk about a truly worldwide, and not just international cooperation, in pursuing humankind’s destiny in space and increasing wisdom on Earth. Jean-François Clervoy ESA Astronaut Class of 1992 (CNES astronaut 1985–1992) Mission Specialist 3, STS-66, Atlantis (ATLAS 3) Mission Specialist 1, STS-84, Atlantis-Mir (sixth docking) Mission Specialist 2, STS-103, Discovery (HST service mission SM-3A) Abbreviations

AAP Apollo Applications Program AFB Air Force Base ALT Approach and Landing Tests APAS Androgynous Peripheral Attachment System APU Auxiliary Power Unit ASTP Apollo Soyuz Test Project ASVS Advanced Space Vision System BUp Back-Up (astronaut) Capcom Capsule Communicator CB Astronaut Office, NASA JSC (CB = Directorate Mail Code) CDR Commander CDR Critical Design Review CEIT Crew Equipment Interface Test CG Center of Gravity CM Command Module (Apollo) CMG Control Moment Gyro CNES Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (French National Space Agency) COAS Crew Optical Alignment Sight CR Cosmonaut Researcher (on Mir) CSA Canadian Space Agency CSM Command and Service Module (Apollo) CTB Crew Transfer Bag DAP Digital Auto Pilot DM Docking Module DOR Director of Operations in Russia DSO Detailed Supplementary Objective DTO Detailed Test Objective EAFB Edwards Air Force Base

EMTT EVA Maintenance Task Team (Freedom) EMU Extravehicular Mobility Unit EO-XX Space station main expedition crew (Ekspeditsiya Osnovnaya) ESA European Space Agency ESRO European Space Research Organization ET External Tank EVA Extra Vehicular Activity (spacewalking) FCR Flight Control Room FD Flight Director (‘Flight’) FE Flight Engineer FGB Funktsionalno-Gruzovoy Blok (Functional Cargo Block) FY Financial Year (Fiscal) GAS Get Away Special GSFC (Robert F.) Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA, Greenbelt, Maryland) HB High Bay H-Bar Horizontal Bar (rendezvous mode) HHL Hand-Held Laser HST Hubble Space Telescope HTV H-II Transfer Vehicle (Japanese) IFA In-Flight Anomaly IFM In-Flight Maintenance IMU Inertial Measurement Unit ISS International Space Station IVA Intra Vehicular Activity JSC (Lyndon B.) Johnston Space Center (NASA, Houston, Texas) JWG Joint Working Group KSC (John F.) Kennedy Space Center (NASA, Florida) LB Low Bay LCC Launch Control Center LDEF Long Duration Exposure Facility LES Launch and Entry Suit LM Lunar Module (Apollo) Low Z Rendezvous approach mode LSEAT Launch Systems Evaluation Advisory Team LSSP Launch Site Support Plan LVLH Local Vertical Local Horizontal MCC-M Mission Control Center in Moscow MCC-H Mission Control Center in Houston MEEP Mir Environmental Effects Payloads MEIT Multi-Element Integration Testing MER Mission Evaluation Room MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology MLP Mobile Launch Platform MMT Mission Management Team MMU Manned Maneuvering Unit 216 Abbreviations

MOD Mission Operations Director MOL Manned Orbiting Laboratory MPS Main Propulsion System (STS) MRM Mini Research Module MS Mission Specialist MSC Manned Spacecraft Center (NASA, Houston, Texas) MSFC (George C.) Marshall Space Flight Center (NASA, Huntsville, Alabama) NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NC-burn Nominal Corrective burn NIH Nickel-Hydrogen NSC National Security Council O&C Operations and Checkout ODS Orbiter Docking System OFT Orbital Flight Test O&M Operations and Maintenance OMB Office of Management and Budget OMDP Orbiter Maintenance Down Period OMP Operational Maintenance and Inspection Program OMRF Orbiter Maintenance and Refurbishment Facility OMRSD Operations and Maintenance Requirements and Specifications Document OMS Orbital Maneuvering System OPCU Orbiter Power Conversion Unit (Freedom which became the SSPTS for the ISS) OPF Orbiter Processing Facility (KSC, Florida) ORBT Optimized R-Bar Target Rendezvous OV Orbital Vehicle (Space Shuttle) PASDE Photogrammetric Appendage Structure Dynamics Experiment PCT Post Contact Thrusting PDR Payload Deployment and Retrieval PFR Portable Foot Restraint PGHM Payload Ground Handling Mechanism PLT Pilot POHS Position Orientation Hold Selection (RMS software, pronounced ‘Posh’) PPK Personal Preference Kit RAM Research and Application Module (forerunner of Spacelab) R-Bar Rendezvous approach mode RCS Reaction Control System RME Risk Mitigation Experiment RMS Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm, Space Shuttle) ROEU Remotely Operated Electrical Umbilical (Freedom) RPM R-Bar Pitch Manoeuver RPOP Rendezvous and Proximity Operations Program RSA Russian Space Agency RSSA Recumbent Seat System Assembly SAFER Simplified Aid For EVA Rescue SAIL Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory Abbreviations 217

SAVE Structural Assembly Verification Experiment SCA Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (Boeing 747) S-IVB Saturn IB second, Saturn V third stage (Apollo) SLF Shuttle Landing Facility (KSC, Florida) SM Service Module (Apollo) SMS Shuttle Mission Simulator SNIP Shuttle Nose In Plane SNOOPy Shuttle Nose Out Of Plane SPAS Shuttle Pallet Applications Satellite (free-flyer) SPORTS Spacecraft Proximity Operations Real-Time Simulator SRB Solid Rocket Booster (STS) SSF Space Station Freedom SSME Space Shuttle Main Engine SSMEPF SSME Processing Facility SSPP Shuttle Small Payloads Project SSPSG Shuttle Salyut Payload Study Group STG Space Task Group SSTG Space Shuttle Task Group STA Shuttle Training Aircraft (Gulfstream) STS (National) Space Transportation System (Space Shuttle) TACAN Tactical Air Control And Navigation TAL Trans-Atlantic Landing (Shuttle abort mode) TCS Trajectory Control Sensor TI Terminal Phase Initial Burn TM Transportni Modifitsirovannyi (Transport, Modified Soyuz variant) TPS Thermal Protection System (Shuttle) TsPK Cosmonaut Training Center named for Yuri A. Gagarin UBA Unpressurized Berthing Adapter (Space Station Freedom) UHF Ultra High Frequency US United States USAF United States Air Force USMC United States Marine Corps USN United States Navy USSR Union of Soviet Socialistic Republics (1917–1991) V axis Rendezvous approach mode VAB Vehicle Assembly Building V-Bar Rendezvous approach mode VHF Very High Frequency VR Virtual Reality WAD Work Authorization Document WETF Weightless Environment Training Facility X axis Rendezvous approach mode Y axis Rendezvous approach mode Z axis Rendezvous approach mode Z-Bar Rendezvous approach mode Appendix 1: Shuttle-Mir Crewmembers 1994–1998

