Coadministration of Antiepileptic Drugs and P-Glycoprotein Inhibitors of Flavonoid-Type: a Strategy to Overcome the Drug Resistance in Epilepsy

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Coadministration of Antiepileptic Drugs and P-Glycoprotein Inhibitors of Flavonoid-Type: a Strategy to Overcome the Drug Resistance in Epilepsy UNIVERSIDADE DA BEIRA INTERIOR Ciências da Saúde Coadministration of antiepileptic drugs and P-glycoprotein inhibitors of flavonoid-type: a strategy to overcome the drug resistance in epilepsy Ana Filipa da Silva Ferreira Tese para obtenção do Grau de Doutor em Ciências Farmacêuticas (3º ciclo de estudos) Orientador: Professor Doutor Gilberto Lourenço Alves Coorientador: Professor Doutor Amílcar Celta Falcão Ramos Ferreira Covilhã, março 2018 ii The experimental work presented in this thesis was carried out at the Health Sciences Research Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Beira Interior (CICS-UBI) and at the Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, under the scientific supervision of Professor Gilberto Lourenço Alves and Professor Amílcar Celta Falcão Ramos Ferreira. iii . iv The work underlying the present thesis was supported by FCT - Foundation for Science and Technology, Lisbon, Portugal (SFRH/BD/84936/2012). This work was also supported by FEDER funds through the POCI - COMPETE 2020 - Operational Programme Competitiveness and Internationalisation in Axis I - Strengthening research, technological development and innovation (Project POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007491) and National Funds by FCT (Project UID/Multi /00709/2013). v vi Aos meus Pais Ao Edgar vii viii “Sabemos muito mais do que julgamos, podemos muito mais do que imaginamos.” José Saramago ix x Agradecimentos Terminada esta longa e árdua etapa resta-me registar os meus sinceros agradecimentos a todos aqueles que foram parte integrante deste caminho e que contribuíram para a sua finalização. Ao Professor Gilberto Alves, meu orientador, agradeço em primeiro lugar o convite que me endereçou para a realização deste trabalho de investigação com vista ao grau de Doutor. Gostaria ainda de salientar a minha sincera gratidão pelo notável contributo e orientação científica, fundamentais para a execução deste trabalho, pela constante dedicação, disponibilidade e ensinamentos transmitidos. Ao Professor Amílcar Falcão, meu coorientador, agradeço pela orientação científica, profissionalismo, e todo o conhecimento e recomendações transmitidas durante estes anos. Ao Professor Márcio Rodrigues, companheiro e apoio essencial desde o início deste trabalho. Agradeço a pronta disponibilidade e auxílio sempre que o meu desespero imperava sobre o resto. O seu contributo científico, partilha do saber e valiosos conselhos foram fundamentais. À Professora Ana Fortuna, agradeço o contributo científico, os ensinamentos e esclarecimentos científicos transmitidos que se revelaram de grande importância no decorrer deste projeto. À Professora Adriana Santos, agradeço a amabilidade e disponibilidade que sempre teve para comigo, bem como todo o entusiasmo, incentivo e saberes transmitidos. Ao Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior, aos Professores, Investigadores, Colegas e Funcionários que tiveram um papel fundamental no desenrolar deste trabalho e cujo auxílio nas mais diversas vertentes foi essencial na sua concretização. Aos Colegas do grupo de doutoramento, A partilha de alegrias e frustrações, vitórias e fracassos foi essencial para tornar mais fácil esta longa jornada. xi Aos Amigos, aos de Sempre, e a todos Aqueles e Aquelas que se juntaram durante esta longa etapa. Fazem parte daquilo que sou e foram e serão sempre essenciais para tornar todos os caminhos menos sinuosos e todas as batalhas mais gratificantes. Ao Edgar, um agradecimento muito especial. Por estar sempre ao meu lado e por todo o Amor, Apoio e Suporte, fundamentais para seguir sempre em frente. Pela Confiança, Orgulho, Compreensão e Motivação constantes e por nunca me deixar desistir. Aos meus Pais João Paulo e Lurdes, pilares essenciais na minha vida. Obrigada pelo Amor, Confiança e Dedicação incondicional que sempre depositaram em mim, fulcrais para ultrapassar todas as adversidades e querer fazer sempre mais e melhor. Tudo o que sou a vocês vos devo. Obrigada por tudo! xii TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii xiv Table of contents RESUMO ALARGADO ....................................................................................... xxi ABSTRACT .................................................................................................. xxvii LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................... xxxi LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................. xli LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................. xlvii LIST OF PUBLICATIONS ..................................................................................... liii CHAPTER I: General Introduction ......................................................................... 