CHAPTER-ONE

Introduction

Sociology isaninterdisciplinary subject of social sciences.Discipline is fundamental and play essential role in social science.Basically sociology is the science of society arose in the nineteenth century as social science to unravel the fundamental laws governing the social phenomena of human social relationships, social changes and social structures (Curry, Jiobu and Schwrian, 2008). It concerns in analyzing the problems revealing various aspects of social reality and thus to better understand society. The term sociology was first used by French sociologist Auguste Comte and established by other theorists like Emile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer,Karl Marx, Max Weber and so on. The Social sciences rise in post 16th century attributed to political, economic, and cultural contradictions and struggles generated by crisis of feudalism and religious faith, reformation and renaissance, the rise of capitalism and later structure of democracy, Mishra (2007). This theoretical background of study describes the historical and contemporary context in sociological understanding of surname and it’s variation.

1.1 Theoretical background

The social science was developed as critiques of the post second world war related to develomentalism and modernization, capitalism and imperialism, formation of new state structures, nationalism and statism, as well as democratization, enlargement of public domain, expansion of public administration, and empowerment of newly created citizens. The affirmative action and remapping of the identities, political roles and life chances of diverse class, caste, ethnic, regional, linguistic, gender and other groups, mandated by encompassing political, economic, and cultural transitions also shaped and reshaped the social sciences, Mishra (2007).In the beginning the ideas of plural society was created to oppose the European ideal of homogenous nation states as a post-colonial identities in context of contemporary concerns with diaspora, displacement and politics of difference, Jenkins (1997:26). At the end of 1990’s social identity in ethnicity is narrative form of identification seen as places of belongings.

According to Norval (2004) there are theoretical contemporary debates of three position in ethnic identifies.In the first Primordialist treats ethnicity is situated to organize around natural, given and ahistorical homogenous group. Essentialist denies historical circumstances

1 of social phenomenon and lack of internal homogenous identities.Instrumentalist treats ethnicity as material phenomenon.Nominalist approach ethnic forms of identification arise from external inducement. And Constructivist approaches views differently that social identities are the result of historical,social, and political processes through which identification are constructed and sustained, contested and negotiated.

Thehistory of human was known by more than one name to distinguish individuals by an event, characteristics or religious connotation. When societies become more complex these names become fixed and passed onto the next generation as mentioned by forebears (2012- 2018) Genealogical resources (England and Wales guide). Advanced settled society derived surnames from occupation social status or place of residence and adopted from father’s name.Mills (1959) offers that the sociological imagination enables us to grasp history and biography and the relations between the two within the society. Furthermore elaborates that neither the life of an individual nor the history of society can be understood without understanding both.

Sociologist Bourdieu (1972,1984) developed an approach related to surname that the outcome of dialectical relationship between everyday practices of individuals (habitus) and thesocial structure (field). Emphasizing on practices Bourdieu advocate the way people on the basis of their position in the social sphere perceive and construct the social world. Seddon (2017) writes in many societies roles and relationship make socially distinctive identity identified by surname for example the influence of parents either patrilineal or matrilineal and siblings also considered in moulding an individuals personality or characteristics, outlooks and behavioral patterns the elements that constitute identity.

Giddens (2006) refers everyone social status is based on personal characteristics as skin, color, parental, religion or parental caste that are accidents of birth and are therefore believed to be unchangeable. Davies (2011) presents surname acts as a visible link between a child and their fathers as a signifier of heritage and locating the family and a kin group in wider web of relationships.Nagel(1994) advocates that Ethnic boundaries and identities are constructed by both the individuals and group as well as by outside agents and organizations.Norval(2004) stresses that ethnicity is constructivism emphasizing the historical and political processes in relation to other identifies such as racial,sexual,national,gendered. She suggests that body is important but markers of race and ethnicity are historical,social,and political rather than

2 natural. MaxWeber defines ethnicity as subjectively felt sense of belongings based on the belief in shared culture and common ancestry.

Nepali (1965)mentions King Jayasthiti Malla with the five Brahmins organized the society of the Kathmandu valley into 4 Varnas and 64 castes in the 14th century.Luintel (2015) refers to through intersectionality perspective social identities is an active and dynamic social process of personhood and identity and are the outcome of many attributes caste belonging comes into a dynamic interplay with other attributes (caste,ethnicity,gender or poverty).Levine(1987)argues from the case of Humla that ethnic relations today are the outcomes of historical process of accommodation between regional ethnic systems and the process of centralizing state.

Sociological naming of Surname with the recognition that social is everywhere in every facet of life and everything around us. It is a social phenomenon. The specific natures of social relationships were among individuals,households, settlements, classes, caste and ethnic groups and other identities patterns.By drawing Mishra (2011) regarding ethnicities refers that ethnic differences are social and historical constructions. Sociologically these are neither given by god, nature or biology. There is no ethnic blood or ethnic semen. Ethnicity is fluid in making human endeavor and social relationships.FrederickBathepioneered constructivism ethnicity is the product of social process rather than cultural, given,made and remade rather than taken for granted,chosen depending on circumstances rather than ascribed through birth. Fromthe vantagepoints the creation and recreation are all inanimate,natural,biological,chemical,divine etc. are socially created and recreated.Ethnic identities as surname is hardly natural, primordial and permanent or unchanging fixture of any human individual or group is made by ethnic dominant groups.This has been illustrated and justified by Gautam(2017) showing increasing number of caste/ethnic groups across (1991-2011) census in context of a dynamic society. Social Identity identified by Surnaming as ethnicities presented by Mishra(2011) is socially that it is historically and economically,politically and culturally constructed.

1.2 Empirical context of study

Nepal is nation of multilingual, multi ethnic and multi religious country. It has mosaic social,cultural,political,geographical aspects.Prior to structuring of state into different geographical regions,districts and villages act (1961) the settlements of Walung comprise of five villages Walung, Yangma, Ghunsa, Lungthung and Lelep. Currently under the Federal

3 provincial structure act (2015) included Wolangchung village development comprising Walung and Yangma only.Because of the series of migration and is still migrating Walungnga settled in Taplejung, Dhankuta, Ilam and many of them dispersed because of various political,geographical, economical, natural and other factors caused migration to Darjeeling, Sikkim, Canada, Australia,USA and many countries.

According to the CBS report (2068 B.S) total population of Walungnga is 1170. In 1991 census population in Walung are 422 people living in 82 individual households.Prior to landslide that occurred twice in the Walung village 1963 A.D and 1968 A.D Hameindorfin 1957 A.D counted total 109 houses in post landslide in 1975 A.D found only 40-45 houses. He found 16 Gowa houses and 5 Bichari houses in 1975 A.D.In the field survey September Uprety 1994, counted 82 households.This demonstrates the decreasing number of households and thus population is declining over the last years.

Federation of Indeginous Nationalities NEFIN (2005) identified and recognized Walung among one of 59 ethnic groups on the basis of their traditional geographical land.The local community being geographically close to Tibet is greatly influenced by Tibetan cultures and traditions. They speak similar language and allegiance to Buddhism practiced Nyingmapa sect of Tibetan Buddhism, Ukyab(2001).Locals believed that Walungnga are reported to be original inhabitants of Walung thus having descent citizens of Nepal.Probably were traders,herders,travellers,religious monks and nunsin search for betterment of living and opportunities.These claims are based themselves upon local naratives collected from the villagers. In the early middle ages due to the harsh and severe cold climate tribes from the inner Tibet set out towards south settling in the valleys of Himalayas above 2400 metres altitude are the original inhabitants for example Sherpas and Thakalis, Hagon (1969).Schneiderman (2013) described himalayan border inhabitants of both countries did not possess a primary citizenship document from either side so documentary evidence of their place of residence is not available.

Different writers,scholars, researchers,explorers, wrote different names of Walungnga differently and they wrote such as King Rajendra (1841 A.D) in issuing Royal decreeto Gowa (local headman) has written Bhotiya. Sir Hooker British explorer and naturalist was the first westerner to reach Walung on the 23rd November 1848 AD who wrote first about Walung(reprinted in 1969) describes Walungas are such in appearance, religion, manner, customs and language they are Tibetans and Lama Boodhists but they pay tax to the Nepal

4 and Sikkim Rajahs to whom they service by facilitating the trade with their co-operation. Khatri (2037 B.S) has written Bhote (Meaning Tibetan), Wangyal (2009 A.D) argues A disappearingTibetan tribes- Walung-ngas. Hameindorf (1975 A.D) has written the people of Walungnga as Bhotias of Arun and Tamar valley. Schraedar (1988) insists that Bothiya of Walongchung ancestors migrated from Tibet some centuries ago. Dr. Gurung (2007 A.D) indicated there are some settlements of Bhotia migrants living in Hile,Dhankuta.Oldfield (1858 B.S) has written the inhabitants of Walung as Bhote. Thapa (2065) called land Walung and people Walungnga. Steinmann (1991) writes The Bhotias reside in the uppermost regions in the mountains in the cold and in promiscuity. Steinmann (1991) in interview with last Gowa(chieftain) reports the market is officially opened once a year in the month of June and July. Nepalese cross the pass of Walungchung and stay two months in Tibet. They install tents on the other side and wait for the traders then they go back. Adjoining villagers often called Golake meaning people of market place or place having cannon shell in Nepali terminology.Uprety (1994 A.D) indicate that in 1991 census records Walung people themselves as Sherpas were originally Bhotias. All the Bhotias are originally from Tibet the term Bhotia is the derivative of Bhote which literally connotes Tibet. In writings of NEFIN (Nepal federation of Indigenous Nationalities) written that the inhabitants of Olangchung Gola and villages sorrounding it are known as Walung, outsiders called Olangchung while the Walung themselves call it Holung or Walung. Most recently some of Walungngastarted to acquire citizenship written as Sherpa surname.Fisher(2012) states thatIf someone has an argument and becomes angry one might insult one is opponent in the case of Tibetan by saying that he is just a poor Tibetan who recently came over pass from Tibet and is not a true Sherpa.In absence of authentic records and written documents by local writers and of linguistic,cultural and social problems the name varies considerably. Thus there is no uniformity in naming the place and its people, Shakabpa(1988) indicate there are two traditions of racial origin of Tibetan people the first one is traditions of Indian ancestry Rupati of Kaurava army fled to Tibet while defeat in war with Pandavas written based on Shankara Pati,(Deje Dakpo).The second traditions maintains that Tibetans are descended from monkeys specially from a male monkey an incarnation of Avalokitiswera(Cherenzi).

Until the posting of northern administrative region in 1965, Walung was ruled by local administrators Gowa (headman) under its administrative system an authorization issued by King Rajendra nominated Tendu Gowa SunalByap Bichari Kundak Bhotya Tamling Majhia Namgya Bhotya Majhia Nupu Bhotya Khambachha Bhotya Majhiawritten on

5 Lalmohor(royal seal) document to execute administration of five villages named Walung,Yangma,Ghunsa,Lelep and Lungthung in 1898 B.S based on annual Thekka-thiti system(contractual basis).On behalf of the village community he was assigned in order to collect revenues to pay the fixed amount of collected revenues to the king on annual basis.The function of Gowa was tocollect revenues and pay fixed amount to the government,settle disputes except severe crimes such as rape,murder,dacoit etc. and to maintain law and order in his jurisdiction inform information to the government deliver message given by central state to the villagers make necessary arrangement on government official visit and manage village in case of war and crisis situation.The Gowa are the administrative agents of government in the north eastern upper Tamur and Arun valley. The posts title is similar to Mandal in Lepchas, Subba in Limbus, Pembu in Sherpas, Talukdar in Tamangs, etc. Within Gowa administration structural system following assistants were assigned to assist for their responsible administrative posts.