Space Agency Key: CSA (Canadian); CNES (French); ESA (European); RSA (Russian); NASA (American) Note: This list does not include those Shuttle crewmembers that transferred as part of a Mir resident crew or those who returned as a member of a Shuttle crew after a period of residency on Mir. They are list separately in Table 5.2. Akers, Thomas D., NASA; (September 16–26, 1996) MS2 STS-79 Anderson, Michael P., NASA; (January 22–31, 1998) MS2 STS-89 Apt, Jerome, NASA; (September 16–26, 1996) MS1 STS-79 Baker, Ellen L., NASA; (June 27–July 7, 1995) MS1 STS-71 Baker, Michael A., NASA, (January 12–22, 1997) CDR STS-81 Bloomfield, Michael J., NASA; (September 25–October 6, 1997) PLT STS-86 Bolden, Charles F., NASA; (February 3–11, 1994) CDR STS-60 Cameron, Kenneth D., NASA; (November 12–20, 1995) CDR STS-74 Chang-Diaz, Franklin R., NASA; (February 3–11, 1994) MS3 STS-60; (June 2–12, 1998) MS1 STS-91 Chilton, Kevin P., NASA, (March 22–31, 1996) CDR STS-76 Chretien, Jean-Loup J. M., CNES; (September 25–October 6, 1997) MS3 STS-86 Clervoy, Jean-François A., ESA, (May 15–24, 1997) MS1 STS-84 Clifford, M. Richard U., NASA, (March 22–31, 1996) MS2 STS-76 Collins, Eileen M., NASA; (Feb 3–11, 1995) PLT STS-63; (May 15–24, 1997) PLT STS-84 Davis, N. Jan., NASA; (February 3–11, 1994) MS1 STS-60 Dunbar, Bonnie J., NASA; (June 27–July 7, 1995) MS3 STS-71; (January 22–31, 1998) MS3 STS-89 Edwards Jr., Joe F., NASA; (January 22–31, 1998) PLT STS-89 Foale, C. Michael, NASA; (February 3–11, 1995) MS2, STS-63 Gibson, Robert L., NASA, (June 27–July 7, 1995) CDR STS-71 Godwin, Linda M., NASA, (March 22–31, 1996) MS3 STS-76

Gorie, Dominic L. P., NASA; (June 2–12, 1998) PLT STS-91 Grunsfeld, John M., NASA; (January 12–22, 1997) MS2 STS-81 Hadfield, Chris A., CSA; (November 12–20, 1995) MS1 STS-74 Halsell Jr., James D., NASA; (November 12–20, 1995) PLT STS-74 Harbaugh, Gregory J., NASA; (June 27–July 7, 1995) MS2 STS-71 Harris Jr., Bernard A., NASA; (February 3–11, 1995) MS1 STS-63 Husband, Rick D., NASA (May 27–June 6, 1999) PLT STS-96 Ivins, Marsha S., NASA, (January 12–22, 1997) MS3 STS-81 Jernigan, Tamara E., NASA (May 27–June 6, 1999) MS1 STS-96 Jett Jr., Brent W., NASA, (January 12–22, 1997) PLT STS-81 Kavandi, Janet L., NASA; (June 2–12, 1998) MS3 STS-91 Kondakova, Yelena V., RSA; (May 15–24, 1997) MS4 STS-84 Krikalev, Sergei K., RSA; (February 3–11, 1994) MS4 STS-60 Lawrence, Wendy B., NASA; (September 25–October 6, 1997) MS4 STS-86; (June 2–12, 1998) MS2 STS-91 Lu, Edward T., NASA, (May 15–24, 1997) MS3 STS-84 McArthur Jr., William S., NASA; (November 12–20, 1995) MS3 STS-74 Noriega, Carlos I., NASA, (May 15–24, 1997) MS1 STS-84 Parazynski, Scott E., NASA; (September 25–October 6, 1997) MS2 STS-86 Precourt, Charles J., NASA, (June 27–July 7, 1995) PLT STS-71; (May 15–24, 1997) CDR STS-84; (June 2–12, 1998) CDR STS-91 Readdy, William F., NASA, (September 16–26, 1996) CDR STS-79 Reightler Jr., Kenneth S., NASA; (February 3–11, 1994) PLT STS-60 Reilly II., James F., NASA; (January 22–31, 1998) MS1 STS-89 Ross, Jerry L., NASA; (November 12–20, 1995) MS2 STS-74 Ryumin, Valeri V. RSA; (June 2–12, 1998) MS4 STS-91 Searfoss, Richard A., NASA, (March 22–31, 1996) PLT STS-76 Sega, Ronald M., NASA, (February 3–11, 1994) MS2 STS-60; (March 22–31, 1996) MS1 STS-76 Sharipov, Salizhan S., RSA; (January 22–31, 1998) MS4 STS-89 Titov, Vladimir G., RSA; (Feb 3–11, 1995) MS4 STS-63; (September 25–October 6, 1997) MS1, STS-86 Voss, Janice E., NASA; (Feb 3–11, 1995) MS3, STS-63 Walz, Carl E., NASA, (September 16–26, 1996) MS3, STS-79 Wetherbee, James D., NASA; (February 3–11, 1995) CDR STS-63; (September 25– October 6, 1997) CDR STS-86 Wilcutt, Terrance W., NASA, (September 16–26, 1996) PLT STS-79; (January 22–31, 1998) CDR STS-89 Appendix 2: Space Shuttle/Space Station Freedom Assembly Manifests 1986–1993

Tracking the constantly changing manifest for Shuttle payloads has always been a chal- lenge for researchers. I have attempted to list the changes in the manifest for Shuttle missions associated Space Station Freedom. Starting from the 1970s, and throughout the Shuttle program, NASA regularly released updated manifests that showed projected and planned launch dates, vehicle assignment and the payloads assigned to individual Shuttle missions. Originally called “STS Space Shuttle Payload Flight Assignments,” these were compiled primarily to assist the aerospace community. They were issued by the Customer Service Division of NASA Headquarters and reflected the assignments at the date of publi- cation. In addition to pending flights and payloads they listed missions that had already been flown. From 1987, following the tragic loss of Challenger, these documents were issued as “NASA Mixed Fleet Payload Flight Assignments” because they covered not only Shuttle flights and payloads but also the fleet of US expendable launch vehicles. These documents are very useful for following the development and fates of payloads meant to be launched by Shuttle. From the late 1990s they appeared more on-line than in print form.

STS SPACE SHUTTLE PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS, OCTOBER 3, 1986

Long lead assignments for the Space Station (SS) began to appear in the manifests in 1993. No specific flights were identified, but SS-7 and SS-11 in 1994 were scheduled for launch into polar orbits from SLC-6 at Vandenberg AFB, California. 1993 1st Quarter: SS-1 2nd Quarter: SS-2; SS-3 3rd Quarter: SS-4 4th Quarter: SS-5

1994 1st Quarter: SS-6; SS-7 (Vandenberg) 2nd Quarter: SS-8; SS-9 3rd Quarter: SS-10; SS-11 (Vandenberg) 4th Quarter: SS-12

PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS: NASA MIXED FLEET, OCTOBER 22, 1987

A year later, with the Shuttle fleet still grounded, additional details were forthcoming with flight dates listed for not only NASA’s station-related payloads but also for the Industrial Space Facility (ISF) that was being developed by Space Industries, Inc., of Houston, Texas. These dates were for planning purposes only and since they were not formally manifested they were subject to change – as indeed they often would be over the coming years.