1 I.1. Epilepsy - Disease and pharmacological therapy ................................................... 3 I.1.1. Historical background ................................................................................. 5 I.1.2. Epidemiology and costs ............................................................................... 6 I.1.3. Epilepsy and epileptic seizures ...................................................................... 6 I.1.4. Therapeutic approaches .............................................................................. 7 I.2. Pharmacoresistant Epilepsy - The concept of pharmacoresistance and P-glycoprotein . 13 I.2.1. Pharmacoresistant epilepsy ........................................................................ 15 I.2.2. The pharmacoresistance phenomenon ........................................................... 16 I.2.2.1. P-glycoprotein .................................................................................. 18 I.2.2.1.1. P-glycoprotein–mediated drug transport ............................................. 20 I.2.2.2. P-glycoprotein inhibitors: an overview .................................................... 23 I.3. Flavonoids as P-glycoprotein Inhibitors .......................................................... 29 I.3.1. Flavonoids ............................................................................................. 31 I.3.1.1. Flavonoids chemistry .......................................................................... 32 I.3.1.1.1. Structure-activity relationship ......................................................... 38 I.3.1.2. Sources of flavonoids .......................................................................... 41 I.3.1.3. Biological properties and flavonoid–P-glycoprotein interactions ...................... 41 I.3.1.3.1. Interactions of flavonoids with P-glycoprotein ...................................... 44 I.3.1.3.1.1. Cell-based in vitro models ........................................................... 45 I.3.1.3.1.2. In vivo animal models ................................................................. 47 I.3.1.3.1.3. Clinical studies ......................................................................... 50 I.4. Aims....................................................................................................... 51 I.4.1. Aims of this thesis .................................................................................... 53 CHAPTER II: Drug Analysis ................................................................................ 55 II.1. General Considerations .............................................................................. 57 II.1.1. Quantitative drug analysis ......................................................................... 59 xv II.2. Experimental - Liquid chromatographic assay based on microextraction by packed sorbent for therapeutic drug monitoring of carbamazepine, lamotrigine, oxcarbazepine, phenobarbital, phenytoin and the active metabolites carbamazepine-10,11-epoxide and licarbazepine ............................................................................................. 61 II.2.1. Introduction .......................................................................................... 63 II.2.2. Material and methods .............................................................................. 65 II.2.2.1. Materials and reagents ....................................................................... 65 II.2.2.2. Stock solutions, calibrations standards and quality control samples ................ 65 II.2.2.3. Apparatus and chromatographic conditions .............................................. 66 II.2.2.4. Sample preparation and extraction ........................................................ 66 II.2.2.5. Method validation ............................................................................. 67 II.2.2.6. Clinical application ........................................................................... 68 II.2.3. Results and discussion .............................................................................. 69 II.2.3.1. Development and optimization of chromatographic conditions ...................... 69 II.2.3.2. Optimization of sample preparation: MEPS conditions ................................. 71 II.2.3.3. Method validation ............................................................................. 73 II.2.3.3.1. Selectivity ................................................................................. 73 II.2.3.3.2. Calibration curves, LLOQs and LODs ................................................. 73 II.2.3.3.3. Precision and accuracy ................................................................. 74 II.2.3.3.4.
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