Kaji- He was responsible for chief advisor of Gowa known as ministerial level in Nepali terms.In social status placed next to Gowa the important assignment of kaji was to provide essentials advice and suggestions to Gowa and ensure him the obey orders by villagers.

Bichari-The job of bichari is clerk by Nepali term.He is nominated by king Rajendra written on Lalmohor document(Royal decree).The main function was to conseil him legal advice and solve disputed matters of villagers.He had distinct higher status within the local village.

Karbari-The important assistant of Gowa ruler was Karbari derived from the Nepali term karobari meaning accountant.He was nominated by Gowa to keep financial transactions account of revenue brought from Majhias and convey people's opinion to Gowa.

Naike- Naike in general Nepali term meaning leader of working labour team in development works in village likebuilding, construction works like road,bridges,water supply,firewood collection, and voluntary forced labor to ruler etc. Other works include cultural and religious task during rituals and festivals.The function of Naike was to implement orders and directives of Gowa in five villages.

Majhia- There were five Majhias (in Nepali middlemen) nominated by king Rajendra for Walung,Yangma,Ghunsa,Lelepand Lungthung.The important task of him was to acting headman of his own village and handover collected revenues via Karabari to Gowa.

6 This theoretical background and empirical contexts of study address the gaps of social naming of surname and Walung inhabitants sociologically. This master level dissertation attempts to resolve some of the major issues specified as research problems for study.

1.3 Researchproblems

The Trans himalayan frontier regions are of the strategic importance between Tibet, Sikkim andIndia. Geographically Walung shares Himalayas borders with Tibet to the north and Sikkim, India to the east. Basically the inhabitants of Walung are locally known as Walungngaspelt Wolungna and are of Tibetan ancestry origin holding descent Nepalese citizenship. The ancestors of Walungchung Gola Bothiyas are trans-Himalayan trading communities migrated from Tibet and settled in the Tamor valley some centuries ago (Schraedar 1988),explorer Hagen (1972) concerned Tibetan ethic group of Nepal religion and culture corresponds to the Tibetan, Buddhist form of Lamaism.

Hameindorf (1975) concerned that Tibetan population have no named clans.Numerous research and writing has been conducted by several researcher, scholars, writer which are confined and concerned to caste and class and other ethnic groups, Berreman(2000),Nepali (1965), Ghurye (1950) include social hierarchy, stratification.This sociological naming of surname in Walungnga people is relatively beyond contexts, processes and circumstances of caste and class based identities. Veryfew researcheshave been conducted delivering the specific issues of social realities and source of identities at larger level from various sociological aspects.

The sources of surnaming does not exist in similar ways that it is not a universal phenomenon in all societies. This research study of social naming of walung community endevour to fulfill the gaps and to answer the following research questions. a. What are the meaning and different sources of naming surname in Walungngas? b. What are the true surname in Walungnga community? c. Why Walungngas do not have cleared family name/clan name as surname? d. What are its impacts, importances and implications?

Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities (NEFIN 2005) identified a recognized Walung as one among listed 59 ethnic groups based on one of criteria of their traditional geographical region. Uprety (1994) reported to confirm the fact local key information in Walangchung those who recorded themselves as Sherpas in 1991 census (prefer to call themselves Sherpas)

7 were originally Bhotias. Wangyal (2009) considered people of Walungchung region are of Tibetan extraction and their language is similar to dialect to Tingay district of Tibet and with Lhasa central Tibetan. Hooker (1884) in his description the people of Walung in appearance, religion, manners, customs and language they are Tibetans and Lama Buddhists.People has written different surname in their formal document, except Ukyab family. People mostly has written either Sherpa, Lama or Bhotia or Lama Sherpa both and those writing in fact were not based on reliable sources.

1.4 Objectives

The objectives of research study is to answer and analyse the research question or problems. This study specially focuses on about how social naming of source of surname? And why Walungngado not have surname? An example traditions norms and practices. Lastly it analyse s socio-culture,impact importance and implications of surname in Walungnga community.

It is expected to achieve and going to fulfill the following specific objectives:- a. To describe the various sources of naming surname of Walungngas b. To examine traditions /norms and practices. c. To analyse socio-cultural impacts, importances and implications.

1.5Significance of study

Sociological study of naming surname probably has not been conducted in micro level analysis. This is unique and different from the past social issues and problems. This research study endevour to uncover the various issues of social identities apart from caste, class from broader aspects through sociological concerns. Numerous books, booklet, articles,reports have been published however fewer of them emphasized on about the surname and identity.Being research myself belonged to the research area thus attempting to find out actual facts and deep insights of the study area from its own local perspectives. This research study and writings were conducted from the local perspectives by its own local natives to examine how villagers that are dispersed experience, understand, and construct norms relating to historical and contemporary surnames and to analyse how these are recognized and legitimized with individual family lives.This research study aims to clarify and confirm the confusion, misconceptionand ambiguity of the past studied materials because of several reasons like language and socio-cultural reasons. The study could possiblybe represent as

8 sample study of majority of Walungnga communitydispersed in and outside Nepal and of village itself.

Findings from the study will be important resource for policy maker, development planner,experts,readers,scholars, and people who are interested,related and concerned to and mightbe especially useful for local villagers, Walungas population living all over the world. In this regard in context for Nepal and hoping might be helpful for those who want to study real issues and problems and means to uplift social status and dignity of Walungnga people.

1.6 Organization of the study and report

This dissertation consists of seven chapters each with topic and sub topics. The first chapter is an introductory chapter each which provides the introduction and deals on general information about the theoretical background and empirical context of the problem and question and clarifies the objectives and significance of the study.

The second chapter presents the previous literature review on Walung region and Walungnga people.And the last chapter describes research methodology about research design, research tools and procedure applied t for dissertation. It also introduces the study of Walungnga area on three chapters. Five to Seven are the dissertation findings based on research questions. Mentioned above on chapter topic introduction under sub topic. Chapter four offers heading on Study Area, Walung with the following sub headings Introduction of the study area, Emergence, Historical and Contemporary naming, Geographical and Population Pattern,Social Organisations and Infrastructural development.

Chapter five to six presents topic on meanings and approach with the following sub-topics written under as Traditions/norms and practices,Myths and facts, Social stratification and Ethnics groups/Ethnicity, and Socio-cultural Status and state policy.

Chapter six presents topic of meaning and sources of naming surname withthe following sub- topics written under as Ancestral place of origin, Ancestral name,Ancestral household name,socio-cultural status and state policy.

Chapter seven presents topic of Impact,Importance's and implications with the following sub topics written under as Ease and comfort to address, useful in birth,marriage and death rituals,Ensure true surname and enable self-identity and Impact, Importance's and Implications.

9 Finally chapter eight deals with the topics Summary and conclusion with sub topics Major findings,Conclusion,Glossary, References, Annex and Name of Respondents.

10 CHAPTER -TWO

Review of Literature

The history of theorization of ethnic identity is not progressive and cumulative rather associated with political concerns and normative judgements, Norval (2004).Primordialist views ethnic identity identified associated with ethnies (Hutchinson and Smith 1996:6) stems from blood,speech,custom often economic strategy to advance group interests (Geertz 1973:259).Vanden Berghe (1986) understood ethnicity is manifestation of nepotism between kin that has genetic basis.Jenkins (1997:44) criticized primordialists approaches that views static conception of ethnicity and naturalizing ethnic groups specifically emphasizing biological reductionism in constitution of ethnicity.

Instrumentalist Barthe (1969) approach treats ethnicity is malleable and elite manipulation that encompasses both neo-Marxist and rational choice approaches.Neo-Marxist view ethnicity an instrument grounded in social class (Wolpe 1988).Rational choice approaches analysed from the perspectives of rational actors to join groups to secure specific individual ends.

Some of the writers,researchers,scholars has written and those writings were not adequate, sufficient and incomplete.

2.1 Notionand Approaches of surname

Primordalist define ethnic identity is like if people are born poor may die rich but ethnic group remain fixed(economist May14-21,2005,80).War begins and end,states grow and die,economies boom and crash but through it all ethnic group stay the same,Chandra(2012).Kleinman (2002,302) writes women and their families histories perpetuates notions that only men are legitimate carriers and creators of family identity and heritage.Reid (2011) defined surname also known as last name or family name is passed down to generation adopted in order to legally distinguish two individual with the some first name.

Drawing on Morgan’s (1996) works, sociologists, have conceptualized contemporary sociological accounts naming as a family practice,Almack(2005), Finch(2008) as a signifier of kinship in the form of display of family valued family ties rather than nuclear, biological construct. Mason’s (2000) framework provide means of theorizing surname which consists of

11 four affinities fixed, created, and negotiated, sensory and ethereal affinities. A fixed affinity is way of visibility, palpability, and evidential aspects of kinship which are consolidated over time and people, that do not create what they desire. A negotiated and creative affinity is open to negotiation and subject to temporality that could change shape of family and kinship. Study on a marital surnames found that more men than women need that children should take father's surnames, Intons-Peterson and Crawford (1985) similarly men are likely to agree that women should always change her name to her husband and that a man should never take his wife is name, Scheuble and Johnson(1993).

Gellner(2007) illustrates by giving an example concerning that in Nepal everyone knows what caste or ethnic group they belong to there are few nationalists Nepali who have adopted non caste surnames including Nepali. Not only do people themselves always knows what their ascribed identity is supposed to be, usually knows too simply form their surname.Seddon (2017) seeks to define human identity process of personal development through interaction with others and with the whole social environment that generates characteristics, features and behavioral traits to constitute identity and personality.Waters(1989) notes that alternate surname do exist to meet variety of needs for preserving ancestry and personal identity.Although hereditary surnames functions as biological paternal connection for purpose of inheritance,property rights are not inherited.Surnames self-identity with ethnicity is usually only paternal,Waters(1989).Surnames are used in United States as indicators of ones’s ethnic identity.

Thapa (2008) writes economic inequality resulted through the ownership of natural resources on the basis of arrival categorized Walung society into three social status. The earliest arrivals are Sheiwas meaning founding settlers, recently arrivals were known as Bheichawas being settled from Tibet and another arrivals having settled of unclear or no origincategorized into Longe were dominated and exploited groups, Bista (1967).Longe are in the lowest scale are generally poor and work as porter and provide service and laborers for the wealthier villagers, Hameindorf (1975).

2.2 Types and Sources of naming surname

Surname indicate lineage in new culture practice emerging snice 17th and 18th centuries in Europe and North American, (Gillis, 1977:13).In the middle ages German towns the newcomers were often named after their palces of origin, Darlu Pierre and their co- writers

12 (2012). In most societies surname research is associated to their hereditary nature but as role markers of group identity (Alford, 1998) according to ancestral proximity. Family name research is based on resources from history, family history, place name study, official statistics, and genetics include collection of evidence, machine readable census data and new statistical methods for correlating family names and locations. The children do not choose their own surnames or with whom they shared their surnames. Surnames were experienced by children as identifiers for others to interpret in making sense of who children were and to whom they were related. Surnames are the personal and symbolic aspects linked both to quality of relationships and to personal identity, (Finch and Mason, 2000:12).