Industrial Space Facility (ISF)

The US company Space Industries, Inc., (SII) was to produce a commercially owned Industrial Space Facility (ISF) that would be launched aboard the Shuttle, left in space, and later tended by visiting Shuttles. These were independent of the main space station program, and in effect in direct competition for flight assignments on the Shuttle. The planned launches were listed as: ISF-01, July 1991 ISF-02, November 1991 ISF-03, March 1992 ISF-04, July 1992 ISF-05, November 1992 ISF-06, March 1993 ISF-07, July 1993 ISF-08, November 1993 ISF-09, March 1994 ISF-10, July 1994 ISF-11, November 1994 ISF-12, March 1995 ISF-13, July 1995 ISF-14, November 1995

Space Station (SS)

A series of 20 Shuttle payloads were identified to support the assembly and outfitting of the Space Station, which was at that time without a formal name. 222 Appendix 2

SS-01 (Assembly), January 1994 SS-02 (Assembly), April 1994 SS-03 (Assembly), July 1994 SS-04 (Assembly), October 1994 SS-05 (Assembly), December 1994 SS-06 (US Laboratory), January 1995 SS-07 (US Laboratory outfitting), March 1995 SS-08 (US Habitation Module), May 1995 SS-09 (Outfitting), July 1995 SS-10 (Crew/Logistics), October 1995 SS-11 (US Polar Platform), October 1995 – Vandenberg (could by via ELV?) SS-12 (Assembly), November 1995 SS-13 (Logistics/Crew), January 1996 SS-14 (Japanese Experiment Module/Crew), February 1996 SS-15 (Japanese Logistics Module/Crew), April 1996 SS-16 (ESA Laboratory), May 1996 SS-17 (Logistics/Crew), July 1996 SS-18 (Logistics), August 1996 SS-19 (Logistics/Crew), October 1996 SS-20 (Outfitting), January 1997

PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS: NASA MIXED FLEET, MARCH 1988

Just six months later, and half a year before the Shuttle resumed flying after the loss of Challenger, a new manifest documented slips in the projected launch dates of both ISF and Space Station payloads.

Industrial Space Facility (ISF)

ISF-01, July 1991, NASA planned launch date July 23, 1992 ISF-02, November 1991, NASA planned launch date January 14, 1993 ISF-03, March 1992 ISF-04, July 1992 ISF-05, November 1992 ISF-06, March 1993 ISF-07, July 1993 ISF-08, November 1993 ISF-09, March 1994 ISF-10, July 1994 ISF-11, November 1994 ISF-12, March 1995 ISF-13, July 1995 ISF-14, November 1995 Appendix 2 223

Space Station (SS)

SS-01 (Assembly), January 1995 SS-02 (Assembly), April 1995 SS-03 (Assembly), July 1995 SS-04 (Assembly), September 1995 SS-05 (Assembly), November 1995 SS-06 (US Laboratory), January 1996 SS-07 (US Laboratory outfitting), March 1996 SS-08 (US Habitation Module), May 1996 SS-09 (Outfitting), July 1996 SS-10 (Crew/Logistics), October 1996 SS-11 (US Polar Platform), October 1996 – Vandenberg (could by via ELV?) SS-12 (Assembly), November 1996 SS-13 (Logistics/Crew), January 1997 SS-14 (Japanese Experiment Module/Crew), February 1997 SS-15 (Japanese Logistics Module/Crew), April 1997 SS-16 (ESA Laboratory), May 1997 SS-17 (Logistics/Crew), July 1997 SS-18 (Logistics), August 1997 SS-19 (Logistics/Crew), October 1997 SS-20 (Outfitting), November 1997

PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS: NASA MIXED FLEET, JANUARY 1989

By 1989 the Shuttle was operating once again, but Columbia was not scheduled to return to flight until later in the year and a back log of important and time-critical payloads further postponed the projected dates for ISF and Space Station missions. Indeed only three ISF launches were formally planned, the other eleven being ‘for NASA planning purposes only’ and with no details.

Industrial Space Facility (ISF)

ISF-01, July 1992, NASA planned launch date January 11, 1993 ISF-02, January 1993, NASA planned launch date July 15, 1993 ISF-03, July 1993, NASA planned launch date February 3, 1994 ISF-04, January 1994 (for NASA planning purposes) ISF-05, July 1994 ISF-06, January 1995 ISF-07, July 1995 ISF-08, January 1996 ISF-09, July 1996 ISF-10, January 1997 224 Appendix 2

ISF-11, July 1997 ISF-12, January 1998 ISF-13, July 1998 ISF-14, January 1999

Space Station (SS)

SS-01 (Assembly), March 1995 SS-02 (Assembly), June 1995 SS-03 (Assembly), September1995 SS-04 (Assembly), October 1995 SS-05 (Assembly), December 1995 SS-06 (US Laboratory), February 1996 SS-07 (US Laboratory outfitting), March 1996 SS-08 (US Habitation Module), May 1996 SS-09 (Outfitting), June 1996 SS-10 (Crew/Logistics), August 1996 SS-11 (US Polar Platform), September 1996 SS-12 (Assembly), November 1996 SS-13 (Logistics/Crew), December 1996 SS-14 (Japanese Experiment Module/Crew), February 1997 SS-15 (Japanese Logistics Module/Crew), March 1997 SS-16 (ESA Laboratory), May 1997 SS-17 (Logistics/Crew), June 1997 SS-18 (Logistics), August 1997 SS-19 (Logistics/Crew), September 1997 SS-20 (Outfitting), November 1997

PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS: NASA MIXED FLEET, JUNE 1989

By the summer of 1989 the ISF launches had slipped further, but at least the Space Station had gained a formal name: Freedom.

Industrial Space Facility (ISF)

ISF-01, February 1994, NASA planned launch date February 7, 1994 ISF-02, August 1994, NASA planned launch date November 20, 1994 ISF-03, February 1995, NASA planned launch date My 10, 1995 ISF-04, August 1995 (for NASA planning purposes) ISF-05, February 1996 ISF-06, August 1996 ISF-07, February 1997 Appendix 2 225

ISF-08, August 1997 ISF-09, February 1998 ISF-10, August 1998 ISF-11, February 1999 ISF-12, August 1999 ISF-13, February 2000 ISF-14, August 2000

Space Station Freedom (SSF) Phase-I

SSF-01 (Assembly), March 1995 (launch date March 2, 1995) SSF-02 (Assembly), June 1995 (launch date June 6, 1995) SSF-03 (Assembly), September1995 (launch date September 7, 1995) SSF-04 (Assembly), October 1995 SSF-05 (Assembly), December 1995 SSF-06 (US Laboratory), February 1996 SSF-07 (US Laboratory outfitting), March 1996 SSF-08 (US Habitation Module), May 1996 SSF-09 (Outfitting), June 1996 SSF-10 (Crew/Logistics), August 1996 SSF-11 (US Polar Platform), September 1996 SSF-12 (Assembly), November 1996 SSF-13 (Logistics/Crew), December 1996 SSF-14 (Japanese Experiment Module/Crew), February 1997 SSF-15 (Japanese Logistics Module/Crew), March 1997 SSF-16 (ESA Laboratory), May 1997 SSF-17 (Logistics/Crew), June 1997 SSF-18 (Logistics), August 1997 SSF-19 (Logistics/Crew), September 1997 SSF-20 (Outfitting), November 1997

PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS: NASA MIXED FLEET, JANUARY 1990

In the January 1990 manifest, more details were forthcoming regarding plans for the early assembly of Space Station Freedom.