Reid (2011) offers Surname generally derived from one of the four sources-

From patronymic, from the first name of father for example Peterson surnamingdenotes son of peter in English and German and Ezleson surnaming denotes son of ezle in Spanish, Portuguese.From living near locality or place for example Kirpatrickdenotes surname of person living in church of the St. Patrick,likewise surname Cliff denotes person living in steephill and Ashley denotes Surname residing in the field sorrunding by ash trees.From the occupation or social status for example people working as barrelmaker were identified by surname as Cooper,who works as blacksmith was surnamed Smith and similarly person who were conferred knighthood by king were recognized surname Knight.From Nicknames describing person or personality for example person who had characteristics of red complexion or red hair were surnamed Ried similarly those who had strong arms were surnamed Armstrong.

According to forebears (2012-2018) presents Surname generally from the following sources.

Patronymic surname are naming customs of an individual that evolve by reference to male ancestors.Such names were the name of father with the suffix or prefix to denote the name as patronym for example Polish patronyms end in –ski and Irish patronym begins with Fitz-.

Occupational surname derived from the occupation of an ancestor with Smith being common Surname in UK,Stewart derived from an ancient clan title in Scotland.

Topographical surname derived from the place names initially adopted by families held land that occurred when people moved from one place to another for example Hill,Lord etc.

13 Descriptive surname are often derived from distinct characteristics such as stupidity,baldness,and on the other hand good surnames derived from positive characteristics for example Young,White,and Good etc.

Matronymic surname were derived from the name of female ancestor (mother) and are uncommon in most part of the world.Such names occur when the mother were ranked higher than her spouse.

Advanced societies with the settled societies derived surnames from occupations, social status or place of residence.Surnames derived from father's name are common in all societies. Origin of surname is influenced by social class and culture. Higher social status often took surnames that are uncommon whereas lower status took common surnames.

2.3 Norms/ traditions, Experiences and practices

The social conventions of naming within which family and kinship is created and fixed and it illustrates continuity and changes within contemporary families Davies (2011). The use of surnames offers insights how family relationships are created, recreated and displayed to others. Shared surnames offer way of thinking through connectedness, affinities and belongings and understandings of how and in what circumstances kinship is made and given Carstein (2000). The distribution of surname suggest sense of belongings with relation to their parents, siblings, and wider kin. Children feel sense of connectedness with father. In the context of Nepal surname refers to caste name.Nepali (1965) clarifies the king Jayasthiti Malla relied on Hindu law books as source of four Varnas and 64 castes. Hofer (2004) concerns the caste hierarchy of legal code (MA) categorized castes group Bhote into enslavable (masinya matawali),alcohol drinkers,water acceptable caste and does not need purification based on purity and pollution,commensuality and contact,and water and food acceptable and unacceptable.Bhotia be degraded to the fact that they partake of beef termed by high caste Nepali speakers.The designation in MA termed Bhote as Tibetanids and Tibetanoids.Dirks (2001) clears that the text form Rg veda that gives the legal code the head of Purusa, the Kshatriya from the arm Vaisya from the thigh and Sudra from the feet.Tibetanisation is process of ethnicization that entails the promotion of Buddhists religiousity and Tibetan cultural practices in border areas of Himalayan Nepal and India, Goldstein, (1998:p.6). Das (1970) identifies three distinct classes among the lay and clerical which are determined by birth and social position and each of these has three sub divisions. They are written under

14 1. First or highest class,(Rab) - (a) Rab-kyi Rab comprises of king,members of the royal family and incarnate Lamas who have appeared many times on earth. (b) Rab-kyi Ding- It comprises the desi,or regent,ordinary incarnate Lamas,ministers,and councilors of state,learned Lamas,or Abbots,professors,at important monasteries.(c) Rab-kyi Tama comprises secretaries,to the Government,Dahpon,Djongpon,and inferior Lamas,or Abbots.

2.Middle classes (Ding)- (a) Ding-kyi Rab or upper middle class consists of families for generations possessed great wealth, landlords, who do not claim descent from ministers, warriors Dungkhor, and men who contributed welfare of the country the Donnyer. (b) Ding- kyi ding consists of Dung-yig or clerks, stewards, Chamberlains, headgrooms, headcooks,and other petty officers. (c) Ding-kyi Tama consists soldiers,

3. Lowest class, Tama (a) Tamai-Rab includes grooms, menials, engaged in domestic service hired servants and other. (b) Tamai – Ding includes those who have no fixed homes,men who keep concubines but no wives women professional beggars, vagabonds, and paupers. (c) Tamai tama consists of the low are butchers, scavengers, disposers of dead bodies, blacksmiths, and goldsmiths.

Pradhan (1991) refers that caste Hindus of Nepal use common name Bhote or Bhuties for Tamangs, Yolmos, Sherpas and other Himalayan highlanders. And their honorific surname is Lama.Bista (1967) refers that Solukhumbu also called Sherkhumbu, Sher meaning east in Tibetan language. The Sherpa is derived from the term sher and wa meaning the people living in the east.Originally Tamang came from Tibet because they were horsetraders, in Tibetan language Ta means horse and Mang means traders.Pradhan (1991) argue the name Gurung might have originated form the group of the Bon priests who were storytellers (SGrung) Uprety (1994) confirmed that Nepal Bhotia people of Tamor and Ghunsa valleys started to identify themselves as Sherpa to ease acquisition of citizenship and only a few identify themselves as Bhotias. Thapa (2008) Walungnga of Walung has written Lama Sherpa or Sherpa Lama Bhotias in theirs formal documents.

Darlu and other source biology (2012) explain the importance of surname type derived form place, names, profession, nicknames,first names regional variations. From the current distribution of surnames it is possible that population isolation and structure could be known. Surname is essentially characterized with conventions that women will share their husband surname and children will share their father’s surname, Davies (2011). The convention of surname is to write the first name followed by middle name and surname.

15 2.4 Impacts, importancesand implications

Family is group of individuals identified as part of family with reference to shared biographical characteristics, blood connections, religious values, a shared home or surname, Davies (2011). Emperical work suggests that surname is central to the establishment of personal sense of belongings to kin group (Almack 2005, Bond 1998, Edwards and Caballero 2008). The distributions of surnames illustrate where former citizens of village or town moved because newcomers were named after palce of origin, so we can reconstruct where the migrants came from and where they settled down, Darlu,Pierre and all his co-writers (2012). Both forenames and surnames can provide even more refined understandings of population structures and relatedness, (Mateos et al.2011). Surnames have proved useful to depict migration phenomena in different periods to identify past genetics isolates and population structures that have been modified or have disappeared nowadays, Alford, (1998).

When people are illiterate or unaware names were written by clerks, officials and priests as they heard the name pronounced. This lead to different spellings for the same name Reid (2011).Hofer (2004) state as the Prithvi Narayan Shah term Bhote was used in reference to different groups, Tamang, the Sherpa and the Tibetans. Even Gurungs are labelled as Bhote, Pignede (1966;162).Bista (1967) concern the term Bhote has come to be highly objectionable and derogatory terms to most Nepalis. Lama however is priestly class among Sherpas and all the disaples and monks of monastery also popularly called Lama. There is clan name called Lama among the Sherpas. All non Tamangs when polite use term Lama for any individual.Schneiderman (2013) mentions in Tibet Autonomous Region, China Sherpa is referred using “Xiaerba” in chinese documents as legally recognized ethnic category.

Wangyal (2009) despite the Walungngas dislike to be Sherpa actually chosen as a consequence of unfortunate political events. In this personal notes clarifies that there have Ragasha (historical ancestry), Tsatusrsang (estaterelated) and the people of Tibetan extraction adopt surnames and Bhotia a favorable surname does not and cannot have any historical or aristrocatic essence. He added Walung Shiwa Ukiyewas having surname of Bhotia have now embraced titled Ukyab.

16 According to Ukyab (2001) presents that lamas are not only respected as holy persons but are also very useful as holy persons and day to day life of villagers during the birth, death and worship.Lamas(holy monk) said that the truth of temporary nature of our lives should be realized and death comes after birth all accumulated things will be exhausted.Dhungel (2012) clarifies that in order not to address in derogative term Nepali of Tibetan origin Gowa of Walung is called Bhotye Gowa or Gowa Bhotya. Both Gowa and Ukyab are dignitary term of Tibetan traditional high administrators.

This chapter study precisely focused on all written published and unpublished literatures that are available associated to the naming of Surname in Walungnga community.It discussed and reviewed thoroughly written upto now by several writers,researchers,journalist,scholars,sociologist in their journals,books,booklets,articles,records,note,papers, reports etc.Researcher also observed and explored relevant historical documents to assess the precondition of ancient history.Not so many writers had written on the subject of Surname as an ethnic identity specifically due to the fact of so many socio-cultural,linguistic,ethnically,political,geographical and harsh,cold climatic conditions and various reasons.

17 CHAPTER –THREE

ResearchMethodology

Methodologies are the key steps for researcher works to gather all kinds of informations, primary and secondary sources will be used for study researcher. This chapter will discuss on the researcher design, rationale of selection area and tools of data will be in-depth interview having multiple diverse socio–economic background with key respondent interview.

3.1Rational of the selection of study area

Based on the nature of research study around Boudhanath Stupa, Kathmandu city and elsewhere was selected for study area due to the various fact that there are larger population of migrated Walung community because of several reasons like (landslides, disaster) led to settled living permanently or temporarily. Other settlements dispersedwere Taplejung, Terathum,Dhankuta,Darjeeling,Sikkim and to oversees countries like USA,Canada,Australia and elsewhere.Those living remain in Walung village are fewer in number and have less ideas and knowledge of their origin, history and meaning. Higher concentration of Walungnga people are found to be living in Kathmandu especially around BaudhanathStupa and other areas of Kathmandu. Being one of the popular Buddhist religious centre of attraction Boudhanath stupa situated at capital city.Every villagers that were scattered visit to worship and for religious walk round the sacred Baudhanathstupa circle frequently can be met thus Kathmandu especially around Baudha was selected for the specific study area. Also another basic reason to select was that Walangchung social welfare family an organisation was established near to BaudhanathStupa on 2049 B.S. is located at Boudha in Kathmandu. The organization has currently 217 active household family members registered names in its record list book. Saxer (2016) offers wealthier families moved out and the remained families, poorer families from Tibet and surrounding village arrived and established themselves. Likewise in similar ways those left in the 1960’s the new generations accumulated capital and ventured out themselves to Kathmandu then to overseas.

This present study area was selected for the following reasons:-

Hameindorf in (1957) counted 109 households and 40-45 houses when visited in 1975.Angdembe (2011) found 54 householdsand among them 51 household are found to be living.According to C.B.S. 1991 census there were total 82 households among them least 2 households at ward no.3 consisting 9 populations, greatest numbers of 23 households at ward

18 no.9 consisting of 146 populations and total populations were 420 altogether comprising 211 male and 209 female.In the field survey September Uprety 1994, counted 82 households.The above information clarifies much of populations are living outside village were the key respondents.Only fewer populations are living in the village.

Researcher myself is native born and only few literatures has been published therefore I endeavored to explore and find out socio-cultural facts and realities of which former writer, researcher could not be able to get actual knowledge and informations.

The researcher being living at Boudhanath where majority ofWalungnga population settled and likely to meet key respondents living outside and elsewhere so that it might be convenient to collect useful data and information. Mostly key information migrated living outside Walung possibly had more ideas and knowledge about emergence, origin, history than to fewer population left living in Walung. This study deals how the social naming of surnames, importance and practices incommunity. And their analysis of impact importances and implications faced by its population. In this regard this study will be very significant and interesting in the context of Nepal and useful for those who want to study in detail of Walung people.