Industrial Space Facility (ISF)

ISF-01, February 1994, NASA planned launch date February 3, 1994 ISF-02, August 1994, NASA planned launch date October 27, 1994 ISF-03, February 1995, NASA planned launch date May 30, 1995 ISF-04, August 1995 (for NASA planning purposes) 226 Appendix 2

ISF-05, February 1996 ISF-06, August 1996 ISF-07, February 1997 ISF-08, August 1997 ISF-09, February 1998 ISF-10, August 1998 ISF-11, February 1999 ISF-12, August 1999 ISF-13, February 2000 ISF-14, August 2000

Space Station Freedom

SSF/L = Logistics support materials SSF/MB = Manned Base components SSF/OF = Outfitting Flight for on-orbit laboratories SSF/MB-01, First Element Launch (FEL) March 1995 (launch date March 9, 1995) STS-89 (Endeavour) 7 days with a crew of 7 SSF/MB-02, June 1995 (launch date June 22, 1995) STS-92 (Endeavour) 7 days with a crew of 7 SSF/MB-03, August 1995 (launch date August 10, 1995) STS-93 (Discovery) 7 days with a crew of 7 SSF/MB-04, November 1995 (launch date November 16, 1995) STS-96 (Discovery) 7 days with a crew of 7 SSF/MB-05, January 1996 (launch date February 8, 1996) STS-99 (Endeavour) 7 days with a crew of 7 SSF/MB-06, April 1996 (launch date March 28, 1996) STS-101 (Atlantis) 7 days with a crew of 7 SSF/MB-07, Man-Tended Capability (MTC) June 1996 (launch date June 20, 1996) STS-104 (Discovery) 7 days with a crew of seven, lab operations now possible when a Shuttle Orbiter is present SSF/OF-01, August 1996 (launch date September 19, 1996) STS-107 (Endeavour) 7 days with a crew of 7 SSF/MB-08, November 1996 SSF/MB-09, January 1997 SSF/OF-02, April 1997 SSF/MB-10, June 1997 SSF/L-01, Permanently Manned Capability (PMC) July 1997, four person resident crews with periodic rotation SSF/MB-11, September 1997 SSF/L-02, October 1997 SSF/L-03, December 1997 SSF/MB-12, February 1998 SSF/L-04, March 1998 Appendix 2 227

SSF/L-05, April 1998 SSF/L-06, July 1998 SSF/MB-13, June 1998 SSF/MB-14, September 1998 SSF/L-07, October 1998 SSF/L-08, December 1998 SSF/OF-03, January 1999 SSF/L-09, March 1999 SSF/L-10, April 1999 SSF/OF-04, June 1999 SSF/L-11, July 1999

PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS: NASA MIXED FLEET, DECEMBER 1990

By the end of 1990 only three ISF launches remained on the manifest. Also, the first seven Space Station Freedom missions (whose objective was to gain the Man-tended capability) had become more fluid in their planning and less detailed in their content.

Industrial Space Facility (ISF)

ISF-01, July 1997 ISF-02, January 1998 ISF-03, January 1999

Space Station Freedom

SSF/L = Logistics support materials SSF/MB = Manned Base components SSF/OF = Outfitting Flight for on-orbit laboratories SSF/MB-01, First Element Launch (FEL) 2nd Qtr FY95 SSF/MB-02, 4th Qtr FY95 SSF/MB-03, 1st Qtr FY96 SSF/MB-04, 1st Qtr FY96 SSF/MB-05, 2nd Qtr FY96 SSF/MB-06, 3rd Qtr FY96 SSF/MB-07, Man-Tended Capability (MTC) 4th Qtr FY96 SSF/OF-01, 4th Qtr FY96 SSF/MB-08, November 1996 SSF/MB-09, January 1997 SSF/OF-02, April 1997 SSF/MB-10, June 1997 SSF/L-01, Permanently Manned Capability (PMC) crew rotation July 1997 228 Appendix 2

SSF/MB-11, September 1997 SSF/L-02, October 1997 SSF/L-03, December 1997 SSF/MB-12, February 1998 SSF/L-04, March 1998 SSF/L-05, April 1998 SSF/L-06, July 1998 SSF/MB-13, June 1998 SSF/MB-14, September 1998 SSF/L-07, October 1998 SSF/L-08, December 1998 SSF/OF-03, January 1999 SSF/L-09, March 1999 SSF/L-10, April 1999 SSF/OF-04, June 1999 SSF/L-11, July 1999

PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS: NASA MIXED FLEET, FEBRUARY 1991

By 1991 plans for Space Station Freedom were in trouble, with the first five missions being assigned only flexible dates through FY 1996

Industrial Space Facility (ISF)

ISF-01, July 1997 ISF-02, January 1998 ISF-03, January 1999

Space Station Freedom

SSF/L = Logistics support materials SSF/MB = Manned Base components SSF/OF = Outfitting Flight for on-orbit laboratories SSF/MB-01, First Element Launch (FEL) 4th Qtr FY95 SSF/MB-02, 1st Qtr FY96 SSF/MB-03, 2nd Qtr FY96 SSF/MB-04, 3rd Qtr FY96 SSF/MB-05, 4th Qtr FY96 SSF/MB-06, Man-Tended Capability (MTC) SSF/MB-07 SSF/OF-01 SSF/MB-08 Appendix 2 229

SSF/MB-09 SSF/OF-02 SSF/MB-10 SSF/L-01, Permanently Manned Capability (PMC) SSF/MB-11 SSF/L-02 SSF/L-03 SSF/MB-12 SSF/L-04 SSF/L-05 SSF/L-06 SSF/MB-13 SSF/MB-14 SSF/L-07 SSF/L-08 SSF/OF-03 SSF/L-09 SSF/L-10 SSF/OF-04 SSF/L-11

PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS: NASA MIXED FLEET, AUGUST 1991

In this manifest, changes were evident in the renaming of some flights assigned to Space Station Freedom.

Industrial Space Facility (ISF)

ISF-01, July 1997 ISF-02, January 1998 ISF-03, January 1999

Space Station Freedom

SSF/MB = Manned Base components SSF/UF = Utilization Flight SSF/MB-01, First Element Launch (FEL) 2nd Qtr FY96 SSF/MB-02, 2nd Qtr FY96 SSF/MB-03, 3rd Qtr FY96 SSF/MB-04, 4th Qtr FY96 SSF/MB-05, 2nd Qtr FY97 SSF/MB-06, Man-Tended Capability (MTC) 3rd Qtr FY97 230 Appendix 2

SSF/MB-07, 3rd Qtr FY97 SSF/UF-01, 4th Qtr FY97 SSF/MB-08, 4th Qtr FY97 SSF/MB-09 SSF/UF-02 SSF/MB-10 SSF/MB-11 SSF/UF-03 SSF/MB-12 SSF/UF-04 SSF/UF-05 SSF/UF-06 SSF/MB-13 SSF/MB-14 SSF/UF-07 SSF/UF-08 SSF/MB-15 SSF/MB-16 SSF/MB-17 SSF/MB-18

PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS: NASA MIXED FLEET, JANUARY 1992

Though both ISF and Space Station Freedom missions continued to be listed in the manifest, details were sketchy, and no Shuttle missions were projected with either project.

Industrial Space Facility (ISF)

ISF-01, July 1997 ISF-02, January 1998 ISF-03, January 1999

Space Station Freedom

SSF/MB = Manned Base components SSF/UF = Utilization Flight SSF/MB-01, First Element Launch (FEL) 2nd Qtr FY96 SSF/MB-02, 2nd Qtr FY96 SSF/MB-03, 3rd Qtr FY96 SSF/MB-04, 4th Qtr FY96 SSF/MB-05, 1st Qtr FY97 SSF/MB-06, Man-Tended Capability (MTC) 1st Qtr FY97 Appendix 2 231

SSF/MB-07, 3rd Qtr FY97 SSF/UF-01, 3rd Qtr FY97 SSF/MB-08, 4th Qtr FY97 SSF/UF-02, 4th Qtr FY97 SSF/MB-09, 1st Qtr FY98 SSF/UF-03, 2nd Qtr FY98 SSF/MB-10, 3rd Qtr FY98 SSF/MB-11, 3rd Qtr FY98 SSF/UF-04, 4th Qtr FY98 SSF/MB-12, 4th Qtr FY98 SSF/UF-05, 4th Qtr FY98 SSF/UF-06 SSF/MB-13 SSF/MB-14 SSF/UF-07 SSF/UF-08 SSF/MB-15 SSF/MB-16 SSF/MB-17 SSF/MB-18

PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS: NASA MIXED FLEET, APRIL 1993

By 1993 Space Station Freedom had been canceled for all intents and purposes, as the notes in this manifest release said: “The FY96-99 Shuttle manifest planning is omitted pending space station redesign.” This represents one of the last listings of assignments under the heading of “Freedom” and the absence of dates or details underlines the fact that it was an abandoned plan.

Industrial Space Facility (ISF)

ISF-01, July 1997 ISF-02, January 1998 ISF-03, January 1999

Space Station Freedom

SSF/MB = Manned Base components SSF/UF = Utilization Flight SSF/MB-01, First Element Launch (FEL) SSF/MB-02 232 Appendix 2

SSF/MB-03 SSF/MB-04 SSF/MB-05 SSF/MB-06, Man-Tended Capability (MTC) SSF/MB-07 SSF/UF-01 SSF/MB-08 SSF/UF-02 SSF/MB-09 SSF/UF-03 SSF/MB-10 SSF/MB-11 SSF/UF-04 SSF/MB-12 SSF/UF-05 SSF/UF-06 SSF/MB-13 SSF/MB-14 SSF/UF-07 SSF/UF-08 SSF/MB-15 SSF/MB-16 SSF/MB-17 SSF/MB-18 After this manifest, the development of Shuttle missions involving the Mir space station and later the International Space Station began to appear. For an account of these, see the companion title Assembling and Supplying the ISS: The Space Shuttle Fulfills Its Mission. Bibliography

As with previous projects, I referred to a wide range of material over several years in support of both books which make up this project and the primary sources have been listed in footnotes. In compiling the tables, some data was found to conflict or simply could not be found. I would welcome any additional information to fill in the gaps in the tables for future reference and completeness.

INTERVIEWS

A number of personal interviews were conducted in connection with the titles of this project and in support of related research and writings. In several cases, I undertook supplementary correspondence via E-mails. The interviews and correspondence that directly relate to this project included:

Name Date Akers, Tom November 11, 2013, plus E-mail, December 11, 2015 Chiao, Leroy June 6, 2006 Clervoy, Jean-François August 24, 2006; December 9, 2011, plus December 9, 2015, E-mail December 2015 Crippen, Robert February 5, 2013 Hawley, Steve March 1, 2012, E-mail March 8, 2016 Jones, Thomas August 3, 2006 Kavandi, Janet October 11, 2015, plus E-mail November 13, 2015 McArthur, William May 31, 2006 Nelson, George July 23, 2013 Newman, James December 6, 2013 Ochoa, Ellen March 2, 2004 Richards, Paul November 24, 2013 Rominger, Kent May 23, 2006 Ross, Jerry E-mail April 28, 2015 Smith, Steve May 23, 2006, February 15, 2013 Tanner, Joe February 28, 2012, plus E-mail December 13, 2015

PERIODICALS

Aviation Week & Space Technology Capcom Countdown Flight International Journal of the British Interplanetary Society (JBIS) Orbiter (AIS) Spaceflight (BIS)

NEWSPAPERS

Florida Today Houston Chronicle Houston Post The Daily Telegraph, London The Time, London Washington Post

NASA PUBLICATIONS

1994–2011 Extensive use of the NASA Shuttle Press Kits and mission information in hardcopy form, on-line or from the AIS Shuttle Mission Archive Collection 1984 Space Transportation System Facilities and Operations, Kennedy Space Center, Florida, K-STSM-01, Appendix A, April 1984 Revision A 1988 National Space Transportation System Overview, September 1988 1993 Orbiter Processing Facility Payload Processing Support Capabilities, K-STSM-14.1.13-REVD-OPF, October 1993 1993–2011 Astronauts and Aeronautics, A Chronology, NASA SP various editions 1993–2011 Chronology of KSC and KSC Related Events, NASA TM various editions 1993 EVA Tools and Equipment Reference Book NASA TM-109350/JSC-24066 Rev-B, November 1993 1997 Walking to Olympus: An EVA Chronology, David S.F. Portree and Robert C. Treviño, NASA Monographs in Aerospace History #7 2006 Reference Guide to the International Space Station, Editor Gary Kitmacher NASA SP-2006-557 2007 Survey and Evaluation of NASA-owned Historical Facilities and Properties in the Context of the U.S. Space Shuttle Program, John F. Kennedy Space Center, Brevard County, Florida, Archaeological Consultants, Inc., Sarasota, Florida, Volume 1, October 2007 2010 Historical Survey and Evaluation of the Space Station Processing Facility, John F. Kennedy Space Center, Brevard County, Florida. Archaeological Consultants, Inc., Sarasota, Florida, September 2010 Bibliography 235

2011 Space Shuttle Mission Summary, Robert D. (‘Bob’) Legler and Floyd V. Bennett, Mission Operations, DA8, NASA JSC, Houston, Texas, NASA TM-2011-216142, September 2011

MEDIA PUBLICATIONS

1984 Space Transportation System Press Information, Rockwell International, January 1984 1998–2000 International Space Station, Press Information Book, Mission Modules and Station Overview through September 2000, Boeing

BRITISH INTERPLANETARY SOCIETY BOOKS AND ARTICLES

1991 The Proposed USSR Salyut and US Shuttle Docking Mission c.1991, David J. Shayler, JBIS, Volume 44, pp 553–562 2000 The History of Mir 1986–2000, Editor Rex Hall 2002 The International Space Station, From Imagination to Reality, Editor Rex Hall 2005 The International Space Station, From Imagination to Reality, Vol. 2, Editor Rex Hall

SPRINGER-PRAXIS SERIES IN SPACE EXPLORATION

2001 Skylab, America’s Space Station, David J. Shayler 2002 The Continuing Story of the International Space Station, Peter Bond – Creating the International Space Station, David M. Harland and John E. Catchpole 2004 Walking in Space, David J. Shayler – The Story of the Space Shuttle, David M. Harland 2005 Russia’s Cosmonauts, Inside the Yuri Gagarin Training Center, Rex D. Hall, David J. Shayler and Bert Vis. – The Story of Space Station Mir, David M. Harland 2007 Praxis Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006, Tim Furniss, David J. Shayler with Michael D. Shayler 2008 The International Space Station, Building for the Future, John E. Catchpole 2010 Prepare for Launch, The Astronaut Training Process, Erik Seedhouse 2012 U.S. Spacesuits, 2nd Edition, Kenneth S. Thomas and Harold J. McMann 2013 Manned Spaceflight Log II 2006–2012, David J. Shayler and Michael D. Shayler 2014 To Orbit and Back Again, How the Space Shuttle Flew in Space, Davide Sivolella – Partnership in Space, The Mid to Late Nineties, Ben Evans 2015 The Twenty-First Century in Space, Ben Evans 2016 Hubble Space Telescope, From Concept to Success, David J. Shayler with David M. Harland. – Enhancing Hubble’s Vision, Service Missions That Expanded Our View of the Universe, David J. Shayler with David M. Harland 236 Bibliography