3.2 Research design

This research study is micro level analysis of social naming of surname from study of Walungngas living either in home,outside Walung and or emigrated abroad. The present study has both descriptive and exploratory types of research design to answer the research problem. Various socio-economic with multiple diverse family background aged old and young,women,and from all the sections of society such as political,cultural religious etc.were taken as unit of analysis primary based on Kathmandu city. Informants were selected from the name and contact no. among 216 active members recorded in Wolungchung Social welfare family located at Boudha, Kathmandu.Some key informants were those who migrated were selected to represent from Taplejung, Darjeeling, Terathum, Dhankuta,Darjeeling,Sikkim, Canada, USA, Australia and some present local respondents were also taken from local village who were met at Baudha,Kathmandu in order to represent and encompass the entire Walungnga population.

This study attempted to explore family or household identities and identify the social naming of surname to achieve goal in depth study of emergence,origin,sources,historical background

19 and contemporary context. And ancienthistorical documents written materials also were used as appropriate tools.

To find out tools for data collection indicators such as ancestral name house hold name ancestral origin, place/locality, descriptive features and so on were taken as variables to identify and examine for the sociology of naming surnames in Walungngas.The personal experiences, individual ideas, knowledges and focused group discussion have been used in this study.

3.3 Nature and sources of data

Both primary and secondary source of data has been used for study and presented accordingly. Primary data has been collected through in-depth interviews and focused group discussion from the representation of all the areas where they migrated and settled their living. The key respondents information were collected from all the diverse socio- economicfamilybackground living in and outside village.

Secondary sources of data have been collected from published and unpublished articles, literatures CBS population, census, collected literatures from central library, National archives,various books, booklets,historicaldocuments,reports,notes,online media sources,websites etc.Secondary sources also includes from several organizations such as Walangchung Social Welfare Family, Kathmandu, Walung community of North America,USA,Walung (Bhutia) Kyidug Organization,Darjeeling,India.Various unpublished relevant reports, notes, and researcher own personal and family lived experiences and practices has been used.Lots of ideas and knowledges were gathered from seniors,elderly villagers,researcher,writer,academician,historian,journalist,intellectuals,etc. has been applied as secondary source of data.

3.4 Tools for data collection

Different researcher tools were used to collect data form the several frequent visit toBaudhanath stupa pilgrimage circle, at their homes and community gathering during religious rituals like Om Mani Padme Hun (Hail to him Lotus and Jewels) pronouncing Peace and compassion to all living beings,Kangyur(religious text of Lord Buddha) recitation, cultural festival programme like Lhosar(new year) and other several programs and ceremonies organized by social organization. I had to contact for interview through means of

20 internet online, social media sources and email to the key respondent in order to confirm collecting genuine informations.

3.4.1 In- depth interview

Respondents were selected from recorded name and contact no. list from Walangchung Social welfare family, Kathmandu that represent from Taplejung, Terathum,Dhankuta, Darjeeling, Canada, USA, Australia and the most significantly those local villagers of Walung met at Kathmandu.There are wider people living outside than in local village.By looking at the recorded book of WalungchungSocial welfare family and a key respondent that are not listed were also selected for total representation in order to conduct in depth interviews.

Total Respondents selected comprises from all socio-economic status,from poor to rich,higher to lower,aged young and old,woman,social worker,businessman,professionals,educated and uneducated etc. in order to conduct in-depth interviews.They were contacted, arranged time to visit personally at house or any other appropriate location to collect informations.

3.4.2 Focused group discussion

Probably much of research study were not studied and conducted before on the subject social naming of surname in Walungnga people.Thus in order to understand and confirm the definite meaning,sources and origin focused group discussion were conducted at both formal and informal gatherings.While meeting at Boudhanath stupa or Social gatherings in Walungchung Social Welfare family,Baudha,Kathmandu.Whenever it was felt necessary of group discussion of upto 3 to 6 key respondents group discussion were held formally/informallywhere all people expresses and shared their own insight views and ideas for the exact confirmation of study. At first informed consent of all the respondent were taken. I have send email and used means of internet online, social media sources and websites to confirm in order to collect key informations. And finally the research problems and issues were explored,disscussed and analysed appropriately for the confirmation of varying informations.

21 3.4.3 Key Respondent interview

This study researcher is based on primary source of data collection who were selected and collected possibly from the entire dispersed local villagers who are migrated living at Kathmandu and emigrated respondents from all over the areas while their visit at Kathmandu. Total 25 household key respondents were selected 12 household/ family from the different areas of Kathmandu city, 2 household/family from Taplejung district, 1 family from Dhankuta, 1 family from Terathum ,only 1 family from local village, 2 household/family from Darjeeling,India, 1 household/family from Australia,2 household/family from Canada and 3 household/family from USA.They were personally visited through contact or through internet, online social media, by arranging the fixed time and location at their home or elsewhere. The pictures of interviewed was taken and voice discussion also recorded for future reference. Very useful informations were also gathered from Journalist, historian, writers, scholars and researchers etc.

3.4.4 Limitations of the study

Large population of Walungnga community resides outside Walung. Key respondents were selected to represent from the diverse family background. In this researcher study respondent were old, aged, women, low to high status, educated, social worker, businessman and people that represent from all sectors of society were selected for purposive sampling.It is micro level study which endevour to explore the social naming of surname in Walung community. This study is of master level dissertation which only meets the partial fulfillment of the requirements for master's degree of arts in sociology.Due to the constraint of time, cost,geographical,distant,transportation,harsh and severe cold climatic conditions and many other several reasons has some limitations.

1. Study is precisely focused on the sociological naming of surname in Walung community other aspects for example poverty,Gender approach,has not been adequately analysed in description. 2. The research study area was selected at Kathmandu where the majority of major key respondents settledand can be available in order to gather the lots of keyinformations by visiting their various family/households or through online media sources like email, social medias. 3. The research is case study need to have long enough and actively engage in the field study area for its detail study.

22 4. Based uponoral narratives collected interview information might not be generalized to entire population of Walungnga community however it does demonstrate more reliable,valid informations applying appropriate methodology of documenting and understanding origin and sources of naming surnames. 5. Due to limited and unavailable key respondents from the entire larger dispersed population some of thekey respondents might be missed out. 6. The study is especially studied and limited to Walung,village Phaktanglung Rural Municipality - 7,other villages Zongin and Yangma,Ghunsa,Lelep,Lungthung are lessly concerned. 7. Most of the seniormost elderly key respondents passed away and due to lack of unavailable sources like documents,literatures,materials myself had to worked out hard enough in order to collect true and correct informations.

23 CHAPTER FOUR

Study Area - Walung.

This research study basically focus on Walung village but the research study was conducted endevoured to represent precisely from the entire various Walung household family residing in Kathmandu city several other places.This chapter presents the general informations about the emergence, history, population and geographic condition, social organisations and infrastructure and development.

4.1 Introduction and Emergence of the Study Area

The Federal Republic of Nepal is situated between the world's two giant nationsdemocratic India to southern and Communist China,Tibet to northern border, Karan and Jenkins Jr. (1963).The country Nepal lies between the world’s emerging nations in terms of economic power.The pleasant village shares with the Himalayan frontier with Tibet to the north and Sikkim, India to the east.It was the main trading entreport of closed economy between Tibet, east Nepal, Sikkim, and India,Schraedar, (1988). An ancient monastery DikyiChoeling Gomba stands as symbol and pride situated at the north eastern hill top of beautiful Walung village in which villagers were of great devotees and has profound belief in religion, culture ,traditions and civilisations. Walung is significantly represented by this ancient monastery.

Lack of substantial written materials or sources about the exact known date of emergence of settlement in Walung however there were some folktales and among one convincing oral narration by one of the oldest villagers narrates the name of place Walung is derived by an animal called Wa and lung meaning land/valley in local language. Locally spelled as Wolung and people is Walungnga and properly called Wolungna.Saxer (2016) writes similarly there is general agreement among Walungngas that once upon a time seven families arrived from Tibet probably in the 17th, and 18th century. Bista (1967) argues and established the village is said to be about two hundred years old. Schraedar (1988) has written trans- Himalayan trading communites the ancestors of Walonchung Bothiyas migrated from Tibet and settled in the Tamur valley some centuries ago. An estimates from local villagers range between 150 to 400 years old. Dhungel (2058 B.S.) visited ancient Dikyi Choeling Monastery on unpublished report claimed the village is likely to be 400 to 500 years old. Another more reliable and convincing explanation according to Wangyal (2009) assume Walung an important trading pass Tibetan businessman wait at trading posts along Walung route to Tibet

24 for traders bringing goods. As competition arose among businessman they camped closer and closer to Walung in order to be ahead of trading rivals. Eventually this led to settled living in Walung and early settlers probably gone even further south but for unsuitably of warmer terrain to Yaks and themselves too. Another village name Yangma about emergence Das (1970) has written the village was founded by Tibetans from Tashi-rabka one of them having discovered the valley its fertility while looking for lost calf. The name Yangma was given it on account of the breadth of the valley. One of the respondent who was from village Yangma migrated to overseas many years ago told that their forefathers while searching for a lost yak reached the fertile valley. The village is called locally Yangma meaning fertile valley. Because of limitations much of Yangma village could not be written.

4.2 Historicalbackgroundand Contemporary Naming

There are several names of Walung written by traveler's explorers, researcher, Journalists, scholars, administrators, local inhabitants differently. Ancient traditional mythology according to elderly local inhabitants derived the name of place from Walung. King Rajendra Shah in 1898 B.S. in issuing Lalmohor (Royal Seal) has named Walung as Wallangchun.Sir Hooker (1848 A.D) a naturalist has noted he arrived at the village written Walloong or Wallangchun on the 23rd of November 1848 A.D. Das (1970) on his journey from Darjiling to Tashi Lhunpo has mention his host advised him not to attempt to go via Wallung that he would meet much difficulty but rather possible to enter Tibet by Yangma and Kanglachen pass at this year. Thapa (2068 B.S) has mentioned Walung.Hameindorf (1978) describe it in this way the largest settlement in the Tamor river valley is Walongchung locally ofter referred to as Walong. Uprety (1980) has mentioned the importance passes of Nepal and Tibet are located at Wallangchung. Ukyab (2001) has written basically people of wallangchung are of Bhutia community having long matrimonial relationships with Tibetans.Pradhan(1991)) has written Walung or Walangchung is the eastern most pass between Nepal and Tibet. Gurkhalis under Abhiman Singh reached the Tamur River by September 1774. Wallanchoon is known as Walangchung Gola because of the custom office Gola) there. Shakabpa (1988) note at Walung treaty was made between Sikkim and Nepal in C.E.1775 in the presence of two Tibetan representatives, Shalu Khenpo and Dapon Padtsal. Ukyab (2057 B.S) has written that outsider named Olangchung while the Walung themselves call it Holung or Walung. Schraedar has mentioned Walangchung occupied the strategic position for trade before the 1960. Maden (2062) noted there was mill run by water in the past days. It is called Urumsum barumsum later these word might corrupted to Walungchung.

25 An organization established in Kathmandu has written Wolangchung Social Welfare family. Dr. Gurung(2007) indicate about dozen of Bhutias migrated from Olangchung and settled in Dhankuta. Wangyal (2009) argues that despite Walung people are culturally Tibetan they are politically and geographically Nepalis. Bista (1967) writes that Olangchung Gola or locally Holung is a pleasant valley, the main trading Centre. Jha (1992) report that about 1,800 Tibetan refugees reached Walung village in early 1960’s. Due to the fact from linguistic, cultural reasons how local respondent in Tibetan language spelt or pronounced is somewhat different to English and Nepali speakers they wrote what they heard this lead to different names for the same name.