OTHER BOOKS

1985 The Space Station, An Idea Whose Time Has Come, Editor Theodore R. Simpson, IEEE Press 1987 The Space Station, A Personal Journey, Hans Mark, Duke University Press 1990 The Space Station Decision, Increment Policy and Technological Choice, Howard E. McCurdy, New Series in NASA History, John Hopkins University Press 2001 Space Shuttle, The History of the National Space Transportation System, The First 100Missions, Dennis R. Jenkins, Midland Publishing 2002 The Space Shuttle Decision 1965–1972, Volume 1, T. A. Heppenheimer, Smithsonian Institute Press – Development of the Space Shuttle 1972–1981, Vol. 2, T. A. Heppenheimer, Smithsonian Institute Press 2006 Sky Walking, An Astronaut’s Memoir, Tom Jones, Smithsonian Books. 2007 Space Shuttle Fact Archive, Pocket Space Guide, Robert Godwin, Apogee Books 2012 International Space Station 1998–2011 (All Stages), Owner’s Workshop Manual, David Baker, Haynes Publishing 2013 An Astronaut’s Guide to Life on Earth, Chris Hadfield, Macmillan. – Spacewalker, My Journey in Space and Faith as NASA’s Record-Setting Frequent Flyer, Jerry L. Ross, with John Norberg, Purdue University Press. – Great Endeavour, The Missions of the Space Shuttle Endeavour, Robert A. Adamcik, Apogee Prime 2015 The Orbital Perspective, An Astronaut’s View, Ron Garan, John Blake Publishing Ltd. – The Ordinary Spaceman, From Boyhood Dreams to Astronaut, Clayton C. Anderson, Nebraska University Press. About the Author

Space historian David J. Shayler, FBIS (Fellow of the British Interplanetary Society or – as Dave likes to call it – Future Briton In Space!) was born in England in 1955. His life- long interest in space exploration began by drawing rockets aged five, but it was not until the launch of Apollo 8 to the Moon in December 1968 that this interest in human space exploration became a passion. He recalls staying up all night with his grandfather to watch the Apollo 11 moonwalk. Dave joined the British Interplanetary Society as a Member in January 1976, became an Associate Fellow in 1983, and a Fellow in 1984. He was elected to the Council of the BIS in 2013. His first articles were published by the Society in the late 1970s, and then in 1982 he set up Astro Info Service in order to focus his research efforts (www.astroinfoservice.co.uk). His first book was published in 1987, and has been followed by over twenty other titles on the American and Russian space programs, spacewalking, women in space, and the human exploration of Mars. His authorized biography of Skylab 4 astronaut Jerry Carr was published in 2008. In 1989 Dave applied as a cosmonaut candidate for the UK’s Project Juno program in cooperation with the Soviet Union (now Russia). The mission was to spend seven days in space aboard the Mir space station. Dave did not reach the final selection, but progressed further than he expected. The mission was flown in May 1991 by Helen Sharman. In support of his research, Dave has visited NASA field centers in Houston and Florida in the USA and the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Russia. It was during these trips that he was able to conduct in-depth research, interview many space explorers and workers, tour training facilities, and handle real space hardware. He also gained a valuable insight into the activities of a space explorer, as well as the realities of not only flying and living in space but also what goes into preparing for a mission and planning future programs. Dave is a friend of many former astronauts and cosmonauts, some of whom have accompanied him on visits to schools all across the UK. For over thirty years, he has deliv- ered space-themed presentations and workshops to members of the public in an effort to increase popular awareness of the history and development of human space exploration. Dave has a particular desire to help the younger generation to develop an interest in science and technology and the world around them.

Dave lives in the West Midlands region of the UK and enjoys spending time with his wife Bel, a youthful and enormous white German Shepherd that answers to the name of Shado, and indulging in his loves of cooking, fine wines, and classical music. His other interests are in reading, especially about military history, in particular the Napoleonic Wars, visiting historical sites and landmarks, and following Formula 1 motor racing. Other Works by the Author

Other space exploration books by David J. Shayler Challenger Fact File (1987), ISBN 0-86101-272-0 Apollo 11 Moon Landing (1989), ISBN 0-7110-1844-8 Exploring Space (1994), ISBN 0-600-58199-3 All About Space (1999), ISBN 0-7497-4005-X Around the World in 84 Days: The Authorized Biography of Skylab Astronaut Jerry Carr (2008), ISBN 9781-894959-40-7

With Harry Siepmann NASA Space Shuttle (1987), ISBN 0-7110-1681-X

Other books by David J. Shayler in this series Disasters and Accidents in Manned Spaceflight (2000), ISBN 1-85233-225-5 Skylab: America’s Space Station (2001), ISBN 1-85233-407-X Gemini: Steps to the Moon (2001), ISBN 1-85233-405-3 Apollo: The Lost and Forgotten Missions (2002), ISBN 1-85233-575-0 Walking in Space (2004), ISBN 1-85233-710-9 Space Rescue (2007), ISBN 978-0-387-69905-9 Assembling and Supplying the ISS: The Space Shuttle Fulfills Its Mission (2017), ISBN 978-3-319-40441-7

With Rex Hall The Rocket Men (2001), ISBN 1-85233-391-X Soyuz: A Universal Spacecraft (2003), ISBN 1-85233-657-9

With Rex Hall and Bert Vis Russia’s Cosmonauts (2005), ISBN 0-38721-894-7

With Ian Moule Women in Space: Following Valentina (2005), ISBN 1-85233-744-3

With Colin Burgess NASA Scientist Astronauts (2006), ISBN 0-387-21897-1 The Last of NASA’s Original Pilot Astronauts (2017), ISBN 978-3-319-51012-5

With David M. Harland The Hubble Space Telescope: From Concept to Success (2016), ISBN 978-1-4939-2826-2 Enhancing Hubble’s Vision: Service Missions That Expanded Our View of the Universe (2016), ISBN 978-3-319-22643-9

Other books by David J. Shayler and Michael D. Shayler in this series Manned Spaceflight Log II – 2006–2012 (2013), ISBN 978-1-4614-4576-0

With Andy Salmon Marswalk One: First Steps on a New Planet (2005), ISBN 1-85233-792-3

With Tim Furniss Praxis Manned Spaceflight Log: 1961–2006 (2007), ISBN 0-387-34175-7 Index

A Clervoy, J.-F., 84, 92, 100, 104, 126, 131–133, Advanced Space Vision System (ASVS), 155–157 135, 153, 164, 168, 174, 188, 189, 191, Akers, T.D., 98, 185 194, 197–201, 205, 208 Anderson, M.P., 145 Clifford, M. R.U., 84, 98, 140, 158–160, 182 Apollo mission, 3–5, 12, 14, 15 Cockrell, K.D., 103, 203 Apollo programs, 2, 5, 7, 10, 11, 14 Collins, E.M., 84, 92, 93, 100, 174, 197 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, 5, 15, 109, 122, 137 Columbia (OV-102), 7, 33, 41–42, 62, 67–70, 87, Apt, J., 98 112, 202, 212 Assembly flights, 42, 87, 100, 103, 118, 157 Columbus (European laboratory module), 31, 40 Atlantis (OV-104), 41–42, 54, 62, 66, 68–70, 79, Crawler Transporter, 64, 65, 70, 72, 78 81, 137, 139, 142–157, 160–162, 175, Crew Equipment Interface Test (CEIT), 190 185, 190, 197, 200, 206–207, 212 Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS), 44, 114, 118

B Baker, E.L., 84, 86, 97, 172 D Baker, M.A., 84, 98–100, 186 Davis, N.J., 92, 157 Bloomfield, M.J., 84, 101 Detailed Supplementary Objectives (DSOs), 131, Boeing, 121, 201, 206 166, 197 Bolden, C.F., 92 Detailed Test Objectives (DTOs), 88, 131, Budarin, N., 84, 86, 93, 94, 97, 137, 148 166, 197 Director of Operations–Russia (DOR), 95, 100, 108–111, 153 C Discovery (OV-103), 41–42, 62, 67–68, 70, 81, Cabana, R.D., 103 137–139, 146, 162 Cameron, K.D., 84, 95, 97, 109, 182 Dezhurov, V., 84, 86, 93–95, 97, 137, Canada, 6, 37, 51, 52, 81, 83, 97, 148, 155, 164 140, 172 Canadarm (Shuttle), 8 Director of Operations–Russia (DOR), 95, Canadian Space Agency (CSA), 84, 97, 104, 97–100, 108–109, 134, 153 123, 157 Discovery (OV-103), 70, 137 Challenger (OV-099), 18, 36, 40–41, 46, 49, 51, Docking, 2, 10, 42, 55, 82, 106, 137, 152, 60, 74, 87, 202, 221, 223 170, 192 Chang-Diaz, F.R., 84, 92, 204 Docking module (DM), 14, 31, 55, 63, 76, 97, Chilton, K.P., 84, 97, 98 122, 132, 133, 137, 139, 154–157, Chretien, J.-L., 84, 101, 104, 144, 182 159–161, 163, 175, 194

Docking systems Gemini (Program), 3, 111 Agena, 12, 111, 115 Gibson, R.L., 25, 84, 86, 97, 140, 182 Androgynous Peripheral Docking System Godwin, L.M., 98, 140, 158–160 (APAS), 122, 195 Gorie, D.L., 84, 103 Apollo, 1–7, 10–12, 14, 15, 27–32, 37, 41, 51, Grunsfeld, J.M., 84, 100 53, 64, 71, 72, 82, 87, 111–113, 115, 121, 136, 138, 140, 149, 159, 169, 183 Gemini, 2, 12, 83, 87, 111, 112, 115, 116, 134, H 149, 183 Hadfield, C.A., 84, 97, 104, 139, 154–157, 182 Salyut, 10–35, 52, 89, 90, 101, 103, 111, 122, Halsell, J.D. Jr., 84, 97, 109, 182 144, 146, 150, 170, 190 Hand-Held Laser (HHL), 127, 129, 197 Skylab, 5, 10–12, 14, 15, 29–35, 41, 51, 82, Harbaugh, G.J., 84, 86, 97, 172, 182 100, 111, 112, 114, 136, 138–140, 145, Harris, B.A. Jr., 84, 93 146, 149, 158, 169, 172, 183 Hubble Space Telescope (HST), 31, 37, 79, 82, Soyuz, 10–16, 19–22 95, 102, 117–119, 129, 134, 135, 139 Space Shuttle, 1, 3, 5, 8 Hurricanes Space Station, 1, 10, 36, 54, 82, 106, 136, 153, Bertha (1996), 67, 79 170, 195 Fran (1996), 68, 79 Dunbar, B.J., 84, 86, 93, 97, 98, 102, 109, 140, 145, 172, 182, 193 Dezhurov, V.N., 84, 86, 93–95, 97, 137, 140, 172 I International Space Station (ISS) Phase 1, 99, 136, 137, 148 E Phase 1A, 55 Edwards Air Force Base, California, 203 Phase 1B, 55, 148 Edwards, J.F. Jr., 84, 187, 193, 201–203, 206 Phase 2, 148 Endeavour (OV-105), 41–42, 62, 67–70, 81, 137, Intravehicular Activity (IVA), 45, 198 145 Ivins, M.S., 84, 100, 102, 182, 188 Energiya, 17, 95, 143, 146 Enterprise (OV-101), 202 EO (station resident expedition) J ISS, 99 Japan, 17, 18, 37, 51, 52, 81, 83, 148, 164, 170 Mir, 192 Japanese (experiments and equipment), 31 Europe, 18, 37, 51, 52, 81, 83 Jett, B.W. Jr., 100, 109, 152 European Space Agency (ESA), 6, 17, 52, 84, 92, Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, 70, 81, 208 100, 104, 131, 148, 164, 170, 171 External Tank (ET), 7, 31, 45, 54, 56, 62, 64–67, 69, 70, 74, 79, 108, 166 K Extra vehicular activity (EVA) Kavandi, J.L., 84, 103, 108, 129, 134, 135, 157, STS-76, 55, 137, 159–161 183, 191 STS-86, 137, 161–162 Kennedy Space Center, Florida, 49, 58, 64, 72, 201, 202 King, D.A., 58 F Kondakova, Y.V., 84, 89, 92, 96, 100, 104, 143, Flight Control Room (FCR), 109–111 164, 188 Flight Planning, 54–58 Krikalev, S.K., 88, 89, 92, 93, 99, 137–139, 157 Foale, C.M., 84, 92–94, 99–104, 143, 144, 157, Kristall module (Mir), 122 189, 194, 200 Kunesch, A.M., 36 Freedom (Space Station Program), 27, 28

L G Launch Complex 39 Gagarin, Y.A., 89, 105, 106, 153 Pad 39A, 65, 73–75 Gatland, K.W., 36 Pad 39B, 74, 102 Index 243

Lawrence, W.B., 84, 98–104, 109, 129, 144, 157, P 182, 192 Page, G.F., 58 Lessons learned (from Shuttle-Mir), Parazynski, S.E., 84, 98–101, 144, 160–162 109, 111 Payload, 1, 3, 6–9, 19, 22, 24, 25, 27, 30–32, 36, Loadmaster, 86, 169–191 37, 40, 44–48, 50, 52, 56, 58, 61–63, Lockers, 49, 164, 172–176, 179, 180, 185, 198 70, 74–78, 81, 83, 85, 87, 88, 91, 92, Lopez-Alegria, M.E., 109 95, 106, 108, 112, 113, 117, 119, 121, Lu, E.T., 84, 96, 100, 164, 188, 197 128, 130, 131, 137, 139, 148, 149, 154, 157–160, 162–166, 170–175, 180, 181, 186, 190, 200 M Payload Canister, 75, 77 Marshal Space Flight Center (MSFC), Planning (mission), 48 Huntsville, Alabama, 30, 46 Position Orientation Hold Selection (POHS), 44 McArthur, W.S. Jr., 84, 97, 157 Precourt, C.J., 84, 86, 92, 96, 97, 99, 100, 103, Mercury (Program), 149, 169, 183 109, 127–129, 146, 153, 182, 188, 205 Mir (Space Station), 7 Progress resupply craft Mission Build (MS–Freedom), 42 M-34, 143, 144 Mobile Launcher Platform (MLP), 64, 65, 67, Proximity Operations (‘Prox-Ops’), 113 69–71, 74 Mueller, G.E., 1, 3 R Readdy, W.F., 84, 97, 98, 109, 144, 199 N Reagan, R.W. (U.S, President), 37 Near-Mir rendezvous mission (STS-63), 55, 100, Recumbent Seat Systems Assembly (RSSA), 101, 104, 111, 113, 128, 130, 139, 146, 197, 198 149, 153, 158, 208 Reightler, K.S. Jr., 92 Newman, J.H., 117, 118 Reilly, J.F. II., 84, 102, 182 Noriega, C.I., 84, 100, 127, 182, 205 Remote Manipulator System (RMS), 154–157 shuttle RMS STS-74, 154–157 O STS-91, 157 O’Hara, Al., 58 Rendezvous Operations Working Group (OWG), development, 131 22–24 H-Bar, 113 Orbital Vehicle (OV–Space Shuttle) Local Vertical, Local Horizontal (LVLH), Atlantis (OV-104), 41–42, 54, 62, 66, 113, 132 68–70, 79, 81, 137, 139, 142–157, low Z mode, 113, 120, 129, 196 160–162, 175, 185, 190, 197, 200, norm Z mode, 120 206, 207, 212 R-Bar, 120, 123, 124, 130, 131 Challenger (OV-099), 18, 36, 40–41, 46, 49, V-Bar, 120 51, 60, 74, 87, 202, 221, 223 Resupply craft (automated) Columbia (OV-102), 7, 33, 41–42, 62, 67–70, Progress, 111 87, 112, 202, 212 Ross, J.L., 84, 97, 182 Discovery (OV-103), 41–42, 62, 67–68, 70, Russia, 24, 28, 37, 46, 52, 53, 79, 81, 83, 89, 91, 81, 137–139, 146, 162 93, 95, 97, 100, 104, 105, 108–109, Endeavour (OV-105), 41–42, 62, 67–70, 81, 136, 139, 148, 149, 153 137, 145 Russian Space Agency (RSA), 84, 92–94, 109, 157 Enterprise (OV-101), 202 Ryumin, V.V., 84, 89, 103, 104, 143, 146, 182 Orbital Work Shop (OWS–Skylab), 30–33 Orbiter Docking System (ODS), 44, 61, 116, 120–122 S Orbiter Processing Facility (OPF), 59–62, 65, Science and Applications Working Group 67–70, 75, 77, 190, 203, 207 (SAWG), 22, 24, 25 Orlan (Russian EVA suit), 98, 103, 144, 160 Searfoss, R.A., 84, 98 244 Index