4.3Geography and Population Pattern

Currently under the federal structure system of Nepal Walung comprises Olangchung Gola Yangma and Zongin villages. Geographically Walung lies to the north eastern part of Nepal in Phaktanglung Rural Municipality - 7 Taplejung at the bank of river Tamur valley under federal structure system of Nepal. Walung is listed in marginalized groups among 20 indigenous marginalized groups having total population 1448 (0.01%) of country’s total population. The village lies approximately of latitudes 27°40'N and longitudes 87° 47'E at an altitude of about 3747 meters (12293 feet).It is 64 km and around 3 days walking foot distance from the district headquarter,Taplejung prior to present motorable road construction.According to one of the local villagerwho was met at Kathmandu noted that there are 65 households of which 54 families are currently living settlements, 4 family households used to live in yakshed in Walung and 2 family household migrated to Yangma valley. And in Yangma village 11 households family are settled living.

4.4 Social Organisations

Traditional social organisations (Kyidug) operate in society. Uprety (1994) in Walanchung Gola there are two types of Kyidug one is Village Kyidug and other is Herders Kyidug. Gaun Kyidug (Village Kyidug) serves for the construction and repair of roads and the performance of religious ceremonies in the community. Gothala Kyidug (Herders Kyidug) serves for the collective welfare of herders that decides the timing of grass collection and herd movement from one pasture to another. Ukyab (2001) defines in Tibetan language Kyi means joy and Duk means sorrow thus Kyidug mean an organization that work for both the occasion Joy and Sorrow. Wolanchung Social Welfare family was established in 2049 B.S at Patitar,Baudha and currently has 216 active household members according to the

26 Organisation registered member book. Walung Community of North America was established in 2002 A.D at New York, USA. Similarly Walung (Bhutia) Samaj, Darjeeling was established at Ghoom, Darjeeling,India in 1998 A.D.

4.5 Infrastructure and Development

Despite Walung was forbidden area until 2057 B.S mainly because of security and several other political and diplomatic purposes some handful of travellers, researchers, scholars had reached there in the past years.Large groupsof delegates consisting former district representative member, intellectuals, journalist, local villagers, Walungngas living at Kathmandu,businessman,social workers,political leaders of various parties by joint initiation of Walanchung Social Welfare family met with former prime minister late Girija Prasad Koirala and successfully ended the restriction of Walung area for tourist. Khatri (2037 B.S) mention when he was assigned as Bichari (Legal Counselor) along with Border Security forces posted in 1990 B.S (1934/1935 A.D) to Walung from Dhankuta Regional Court.Diptala, Olangchung Gola was one of the accessible northern pass among other 18 passesenroute to Nepal - Tibet border. When China invaded Tibet in 1959 A.D (2015/2016 A.D) Indian Check Post was placed at Walung in 2016 B.S (1959/1960 A.D) during Prime Minister Matrika Prasad Koirala reign and finally ended in 2026 B.S (1969/1970 A.D) during the time when Kirtinidhi Bista was Prime Minister.In 2022 B.S Northern Administrative zone no. 4 was established at Lunghthung(Walung) along with Mustang, Manang and Namche. Gowa Administrative system was replaced by Northern Adminstrative Post and establishing Custom Post Office at Walung in 2017 B.S (1960/1961 A.D).Tibetan Khampa Army Camp remained at Zaritar,Walung a place that lies at the foot route between Yangma and Ghunsa village from 2024 B.S–2031 B.S (1968/1969–1975/1976 A.D.Land Measurement Office measured the land of Walung in 2043 B.S (1987/1988 A.D).Mahendra Primary School was established in 2020/2021 B.S around 1965 A.D the first headmaster name was Mr. Laxmi Prasad Talchabhandel. These informations were gathered from various sources and local informants and researcher myself.

With the joint initiation and collaboration of Walung Community of North America, Wolangchung Social Welfare family, Local Villagers, successfully constructed 24 Km motorable road equipment provided by Chinese side from Diptala border pass to Walung. Gautam (2017). The road construction was completed after seven months on Dated July 21,2017, Friday (2074/4/6) providing a role model of developmental works done through

27 community level. From the Nepal Side North-South Olangchung PeopleHighway is extending road construction via Walung to link Nepal - Tibet, China at Diptala border pass. Building Road construction is going on and recently reached upto Lelep Village. It is expected to complete within two years. According to informants who is residing in Kathmandu and an active member of social organization said group of delegates by Walungngas living in Kathmandu with the initiation through Wolanchung Social Welfare Family met with Minister of Physical Development and Transportation at his departmentoffice. Group of delegates suggested and proposed road construction route through Dangze the place located to the other side of the village in order to preserve and protect the rich cultural, religious, archaeological and ancient heritage of Walung. Moreover it is situated on the bank of River Tamor valley and is gradually submerging village. Walungis possibly high risk of landslide might occur due to flooding in river Tamor. District level authorities proposed Border Observation Post (BOP) at Walung village whereas local villagers suggested at Mouma a summer pastureland for herders a distance of 12 Km north from Walung. Mouma is situated at Walung and Topke Gola enroute to Tibet a marketplace where chinese businessman comes to sell their goods.

28 CHAPTER-FIVE

Approaches,and Practices

An individuals identity in most societies usually provided by name given at ceremony kinship and marriage are the determining elements for the identity of individuals lineages, clans, which direct norms, conventions for social behavior and action. Individuals negotiate these rules to their advantage and by manipulating to achieve their objectives bring about changes, Seddon (2017).

Manheim states that sociological view point seeks from the beginning to interpret individual activity in all spheres within the context of group experiences. In terms of caste system,caste is identified more dominant than lower caste or untouchable in society as a whole.The rules and principles, norms of marriage and kinship is seen for identifying the identities.

5.1. Traditions/ norms and practices

Conventionally, in Walung community personal name is given name in the form of ceremony by Buddhist Lama which indicates particular usually the name of week the day on which he/she was born. Generally person given name or first name is named after the name of day in which he/she was born for examplewhen child is born on Monday he/she will named Dawa(monday),child born on sunday is named Nyima(sunday) similarly child born on friday is named Passang (friday).There were no conventions to write or name surnames, family name or clan name in general. In each family there were household name which refer to surname and acts or work as clan name or family name. Woman is obligated to discard her own family name and adopt that of her husband western societies and caste system in India and Nepal.Schraedar (1988) insists the preference in Walongchung for marriage with Tibetan girls having taboo that the descent through male links seven and female three to four generations. The identity of surname is associated with hereditary kinship and matrimonial relationship.

One of the key respondents who is actively engaged inbusiness,religious and cultural in many ways told Walungnga are descended of Tibetan ancestry origin. In Tibetan culture traditions conventions of household /family name act as surname or clan name. Thus household/family name direct norms, values and principles for social and cultural activities in practice. Later based on family/household name fewer familywrote surnames because of acknowledgement, awareness and conscious of naming surname.

29 Bourdieu (1972, 1984) states social identity is evolved as a result of dialectical relationship between everyday life activities of individual and socio-cultural traditional norms and value, principle is related to the surnaming in Walungngas. Chandra (see Chandra 2012,3) primordalist believes in traditions each individual belong to ethnic identity that group is fixed and it passed down into generations.Culturally and linguistically people of Walung are Bhotia having matrimonial relationship with Tibetans.There were no definite and fixed clan names like other castes in Nepal,like Sherpa,Tamang etc. Most of identity surname or clan name, family name of Walung is written as Bhote, Bhotia, Bhotiya, Sherpa, Lama and differently. None of their surname as family name, has similarities with other within family kinship. In conventional writing whatever once the surname is written it becomes hereditary which is hardly not amendable and corrected again.And Bhote,Bhotia are derogative, degraded and objectionable terms for the inhabitants of Himalayan highlanders.

5.2 Mythand fact

Uprety (1994) clarifies that local key informants in Walongchung confirmed the fact those Walungnga recorded themselves as Sherpas in 1991 census were originally Bhotias (preferred to call themselves as Sherpas). In absence of formal written literature different writers wrote same writings differently. There are many myths and fact of origin of Walung and they differ in many way.The researcher had to rely on the myth and facts of narration and tales of respondents.There are several myths and folklore in local village about how the name of place Walung was derived. Among many folktales one of them is convincing mentioned by respondents as such,

Within local mythology according to an elderly Walung inhabitants aged 90, and 94 years old respectively residing currentlyin Kathmandu narrates folktale in this way Walung was emerged and derived by Wa (Wild animal) and Lung (land) Wa an animal paved the path trail to the lost travelers probably traders/herders arrived at the place by Wa animal is Walung.

Locally Walongchung is called Walung an inhabitants is known as Walungngaderived from Walung. Walungnga people has written Sherpa as surname. There were no uniformity in writing surnames other written surname include Bhote, Bhutia,Lama,Sherpa etc.

Another respondent whose surname Sherpa reveal the fact whose written identity in official document Sherpa told that although I have written surname Sherpa but actually distinct from

30 Sherpahaving being ancestors of Tibetan historical roots. According to Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities the inhabitants of Walung belong to Walung ethnic group but their surname or family is written as Sherpa.

5.3 Social stratification and Ethnic groups/Ethnicity

Ghurye (1994) caste is fundamentally based on division of society,hierarchy,purity and pollution, restriction on marriage,occupation, and caste identity is determined by birth and so on. Caste and caste systems were not practiced in Walung and Walungnga society.Ethnicity according to Mishra (2011) defines ethnicity are social and historical constructions.

Historically and socially there is highly influence of Tibetan culture and religion and has no effect of caste and caste systems in Walungngas. On the basis if arrival due to ownership of natural means and resources Walung society is categorized into first (higher), middle and lower categoryaccording to Thapa (2007). It is shown in the table given below.

S.N. Name of Category Arrival of cluster 1 Sheichawa Founder 2 Bhechawa New arrivals 3 Longe arrivals having unclear origin

Source:Local key respondent

One of the key respondent who is successful businessman, activelyinvolved in social work and social organization executive committee member told thatWalung society was categorized on the basis of their arrivalsearly arrivals were the founders called Shiechhawa (founders) who founded settlements were in superior position, later arrivals were second cluster called Bheichhawas (late comers) placed in mid-positionand lower cluster were called Longe those having unknown cluster or origin were placed in inferior status.

Walungas arrived previously possibly be traders/ herders and not as farmers in search for betterment for living and opportunities. The harsh and cold climatic conditions and arid land probably were the prime factors in their mobility. Bista (1967) in the past there were social distinctions between the first settlers (Sheiwas) and late comers and between lower groups (longe).Recently there is some social distinction between early arrivals and to the unknown cluster or origins.

31 Another key respondent who is reknowned and retired administrators/beurocrat/diplomat insist with sayingbecause of its proximity to now Tibet autonomous region of Chinathat the people of Walung were the original inhabitants arrived primarily with their geographical territory.

His sayings and explanations has been justified and testified in many ways if we review political history of region. It is simply due to the fact that land is frontier regions between Tibet and Nepal and Sikkim. Sir Hooker British explorer first traveller to reach Walung (reprinted in1969) describes people of Walungnga that the inhabitants of frontier districts belong to two different tribes but all are alike called Bhoteas(from Bhote,the proper name of Tibet)and have for many centuries been located - in what is in climate features and natural features - a neutral ground between dry Tibet proper,and wet Himalyan gorges.They inhabit a climate too cold for either the Lepcha or Nepalese,migrating between 6000 and 15000 feet with the seasons,accompanied by their herds. In several documents written culture, religion and language the people were basically not different from the inhabitants of Tibet.

5.4 Socio-cultural Status, Structures and State Policy

Caste and caste system stratified Nepali society based on hierarchy,ascription,purity and pollution of body,water and food. Everyone knows ascribed identity what caste or ethnic group they belong to not only do people themselves knows what their ascribed identity is supposed to others usually know too simply from their surname (Gellner 2007).

Generally the social status and position of any individual is known according to the caste and caste system. In caste system any individual surname is written by caste system. In caste system any individual surname is written by caste name. The caste hierarchy of legal code (M.A) according to Hofer (2004) stratified Walungnga into Bhote caste group of enslavable, (Masinya Matawali) alcohol drinkers.Walungnga belong to Tibetanids groups with Bhotya being degraded objectionable and derogative term with the fact that they partake of beef in usage of high caste Nepali. Another term Tibetanoids refers to groups being Lamaists or followers of Bonpo religion and speaking a dialect closely related to high Tibetan-Bhotya. The inhabitants of Tibet are called Bhote and synonym for savage, dirty fellow, serf, beef eater and alike in order to distinguish them from the Tibetan settling within the boundaries of Nepal. The term Tibenoids refer to group being Lamaists or followers of the Bonpo religion and speaking a dialect closely related to high Tibetan Bhotya. The dignitary addressing term is Lama for inhabitants of Walung (Tibetanids) and other Tibetanoids group ofpeople.

32 One of the key respondentwho is currently living in Baudhanath,Kathmandu since past 12 years whose written identity in official document Sherpa as surname told that although I have written surname Sherpa but dislike being Sherpa rather feel pride actually being Nepalese of Tibetan origin that is distinct from Sherpa identity.

Bourdieu (2011) argues identity is not given but itself social construction the product of particular political and social process is related in case of Walungnga identity.According to Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities the inhabitants of Walung belong to Walung ethnic group but their surname or family is written as Sherpa. Fisher (2012) notes Tibetan who recently came over pass from Tibet is not a true Sherpa. In report to WWF programme Uprety (1994) confirmed the fact that those who recorded themselves as Sherpas were originally Bhotias.Local administrators could not identify due to the linguistic and cultural similarities. Wangyal (2009) argues that despite Walung-ngas dislike being classified as Sherpas actually they have chosen to call themselves Sherpa as consequence of unfortunate political events.The original homeland of Sherpas is in the district of Solukhumbu also known as Sharkhumbu.They are the descendents of the Khampas,the Tibetan warriors who inhabited the east of Tibet known as Kham.The Sherpas who were probably the nomadic herders began to settle after the introduction of the potato in the 19th century,Sherpa (2002). People of Walung are locally known as Walungngas that is distinct with Sherpas and they dislike being Sherpas themselves and feel pride in being Nepalese ofTibetan culture and customs.

33 CHAPTER- SIX

Sources and Types of Origin of naming Surname in Walungngas

The origin of surnames indicate lineage is cultural practice emerging since the 17th and 18th centuries in Europe and North America (Gillis, 1977:13). In Nepali society surname refers to caste name or last name formerly practiced and written in Manu Smriti based on caste system. The history of human were known to distinguish other people with the name and human increases name become fixed and passed on to the next generation.

Due to the harsh climate and arid land Nepal highlands are better for living therefore tribes from central Tibet descend towards south,settling in the valleys of Himalayas,Hagon(1969) and it seems to be relevent as such in the case of Walungngas. Surname refers by last name or family name because it is placed at the last of person’s name. Sources of origin of naming surname is unique and different in Walung in relation to western culture in general and Nepali society in particular.

This chapter attempts to explore origin of surname in Walung community at wider aspects and find out their various sources of origin in naming surname. All the section in this chapter reviews about emergence, origin and history of surname specifically Walungnga population is noted to have origin of naming surname among one of the following sources.

6.1 Ancestral Place/locality of Origin

In context with Nepali culture and society every individual it is customary to write family name as surname for social identity.Among the various sources of naming surname is the origin of ancestral place/locality is one of the important source of Walungnga population.These population has embedded historical roots and their surname is indicated by the name of ancestral place/locality. The earliest settlers known to be locally Satphasing meaning seven household families refered surname from the name of ancestral place of origin.There were other household family named Rabkhang meaning in Tibetan Rab best/highest khang family/household whose socio- economic status were higher to Satphasing in the village.

One of the key information who belong to clear Satphasing family known to be Sheiwasfounding member of Walungchung Social Welfare family and currently member of executive member reported that The Ukyab family derived surname from the name of their

34 original place/localityPherukMountain,Ukyaba in Tibet. With the initiation of Late Zonden Ukyab household joint meetings with kinship members informally discussed and concluded naming of surname by ancestrial place of origin Ukeiwa to Ukyab. This naming of surname was to avoid calling of derogative terms and address in dignitary and honourably.

Later they acknowledged the obligation with distinctive surname to be written officially in formal identity documents.Steinmann (1991) writes the Gova bored a clan name Ukyaba linked to district Pheruk,Ukyaba.The name of ancestral place/locality name Ukeiwa changed to Ukyab their surname as family name. These changed surname has been written in formal documents and that become hereditary passed on to the next generation. But we can find other surnames Bara that emerged from their ancestral place of origin from Barowa. Other household/family derived from place of origin Chusarpa, Uchunga are not to find to derive surnames from their ancestral place of origin. Dhungel(2011) attempt to find out meaning of Ukyab in which U mean head or high Kyaba mean supervisor / administrator in Tibetan language thus Ukyab possibly mean high supervisor or administrator.According to Thapa (2065) identify Satphasing were Ukeiwa,Baruwa,Ruit,Thumjana,Lhacha,Kojhakpa,and Uchungna.Schraedar(1988) claimed names differently Ukyab,Ruita,Barowa,Mutaka,Khumchana,Goya,and Chusarpa. Possibly and probably Satphasing were Ukeiyaba, Barowa, Thumjana, Lhacha, Kochakpa, Chuserpa and Uchungna. Many family names are not known to be found written their family name as surnames in identity.The traces of Satphasing families cannot be confirmed precisely perhapssome of Satphasing either likely went back and resettled inTibet. However for the definite confirmation traces of Satphasing (seven families) needs further research study.

6.2 Ancestral Reknowned Name

Fewer households of Walung inhabitants has named surname based on their ancestral reknowned name even though they had their ancestral place/ name of origin. This is because of the fact that only some handful of family provided their ancestral name with prominent status in the society. Therefore it was acknowledged convenient to identify a particular parentage and ancestry giving name of grandparents who are popular or famous in village and society. Sociological naming of surname by ancestral reknowned name was acknowledged and experienced it necessary to write surname as one of the important sources.

One of the Key respondent who is aged 72 years male left Walung when he was in young age narrates naming of surname fromreknowned ancestral name by father in this way his parents

35 and grandparents historical background were primarily of Tibetan origin. We have not known past generations as there were no genealogical record of writings but my grandfather was being reknownedin village at that period of his goodwill by Ganden Pema local inhabitants identity themselves in order to recognize his father start calling by name Ganden Pemba. And instead of writing our ancestral place of origin it will be appropriate, and feasible start naming surname as Ganden based on primarily ancestral reknowned name.

The inhabitants of the high Himalayan valleys are largely of Tibetan historical background. They speak similar languages and share allegiance to Buddhist religious ideas and cultural traditions, Karan, Jenkins Jr. (1963). Wangyal (2009) advocates Walung-gnas are culturally and religiously Tibetan and politically and geographically Nepalese. Hooker (reprinted in 1969) also testifies the fact that in appearance, religion, manners,customs, and language they are Tibetans and Lama Boodhists but they pay taxto the Nepal and Sikkim Rajahs to whom they render service by faciliating trade with their co-operation.Many Walungnga people do have written Lama Sherpa, Bhutia but that does not have some reliable and valid base of source. Neither they were Lama or Sherpa or Bhutia in particular. Fewer villager not to be mention name after improving little economic condition attempt to raise family background by placing surname of higher social status without having basic linkage and its reliable and proper sources. Therefore the appropriate naming of surname would be named from ancestral reknowned name that might be appropriate,quicker and feasible to recognize and on the other hand such naming of popular parentage is not forgotten.

6.3Ethnic group /Scheduled Tribe/ Caste

In the Himalayan society and culture clan names were not used as surnames instead they used household names. They are influenced by culture, language, religion from the other next side of border. And the people Walungnga is not an exceptional case. The interesting fact is that Rabhkhang household meaning household did not wrote household name as surname/ last name. Similarly Chusharpa household is writing Labrang surname which is corrupted form of Nupalabrang a monastic family in Tibet instead of Chusarpa Wangyal(2009).They have written differently such as Bhutia/Sherpa/Lama names that are listed on ethnic group/scheduled tribal casteespecially in the case of Walungnga people who migrated to Darjeeling, Sikkim, India.

One of the male key respondents whose age is 76 years old who hadhigher living standard level in village migrated when he was child could not remind his birthplace and now an

36 actively involved in social work and organisations outside Walung through online social media told Walungngas having household/family name and other communities has written Sherpa, Bhutia or Lama because these surnames are listed into the scheduled tribal caste or ethnic groups and simply for the purpose of ease in official procedural paperwork. Actually we are supposed to write our own surname.

Having household/family names in almost family and these name acts as surname or last name but there are no clan names. Household/family names are the surnames for the people in the border region between Tibet and Nepal which were similar to the people of Walung. Uprety (1994) notes Bhotias of Tamar valleys from local inhabitants of Tibetan origin identify themselves as Sherpas to acquaire citizenship. But these household/family name were not written as surname or clan name neither in Tibet nor elsewhere instead they use surname as an ethnic identity that are listed in ethnic group/tribal caste for example Rabkhang household whose socio-economic status were the highest among the villagers and is apart from Satphasing family did not write household name in surname. Likewise another household name Chusarpa is found to be written surname Labrang which is corrupted form of Nupalabrang a monastic family in Tibet. Wangyal(2009).Probably they are writing Lama,Bhutia because these surname are listed in Scheduled tribe/caste and in order to avoid lengthy,tedious procedure in office paperwork.Recently they are reviewing to write identifying identity of their own as surname.

6.4 Socio - Cultural Position and Status

Within the local community individual characteristics that might be common features, nature, attitude, behavior are the common cultures of identifying individual in naming surname.Bista (2002) social class is revealed by economic condition and ancestral background during their traditional marital ceremony in northern border area is relevant in Walung.Hence surname named by older man and superior class and background to common people were often insulting name.

And anotherfemale key respondent expressedthe fact usually many people have fewer names to be given based on the name of day when person is born on that particular day of week. There used to be similar name of weekly day name for many people in general. Hence for easier identification people named calling surname honorably, and nicknamed in practice by theirdescriptive characteristics.

37 Usually there are having similar names that exist to many people.. For easier and quicker identification they were named honorably to distinct personalities,higher status level and nicknamed by their descriptive characteristics to those having inferior status. Those person having great personality and superior status in society for example say Mr.Lobsang Sangay is honorably called Lobsang Sangayla. Meanwhile those having low personality and inferior status were called by nickname of their descriptive characteristics.More often informally nickname of any name given to inferior one by higher status also become calling surname that acts and works as oral surname. Therefore such kind of calling surname honorable and nickname is not written in the formal identifying documents.

Because of the fact there were similar names of many individuals conventionally named after the name of the day of the week a person was born. The name of person born on the name of week day are shown in the table given below.