Sega, R.M., 84, 92, 97, 98, 109, 157, 181, 182 Salyut, 10–34, 89, 90, 103, 111, 122, 144, 146, Sharipov, S.S., 84, 89, 103, 104, 145, 187, 193 150, 170, 190 Shenzhou, 111 Skylab, 5, 10–12, 14–15, 26, 29–34, 41, 51, Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA), 201–203, 206, 207 82, 100, 111, 112, 114, 136, 139, 140, Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF), KSC, Florida, 62, 145, 146, 149, 158, 169 67, 202, 203, 205–207 Tiangong, 111 Shuttle-Mir (Program) Space Transportation System Phase 1, 99, 103, 136, 137, 141, 161 (Space Shuttle) Phase 2, 148 STS-103, 133 Sieck, R.B., 58 STS-107, 174 Simulators, 46, 87, 113 STS-109, 118 Skylab (Program), 5, 10–12, 14, 15, 26, 29–34 STS-60, 55, 58, 62, 67, 74, 79, 91–93, 97, 104, Solid rocket boosters (SRB), 7, 45, 54, 56, 62, 110, 111, 117, 137–139, 146, 153, 155, 64–67, 69, 79, 80, 140, 166 157, 206 Solovyov, A., 86, 93, 94, 97, 100, 137, 148, STS-63, 55, 58, 67, 70, 74, 79, 81, 84, 93, 98, 193–195 100, 101, 104, 110, 111, 113, 117, 128, Soviet Union, 11, 18, 21, 28, 29, 53, 55, 91, 111, 130, 137, 139, 144, 147, 149, 150, 153, 122, 136, 148 155, 157, 158, 166, 192, 206 Soyuz spacecraft STS-71, 27, 55, 61, 67, 70, 74, 76, 79, 84, 86, Soyuz TM, 94, 98, 122, 137, 139 93, 94, 97, 98, 100, 107, 110, 111, 128, TM-16, 122 137, 139, 140, 145, 147, 148, 155, TM-21, 94, 98, 137, 139 170–172, 182, 192, 200, 206 Spacehab STS-74, 55, 58, 63, 67, 70, 76, 79, 84, 97, 99, double module, 137, 171, 174, 187, 190 110, 111, 123, 124, 128, 133, 137, 139, single module, 137, 174 140, 142, 147, 154, 155, 157, 159, 163, Spacelab (European science laboratory, Space 182, 206 Shuttle), 24 STS-76, 55, 58, 67, 70, 74, 76, 79, 84, 97, 98, Space Shuttle, 1–11, 13, 14, 18, 19, 26, 28, 33, 36, 100, 106, 110, 111, 132, 137, 140, 147, 37, 42, 45, 53, 64, 67, 70, 72, 81, 83, 158, 168, 175, 179, 181, 182, 201, 206, 87, 90, 93, 94, 109, 110, 112, 120, 135, 207 147, 148, 170, 182, 191, 197, 208 STS-79, 55, 67, 69, 70, 73, 75, 76, 79, 80, 84, Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSME), 45, 56, 60, 97, 98, 101, 106, 110, 111, 128, 134, 62, 65, 70, 166 137, 141, 144, 147, 174, 181, 182, 184, Space Station, 14, 31, 76, 79, 102, 103, 122, 133, 185, 196, 199, 200, 206, 207 137, 143, 146, 153–155, 157, 160, 161, STS-81, 54, 55, 59, 67, 70, 72, 76, 80, 84, 173, 174 98–102, 110, 142, 147, 152, 167, 182, Almaz, 15, 16, 111 186, 190, 206 Freedom, 36–53, 90, 112, 122, 127, 130, 148, STS-84, 55, 67, 69, 70, 76, 80, 84, 91, 92, 96, 158, 198 98, 100, 102, 110, 126, 127, 131, 143, ISS, 3, 7, 9, 19, 24, 26, 27, 31, 32, 40–42, 44–50, 147, 153, 164, 174, 179, 182, 188, 197, 52–58, 62, 67, 68, 70, 74, 83, 85–88, 90, 198, 200, 201, 203, 205, 206 92, 94, 95, 97, 99, 100, 102, 103, 108, STS-86, 55, 67, 68, 70, 76, 81, 84, 98, 100, 109, 111, 112, 117, 118, 120, 127–129, 101, 103, 104, 110, 130, 144, 147, 160, 133, 134, 136, 137, 139, 141, 143–146, 168, 182, 192, 206 148–150, 152, 153, 155, 157, 158, 160, STS-88, 41, 68, 103, 118 164–170, 172, 174, 176, 180, 181, 183, STS-89, 58, 63, 67–71, 76, 77, 81, 84, 99–101, 184, 190–192, 196, 198, 205, 206, 208 103, 110, 118, 145, 147, 182, 187, 193, Mir 194, 206 docking module, 14, 31, 76, 137, 154, 155, STS-91, 64–67, 70, 76, 78, 81, 84, 101, 103, 157, 160, 173, 174 108, 110, 128, 134, 136, 146–150, 154, Kristall module, 122 155, 157, 164, 168, 182, 183, 192, Spektr module, 79, 102, 103, 133, 143, 204–206 146, 153, 161 Strekalov, G., 137 Index 245

T V Teleoperator Retrieval System (TRS), 32–35 Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB), 59–62, 64–72, Thagard, N.E., 25 74, 78, 79 Thermal Protection System (TPS), Voss, J.E., 84, 93, 99, 103, 157 62, 142 Voss, J.S., 99 Thomas, A.S.W., 94, 103, 136, 145 Titov, V.G., 88, 89, 92, 93, 101, 104, 137–139, 144, 157, 160–163, 182 W Training, 1, 17, 49, 56, 58, 82, 83, 85, 87–90, Wake Shield Facility (WSF), 110, 138, 157 92, 93, 95–98, 100–105, 108, 109, Walz, C.E., 84, 98, 144 131, 134, 138, 139, 143, 149, 150, Weather, 56, 58, 59, 62, 64, 78, 79, 87, 90, 109, 153, 156, 158, 160, 183, 185, 188, 140, 200–202, 206 189, 197, 200, 203 Wetherbee, J.D., 81, 84, 93, 101, 139, 151 Wilcutt, T., 84, 98, 101, 144, 184 Wisoff, P.J.K., 84, 100, 186 U Wolf, D.A., 84, 94, 100, 102–104, 144, 145, 193 United States Air Force, 203 United States (President) Richard M. Nixon, 7, 15 Y Ronald W. Reagan, 37 Young, J.W., 7