S.N. Name of person Born on day 1 Nima Sunday 2 Dawa Monday 3 Mingma Tuesday 4 Lakpa Wednesday 5 Phurbu Thursday 6 Pasang Friday 7 Pemba Saturday

Source:local key respondent

6.5 Adopted and Regional Surname

Adopted and regional source of writing surname is widely used source of naming surname in Walungnga people. These adopted type of surname of another different identity of clan Sherpa,Lama as regional surname Bhutia is written in Darjeeling, Sikkim and different parts of India and Bhote or Bhutia Lama written in different areas including Walung.

In writings articles of Wangyal (2009) one female respondent who represents from Jaigaun located south Bhutan chose call herself Sherpa apart from Walungngas due to the fact that it gave her advantage of community support of local Sherpa people and people do not know

38 much about Walungnga. Another male respondent who said that he would never be mountaineer if he has non Sherpa written surname.

People in the case from Jaigaon, (South Bhutan) and Gangtok Sikkim drawing their sources of surname become their personal and family beneficial for adopting another surname, family name or clan name for example Sherpa,Lama. Uprety (1994) reported that Bhotias of Tamur and Ghunsa Valley local Nepal Bhotia people identify themselves as Sherpa to ease acquisition of citizenship today only few identity themselves as Bhotias. Mostly people has written adopted surname as Sherpa,Lama and regional surnaming Bhotia written in Nepal and Bhutia in Darjeeling,Sikkim, India. Another adopted surname include Lama likewise Sherpa. Lamas are not only respected holy teachers but learned, therapist,priest,doctor,and spiritual healer,helping the sick and dying Ukyab (2001). Naming surname is dignified terms for calling Himalayan people. Sherpais reknowned for mountaineering in tourism sector worldwide. Probably people write surname for others to identify clearly,having own personal interest and benefit,and in absence of genealogical records.

39 CHAPTER-SEVEN

Impacts, Importances and Implications

The sociological knowledge of surname has been greatly influenced researchers intellectual thinkers an scholars in social science by drawing their work of Reid, Giddens, Pritchard, Bourdieu and so on. Pritchard works include kinship and marriage are principle for social behavior and action.

Sociologist Bourdieu (1972,1977) developed theoretical framework of surname is the relationship between practices of individuals and social structures through norms and values legitimized by society and culture. Giddens (1979, 1984) considers individuals negotiate rules and disciplines of kinship an marriage to manipulate identity, lineage, clan etc. social theorists in 19th century such as Adam Smith and Karl Marx influenced and concerned over social identity were fixed from birth through demands of society by individuals based on social circumstances.The influence of society and parents, siblings plays major role in building personality, that constitute identity Seddon (2017). The principles and practices of kinship and marriage provide building blocks of societies. The caste name based on caste system which is surname an important marker of social status in Nepali society.The written surnameis recognized more or less by caste name.

This chapter analyzes the impacts, importance and implications of naming surname focusing on Walung community living in Kathmandu and elsewhere. This study is attempting to find out why the social naming of surname is used in discipline of different context in sociology ? What were the major impacts in our individual society? Firstly this chapter reviews the impacts importance of naming surname and second considers and suggest for implications in their everyday life?

7.1 Ease and comfort to address

Previous formal documents, materials clearly mentions that in order not to address in derogative and objectionable term Nepali of Tibetan origin addressed by calling Bhotya, Dhungel, (2012).With the joint initiation of Late Zonden Ukyab and family began to write surname based on source of ancestral place of origin. Because of the reason there might be some fear and confusion of naming adopted surname for instances placing similar clan names to different groups of people in the past as such Gurung to people of Manang, Tamang to people of Humla and Bista to former king of Mustang Jigme Parbal Bista. Moreover it

40 wasnot some kind of influence of Hindu culture from southern region for ease and comfort to other communities and administrators, officials become not necessary to address term like Bhote, Bhotia when calling surname indignitary term called Lamas. Lamas are not only respected as holy but they are also very useful day to day life of villagers during birth, death and worship (Ukyab 2001)

One of the local key respondent a male who represent from Walung village would return back after his short visit had chance to meet during his visit in Kathmandu at ritual recitation of Kangyur meaning religious text of Buddhism in Wolangchung Social Welfare Family reveal the fact.In recent days Walungnga began to issue their identity document in the name of Walung surname even though their forefathers wrote Sherpa/Bhotia/Lama surnames.

Walungnga people prefer to write Walung identity to change from their previous written surname like Sherpa/Bhotia/Lama etc. for the sake of ease and comfort while addressing by others in dignitary terms.According to Schneiderman (2013) writes unlike Tibetans, Sherpa is refered as Xiaerba are not one of China’s 56 recognized Minzu (Ch) or nationality populations. However the Tibet Autonomous Region, China census designates them in a special border inhabitants category. Locally Walung is the name of place they are living on the other hand Walung is an ethnic group listed in Nepal Federation of Indeginous Nationalities.Therefore they neither like to call Sherpa nor Bhotia rather feel satisfied and pride of being Nepaleseof beingTibetan origin.

7.2 Useful in Birth, Marriage and Death Ritual.

An important events of human life in any society is all families with distinctive socio cultures and rituals celebrations like birth, wedding, death etc.through which all the family face and its members experience at the time of sorrow and happiness.Family link play a relationship by descent through patrilineal or the matrilineal or affinity in family Seddon (2017).Each individual’s family, each child grows up in a different family from one another.The family in all societies are set of relatives and kinfolk which provides network of people might be close and well known to others might be distant and little known are important in the events of human life.

Another respondent a male an active member of political party realized importance of surname is said that naming of surname is essentially important and easier to trace out lineage, genealogical names of family if surnames were started writing in their official

41 document of their identity.Furthermore, he added that the writing of surname was acknowledged experienced and essential in human cultural activities in the important stages of life like birth, marriage and death rituals.

Surname will play a key role during socio-cultural occasion of one's individual birth, marriage and deaths ritual. All the relatives were called upon to gather and attend in order to perform according to their own traditional customs and cultures. There are some strict social rules of marriage in Walung community that bride should not be relative from the father descend 7 generations and mother descend 3 generation,Schraedar (1988). If the proper surname were written traditionally it will be easier and quicker to trace out ancestral lineage, which would identify identities and to helps to avoid marrying relationship within the kinship unknowingly.There are some instances of having marriage among kinship relations unknowingly.Naming of surname is useful and play major role in tracing out family lineage and kinship.Writing surname is helpful in tracing out marital relationship between families.Therefore it will ensure and confirm what kind of relations between families/households whether it be kinship or matrimonial in society.During the period of sorrow like in death rituals surname can identify the kinship of family bringing all their families together.

7.3 Ensure True Surname and enable self- Identity.

The people of Walung has written surname Sherpa/Lama/Bhote/Bhotia/Walung as identity in citizenship certificate. Myself as a native an example has written Lama Sherpa as surname. The primary settlers of Walung settlement by majority of respondents reported to be Satphasing, meaning seven household/families in local language. Seven families/households according to Thapa(2065B.S)wereUkeiwa, Barowa,Ruita,Thumjama,Lhacha,KojapaandUchunga.Schraedar(1988) identified were Ukyab,Ruita,Barowa, Mutaka,Goya and Chusharpa.During the research conduct from information currently could not be find all the seven existingfamily/householdnames.Althoughfamily/householdnamedUkyaba,Ruita,Barowa,Mut aka,Chusarpa and Uchunga Bamsawali (genealogical) traces were found.Because all the elderly reliable informants were already passed away and remaining older respondents could not trace out specifically.In official identity they wrote surname/last name differently for example like Sherpa/Bhotia/Bhote/lama and even some of the Satphasing people did not write surname by their family/household name as surname.Almost only two of household

42 family Ukyaba,Barowa are found to be written surname accordingly. Walung people immigrated to Darjeeling,Sikkim, has written either Bhutia or Sherpa.Prior to writing surname in their official document they have names similar to Tibetans.

One of the key respondent emigrated to oversees who is intellectual and much concerned about community and village founding executive members of organization through online social media describes People of Tibetan origin including Walungngas does not have customary to write surname.Names consist of first name and second name. This second name do not signify surname or say family name.Mostly names are similar and if names coincide between two or more than two people in that case people will be distinguish by their date of birth.

The proper and appropriate naming of surname originally based on one of among any various sources such as ancestry,origin,ancestral land or place, ancestral name, descriptive characteristics, nick names etc. Karan and Jenkins Jr.(1963) notes the major problem of Himalayan people lies in the lack of national consciousness or sense of national identity among the people. One of the major problems. According to 1991 census 87.1% of Walanchung VDC residents are Sherpas while 11.7% are Bhote. The major issue is people of Tibetan origin a Walung community do not have clan names.Generally people names consist of two names first name and second or last name for instance say Dechen Wangmo.This second or last name does not indicate surname or clan name.Names of people are often similar to each other in that case people are distinguished by looking at their date of birth.Generally they are being recognized and identified by their household/family names.Only few families might have recorded surnames according to basic source of surname.Thus the surname seems to be ambiguous and complex issues in community.Probably their identity is likely to be confusing and hardto identify and distinguish from having similar surname written first name and second name.

7.4 Possibly be identifying Clan and Sub Clan.

Surname of some societies indicate an association with a particular family or lineage clan but in context of Nepal refers to caste or sub caste of particular caste for example Lama Sherpa (Sherpa), Khadka (Chettri) or Subedi (Brahmin). And they are considered patrilineal ancestry of members rules of exogamy and endogamy applies (Seddon 2017). Marriages with lower status are forbidden and normally disproved if it breaks socially defined boundary for example marriage that take place between higher and lower caste.Principles and practices of

43 kinship and marriage provide building blocks of societies. In sociological term social identity is rooted and embedded in the discipline of kinship and descent relationship.

Another key respondent who is living emigrated since several years, founding executive member of Walung organization oversees in his frequently visit to Nepal having said the clearly surname written in formal official identifying document based on one of the recognized sources probably referred to kind of clan or family name.

Social naming of surname with reference to any family name, household name, ancestry name probably considered as some kind of clan as an identity of all those included family members made by relations of kinship and marriage. Thus socio-cultural taboo for kinship applied within closest relationship, groups, within clan or sub clan are apparent.Thus family lineage clan and sub clan relationships can be traced out.

Historically,culturally,linguistically ethnic Walungngas are the descendants of Tibetan origin that do not have conventional to write surnames only few aristocratic families from Kham and Amdo province have clan names as surname.But mostly people of Tibet use household names.Throughout history the surname of Walungngas does not refer surname as family name or clan name. Seven families do have their household name but fewer of them do not have particular householdnames.In absence of family name that tends to be contradict with western society in general and Nepali caste system in particular. Thereforesocial naming of surname based on one of proper and reliable surnamesprobably be considered as identifying valid clan and sub clan identity.

7.5 Importance, Impact and implications in everyday life

Practically in everyday life activities people use their name and surname in application form to fill their biodata weather at school, college or offices to be filled full names consisting of first name, middle name and last name/ surname. Applicants have to fill the full name, in order to identity their identifications.

The changed of society was conceived and described from histories of societies to the complex social world. The enlightenment of 18th and 19th centuries started in Europe as a new emerging modern society for example Durkheim saw distinction between organic and mechanical solidarity.Tonnies’s Gemenschaft and Gesselshaft, Social theorists like Adam Smith, Karl Marx and Max Weber identify the human society more complex.Human individual with innate characteristics and features born into complex and changing

44 environment interacts with many different other individuals that constitute human personality and identity.

One of the older female key respondents and left village and never return once to the village during her pilgrimage visit on Kathmandu expressed the personal names were conventionally bestowed by Lamas (Buddhist Monks) in the form of ritual naming ceremony (in local language Thuisol) after the seven days of child’s birth.Generally child name is named according to name of week having given two names first and second names.These names cannot identify the identities of person.

Some of Walungnga people has written different surnames actually not based on reliable and valid sources. Hence probably it become the risk in danger of loss of true identity andmostly Walungngas has written Sherpa but havingembedded historical roots and ancestry origin from Tibet. Those who has written Bhote or Bhutia naming of surnameis difficulty in tracing out their genealogies. Thus derogative,dominating and objectionable were used while addressing.Surname has significant in everyone at everyday life stages of persons during the time of birth,marriage,and death rituals.Probably it could be useful in tracing out the kinship or matrimonial relationships clearly and easily.The most important fact is it could probably enable and ensure to recognize identifying their socio-cultural identities in every individual,family/household. Thus nowadays they are being acknowledged the realistic importance of their self-identity.

45 CHAPTER- EIGHT

Summary

Sociology of surname began historically as a context to distinguish from other people. Societies become more developed and complex rapidly these distinguishing names become fixed and passed on to next generation. In primitive society individuals are distinguished by given names of an event, characteristics and household names. Complex society derived surnames from occupation, place of residence. The convention to write first name followed by middle name and surname. The nature of surnames depends on what was important to the society at time surnames were adopted.

Generally this paper is endevoured to answer research problem like what are the meanings and different sources of surname in Walungnga people? What are their true surname?and the most important objective issue of paper is to explore and find out why Walungngas do not have family name/clan name as surname? Finally it deals with its impacts,importance's and implications.

This dissertation is of qualitative case study attempted to examine sociology of surname, case from Walung community. The present study has both descriptive and exploratory research design. Descriptive research design were used to fulfill the objective goal of various socio- economic with multiple diverse family background were taken as unit of analysis from the representation of entire Walungnga population. Exploratory research designs were used to explore and find out the emergence, origin, sources and socio-historical background. Sociology of naming surname is social phenomenon.From the standpoint theory constructive perspectives social identities are the result of historical,social,and political processes through which identification are constructed Mishra (2011).

The questions were answered with conclusions and summarizes key findings and concludes with further research agendas.

8.1 Major Findings

Walung was the most strategic political economic significance for Tibet, China, India, Sikkim and Nepal.It was one of the accessible northern pass entry to Tibet and trade hub among other 18 passes in Nepal, the most popular trans-Himalayan trade entrepot between Tibet and South East Asia.In absence of written documents very few writers, researchers, has

46 written about place and people. The earliest settlers are said to be traders or herders and basically having historical roots of Tibetan origin.The earliest settlers satphasing locally meaning seven family however all the seven families were different.Many earlier inhabitants left Walung from many years ago migrated and is still migrating different places in Nepal, some emigrated to Darjeeling, Sikkim and more recently emigrated to West such as USA, UK, Canada and some European countries.Walungnga migrated due toseveral reasons had made huge progress, achievement and changed a lot and may probability of remigration.The exact date of emergence, origin and history cannot be portrayed. They are religiouslyand culturally rich has profound believe in religion culture and economy but lacks and poor in socio-political and other official field.There is common agreement and concensus among all Walungngas that they are Nepalese descent citizens basically being historical roots of Tibetan ancestrial origin.

During the field visit and discussion they were less conscious about naming surnames and are unaware of knowledge in literature.Thus names were written by clerks, officials and other individuals as they heard the name pronounced. Also one of the possible reason is due to the language pronunciation that does not sound similar with English or Nepali.This lead to different spellings and pronunciation for the same name.It was found that people were in some sorts of confusion andmisconception in their surname. They believed surname are clan name and embedded in inborn traditional cultures. However every one realised the value and importance of academic education and naming of surname but only fewer of them acquired. It is because of their unavailable suitable atmospheric education at home.Writing names and surnames are experienced it normally but has significance in every one’s life.Mostly they had written surname haphazardly without having proper sources and bases of their identification.There is some sense of feeling of lengthy, boredom and tedious in procedural official work. An attempt to ease and comfort in getting written work done in official document as a consequence had adverse effect and impact in longer term.Perhaps there might be possibly of happening of marriage knowingly or unknowingly among the kinship if surname were not clearly traced out clearly.They are hardworking, simply honest, sincere, and spiritual but having presumption of wealth and property are their given highest emphasis rather than any other fields.There is highly collective cooperation and solidarity, everyone interested spontaneously contributing towards community either financially, socially even physically also.

47 One of the interesting and important fact is that they had retained and developed their religion, culture, spiritual, more alive even when they are being far away from their place of birth.They have profound concern about their birth place to enhance and enable betterment in every way they could do individually or collectively.Although explicitly there is no objective feeling of social stratification there is somehidden implicitlysubjective feelings.Walungngas are great devotees, profound belief in their heart to ancient Dikyi Choeling monastery situated at the north eastern top of the village in which it was deeply affiliated.One of the advantages during study is having great opportunity to meet and familiarity with the local villagerson a course of study visit.It is expected that by reading thisstudy it will assist in bringing closer and nearer relation between all the Walungngas scattered throughout the world.Officially Walung is called as Olangchung Gola local called it Walung is spelt like Wolung.

8.2 Conclusions

The study defines various meaning and presents approaches,clarifies types and sources of origin and finally analyzes the impacts,importances,and implications of sociology of naming in Walungnga of Walung village. Basically, Walungngas are being historical background of Tibetan ancestral origin having their ethnicity Walung.

The ideas of plural society was at first acknowledged identity in opposition to European colonial theories.Post-colonial theories of identity and inequality concern and concentrate with diaspora,displacement,and politics of cultural difference.It was end of 1990’s ethnicity is present as narrative form of identification seen as places of belonging.In convention family/household identities are identified by naming surname sociologically forms a group known as ethnicity/ethnic group that will create social identities in the society. From the vantage point of constructivist the inanimate,natural,biological,etc.are socially created Mishra (2011). The naming of surname/last name is a social phenomenon. It is social construct. Therefore surname of Walung people is not acquired of ascribed or inborn but of achieved attributes based on social/historical/cultural/economical/political sources, characteristic features, social status, ancestry place or name, household name.Fundamentally family/household identity is socio-culturally created, constructed and practiced across individual, family, society.

48 GLOSSARY

Amal (Nepali) – A member of local council

Bamswali (Nepali) – Chronicle of genealogy

Barowa (Tibetan) – Tibetan household having origin from place Barowa

Bhecheiwas (Tibetan)- settlers from Tibet

Bhot (Nepali) – Tibet

Ding (Tibetan) – Second or middle Class

Gowa (Tibetan) – A village head man (in the usage of Bhotias of wolangchung and Hatia Khola)

Gompa (Tibetan) – Buddhist monastery

Lalmohar (Nepali) – Royal Seal (literally red palm) of Nepal’s ruling Shah dynasty.

Kaji (Nepali) – A top ranking civil post in Nepal’s administrative hierarchy

Karobari (Nepali) - Amember of local council (Amal)

Kyidug (Tibetan) – Kyi (Joy) and Dug (Sorrow) an organization for the time of both joy and sorrow

Longe (Tibetan) – Lower status having unclear origin

Muluki Ain(Nepali)- Legal Code

Naike (Nepali) – Leader of Rakam work team

Om Mani Padme Hun (Tibetan) – Hail to him of lotus and jewel

Rab (Tibetan) – First or highest class

Rakam (Nepali) – compulsory labor obligation

Satphasing (Tibetan) – Seven household/families having Tibetan origin.

Sheiwa (Tibetan) – primary settlers

Subba (Nepali) – A head of local council in Limbu community in Pallo Kirat

Tama (Tibetan) – Third or lowest class

49 Thekka-thiti (Nepali) – A system of land tax collection on contractual basis.

Thuisol (Tibetan) – A ritual naming of new born child after seven days of birth.

Talukdar (Nepali) – Tax collector in Tamang community.

Uchunga (Tibetan) – section family/household of Ukyab family

Ukyab (Tibetan) – family/ household name from Tibetan origin

50 References

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55 Annex 1

Interview questionnaire

Basic information

First name: ______

Middle name: ______

Last name: ______

Father surname: ______

Mother surname: ______

Age: ______

Address: ______

Education: ______

Address: ______

1. Surname traditions/norms andpractices

1.1 What are the important traditions and norms of naming surname?

1.2 How surname are practiced in everyday life activities?

1.3 Why traditions and norms are important?

1.4 How traditions and norms are applied in contemporary society

2. Sources of origin of surname

2.1 What are the different kind of sources of naming surname?

2.2 How surnames are placed and named in different societies?

2.3 Why sources are essential while naming surname?

2.4 How the sources of naming surname is existing in now a days?

56 3. Impacts importance and implications

3.1 How is the social status condition of individual and family pre and post of surname?

3.2 What are the impacts of sociology of naming surname?

3.3 What are the importance and necessities?

3.4 What are its implications in contemporary society?

3.5 How the social naming of surname is essential?

57 Key Respondents:-

Mr. Mingma Gyabo and Mrs Lakpa-Chabahil aged 90 and 94 years,Contact Ph.no - 9841883604

Mrs. Tsering Bhutik – aged 83 years old, Darjeeling,India,visited while on her short visit at Kathmandu

Mr. Tenzing Ganden - aged 72 years old, Phungling,Taplejung,Contact Ph. no. - 024460308

Mr.Pasang Dhendup Lama– aged 76 years old,Darjeeling, contacted through internetonline media sources

Mr.Dandu Sherpa- Tushal,Baudha Kathmandu – aged 76 years,Contact Ph.no.-01-448186723.

Mr. Nyima Lama- aged 86 years old (Hile,Dhankuta) visited at Narayanthan,Kathmandu Contact no.-

Mr.Tamla Ukyab–Kuleshware,Kathmandu,Contact Ph.no, - 01-4272316

Mr. ThuptenlaUkyab– Bansbari,Kathmandu,Contact Ph.no.-9851026954

Mr.Sasang Lama – New York,USA contacted through online social media source and email

Mr. Tashi Tenzing– Jawalakhel,Kathmandu,Contact Ph.no. - 9851050991

Mr.Tenzing K. Ukyab– Dhumbarahi,Kathmandu(USA) visited while on his short stay at Kathmandu

Mr.Tenzing Ukyab –Bansbari,Kathmandu,Contact Ph.no. -9851037634217

Mr.Mingma Ukyab– Putali Sadak,Kathmandu,Contact Ph.no. - 9851020863

Mr.WangdiLama – Boudha,Kathmandu,Contact Ph.no.-985116182614.

Mrs.Donga Lama–Nayabazar,Basantapur,Terathum,visitedat Nayabazar,Kathmandu

Mrs. Bhumjung Lama–aged 66 years old,Boudha,Kathmandu,ContactPh.no.-

Mrs. Nyima Bhotia- Boudha,Kathmandu(USA) visited while on her short stay at Kathmandu.

58 Mrs. Penjokla Ukyab – Phungling, Taplejung,Contact Ph.no. - 984266010122.

Mrs. Kyipa Sherpa–Boudha,Kathmandu,Contact Ph.no. 989823058835

Mr. Tsering Phuntsok–Canada, contacted through online social media sources

Mr. Topla Bara – Canada–Canada,contacted through online media sources

Mr.Sonam Lama – Australia, contacted through online media sources and visitedat Baudhanath stupa circle,Kathmandu.

MrPemba Lama – Tushal,(Baudha), Kathmandu, Contact Ph.no. - 9841883604

Mr. Bara Dorje Lama-Boudha,Kathmandu (Walung)-Contact Ph.no. - 9840471614

Mr.Namgya Sherpa– Boudha,Kathmandu,Contact Ph.no. - 9841168544

59